RESEARCH ARTICLES

 

Gospel Apala music in African Christian worship: Thematic and stylistic analysis

 

 

Esther Titilayo Ojo

Senior lecturer in the Department of Linguistics, African, and Asian Studies, Faculty of Arts, at the University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria. Email: etojo@unilag.edu.ng; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0938-9249

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

Music is an indispensable tool of cultural transmission. Considering the vast nature of oral traditions, of which indigenous music is encapsulated, many studies on Nigerian indigenous music have concentrated on Juju, Ijala, Dadakuada, Esa, and Apala. However, much research still needs to be done on Gospel Apala, a variant of Traditional Apala which was popularised by Haruna Ishola and Ayinla Omowura, noted for its highly proverbial folklore, blended with percussive instruments of which dundun drum and. sekere play leading roles to give aesthetic appeal. In this research, therefore, I investigate and document Gospel Apala as it translates from traditional Apala into praise and worship of God, in order to identify and describe its unique style and communicative functions, especially in these changing times of modernisation and globalisation. Drawing on systemic functional linguistics and sociology of literature, in this article I provide an analysis and interpretation of six Apala Gospel songs from three Apala Gospel artistes:. Sade Osoba, Yomi Olabisi, and Boiz Olorun. I portray the relevance of Apala music both in Christian worship and events and gathering. Themes in Apala Gospel include praises, thanksgiving and adoration to God, salvation/acknowledging Jesus, God's greatness and miracles, forgiveness, unity, holiness, heaven, love among brethren, commitment, and dedication to God's work. My findings reveal, among others, that Gospel Apala music encapsulates indigenous knowledge contained in oral literature. I identify stylistic devices such as repetition, rhetorical question, personification, loan words, code-mixing/code-switching, and proverbs which garnish the metamorphosed music and conclude that Apala has metamorphosed from traditional Apala into Gospel Christian worship.

Keywords: stylistics, deviation, Gospel Apala music, Christian worship, oral literature.

---

 

 

Introduction

Music is an essential phenomenon and a vital part of everyday life in African societies. Vidal (28) states that over the ages, music "has proved to be one of the indispensable arts cultivated by [humans] for growth, nurture and transfer of [their] institution and value to future generations". In the same vein, Isaac illustrates that "the society places a high premium on music and by extension musician[s]". These claims further foreground music as a tool for cultural preservation. Music is quite important in the lives of Africans who make music at home, at social functions and gatherings, at event centres, and in the marketplaces. Music accompanies and celebrates festivals, social rituals, religious gatherings, and political rallies to mobilise people for solidarity. It also involves ceremonial life such as rites of passage, birth and christening, marriage, initiation into adulthood, housewarming, chieftaincy, death, and mourning. Music has roles in healing; therapy; educative purposes; visits of important dignitaries; announcements of the presence of important dignitaries such as kings, chiefs, and governors; and important personalities in society. To be human is to make music, therefore the music we make says a great deal about who we are, or at least who we think we are. Music projects African values with various traditions accompanied by a melody.

Music is a universal phenomenon among the Yoruba of South-West Nigeria. Extensive studies have been carried out on indigenous music such as Juju, Ijala, Dadakuada, Esa, Sakara, Waka, and Apala. Yet not much attention has been paid to Gospel Apala in African Christian worship. Furthermore, Apala's metamorphosis from traditional to Gospel Apala, which involves the worship and praise of God in churches, is not generally captured. This lacuna in knowledge is what I aim to bridge in this article by studying the music of three Gospel Apälä artistes, namely: Sade Osoba, Yomi Olabisi, and Boiz Olorun, thereby foregrounding their contributions to the development and preservation of Apälä, an indigenous Yoruba musical heritage. In this study therefore, from a stylistic point of view, I investigate Gospel Apala, a variant of Apala which is an Islam-influenced genre, which is indigenous to the Yoruba people in Nigeria and noted for its highly proverbial folklore, with a view to identifying and describing its unique style and communicative functions. With the aid of transcribed albums of three Apala artistes, I also look at stylistic devices which garnish Gospel Apala music and anchor my research on the theoretical perspectives of systemic functional linguistics and the sociology of literature.

I document Apala, especially in these changing times of modernisation and globalisation. In this article I argue that Gospel Apala music in Christian worship has not received the attention it deserves.

 

Apala: Origin, development, and metamorphosis

Scholars like Mustapha, Euba, Olusoji, Lasisi, Oludare, Ajetunmobi and Adepoju, Omojola, Ademowo, and Ajikobi have examined the origin and development of Apala music. Apala is a Yoruba popular music whose origin could be traced to many sources cutting across such disciplines as music, linguistics, history, religion, and so on. Mustapha and Olusoji ("Nigerian Dances for piano") argue that Apala evolved from the indigenous music of the Yoruba and can be regarded as folk songs which later metamorphosed into social music. Apala is a socio-religious music with a prominent instrumental part and a vocal accompaniment rooted in Yoruba philosophy and poetry. Apala is of the indigenous musical heritage transmitted from generation to generation, performed, recreated, and promoted by the musicians, thus giving the Yoruba people a sense of their cultural history and identity. It is worth noting that sakara, Apala, Waka, dadakuada, and fuji, which are largely influenced by Islamic and more recently Western cultures, are new developments in Yoruba dance music song poetry. It developed as a non-liturgical Islamic music used during Muslim festivals, from were and waka musical forms, used by Muslims to wake up the faithful to eat saari (an early morning meal during the Ramadan fast) and welcome pilgrims back from the hajj pilgrimage in Mecca (Omojola; Oludare). Euba also argues that Apala began during the fasting season when young Muslims got together to perform music to awaken people for the early morning meal known as saari, while some scholars (Omojola; Lasisi) admit that Apala has no particular date of origin, and that it has been in existence since 1930 and was called ere fowo b'eti (cover your ear). According to Ajetunmobi, Osiyale, and Sogbesan, Apala has been in existence since before the likes of Muraina, Alao, and even Ligali Mukaiba, but it was popularised by Haruna Ishola and Ayinla Omowura. Therefore, the origin and development of traditional Apala music cannot be complete without reference to Haruna Ishola and Ayinla Omowura.

In interviews I conducted with Mr Babawale Ganiyu on 16 April and 25 September 2020, he mentioned that Ede is the birthplace of Apala and that a man called Balogun and his son Tijani were renowned Apala singers as early as 1938. Olusoji ("Comparative Analysis of the Islam influenced Apala, Waka and Sakara Popular Music of the Yoruba"), on the other hand, suggests that Apala music started long before 1938. Ajadi Ilorin, for instance, was remembered to have played Apala music as early as 1930 (Ajetunmobi, Babatunde and Sogbesan 38). Whatever position is true, what is certain is that Apala evolved among different Yoruba sub-groups that drew their inspirations from popular Yoruba musical forms at different times. This explains why there are more than three different styles or forms of Apala music, as dictated by the frequency of sound production and combination of instruments used at different times. Each individual developed his own Apala version among the people of his community, getting inspiration from other Yoruba music, local experiences, and creative ingenuity. According to Ajetunmobi, Osiyale, and Sogbesan, among such styles of Apala are: Apala San-an (cool beat)-Haruna Ishola; Apala Songa (hot beat)-Ayinla Omowura; Apala Wiro (in between Apala san-an and Songa)"; Apala Igunnu (mixture of beat)-Musiliu Haruna Ishola and Apala Olalomi (mixture of beat)-Ayinla Omowura. (39)

Whichever form it takes, Apala music is noted for its highly proverbial folklore blended with percussive instruments of which drums play a leading role. An Apala ensemble consists of Agidigbo (a thumb piano having four or five keys and a rectangular box resonator), ekere (a gourd rattle), agogo (metal gong), Akuba (membrane drum), as well as two or three king drums. The Yoruba people referto Apala as "Palapala ilu apala" (Apala drum; of different sounds to form a whole). This implies that Apala music is a conglomeration of various types of songs and drums to produce a unique whole. What this signifies is that Apala music does not have a clear-cut identity or origin per-se but is a representation of other musical variances. In these present times, Apala traditional music now has a variant which is Gospel Apala. This is performed in church services and various entertainments. The instrument of Apala is still the same with Gospel Apala. Gospel Apala is a variant of Apala music used in churches for the elevation of God's name. Generally, the stylistic features that are used in Gospel Apala music include repetition, rhetorical question, personification, loan words, code-mixing/code-switching, and proverbs, among others. Instruments of Gospel Apala include a rattle (sekere), thumb piano (agidigbo), and a bell (agogo), as well as two or three king drums. In the present times, traditional Apala has effectively moved to Gospel Apala.

 

Systemic functional linguistics and sociology of literature

Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) was propounded by M. A. K. Halliday. SFL is an interpretive framework that views language as a strategic meaning making resource. This means that it is an important instrument for interpreting texts (Halliday; Matthiessen). The term "functional" symbolises that language performs many functions, hence it is functional. This model (SFL) accounts for how the language is used, whether spoken or written. SFL is functional and semantic rather than formal in orientation. It is bordered on how language is used in spoken or written form and this takes place in contexts of use. Language is viewed as a social activity that has evolved in the functions it serves and also in the structures which showcase these functions. In other words, the model operates in the context of use, which is the environment, situation, or circumstance of use, and not in isolated sentences or words. SFL is based on the context of situation and the context of culture and, in this article, my focus is on context of culture. Apala music as performed in the culture of Yoruba society-which includes views, beliefs, emotions, psychology, and philosophy. Since culture is the way of life of a people, their language therefore reflects and transmits the cultural norms and values of the group. Context of culture is an eye-opener to the socio-cultural rules or codes of behaviour which one must understand in order to communicate appropriately in the society. SFL is a sociological theory which focuses on the sociological aspects of language description, and it is also an interpretive and contextual model.

Sociology of literature, on the other hand, is a scientific theory propounded by Hippolyte Taine (1828-1893). Sociology of literature as a whole deals with how society is represented in the literary work and the interaction of literature with other social institutions. The theory's focus is to show the symbiosis, interconnectivity, and interaction between literature and all the sociological activities occurring in society. Ogunsina reveals that literary works do not exist in isolation from the society that produces them, and that literature burdens itself with human expression, human experience, and human behaviour since man is a product of his society. Aside from this, literature employs language to represent the happenings of a particular society. As the name suggests, sociology of literature is a fusion of two separate disciplines-sociology and literature. As literature uses language as tools to reproduce human experience the society, the literary Apala artistes produce songs by using materials from the society which are the property of the society. Sociology comprises of the study of social relationships and the outcome of such relationships for on-going systems, and the process of social change. Sociology burdens itself with all that happens to human beings as a result of their relationship with one another in the society (Barber 43). It is an art of words which entertains, enlightens, educates, and instructs-thereby projecting the experience and behaviour of man in the society. While sociology examines social institutions of family, marriage, economic, religious, and political structures (which form the social structures), literature involves the social world of man and his desire to change the same. Therefore, the field of sociology of literature concerns the study of society, and the social life of people cannot be discussed in isolation, since the culture of a people is reflected in their social life. In this study, Gospel Apala music is a product-inclusive of content and language-of the society, and it is sung by, and for, the people of the society.

 

Method and literature review

This is a qualitative research study which adopts a historical and descriptive analysis for its research design. This historical method traces the origin of Gospel Apälä, which is a variant of Apälä music performed only by the Yoruba people of South-West Nigeria, its development, and the exponents. Moreover, it focuses on the contribution of three Gospel Apälä artistes, namely: Osoba, Olabisi, and Olorun. The descriptive method engages a content analysis of the musical structure of Apälä music and particularly that of the three artistes, highlighting how their creative processes and performances of the genre in its authentic form has aided in promoting and conserving this indigenous musical and cultural heritage in order to safeguard its loss to modernity. My field work consisted of identifying selected Gospel Apälä artistes, attending their performances and recording them on audio devices, and thereafter the rigorous activity of transcribing, and analysing the performances. I also conducted unstructured oral interviews with five respondents between the ages of 59 and 82 to get their views on the two different kinds of Apala music.

In the study I adopt the views of Beier in his understanding of the term 'music' when he explains how the Yoruba people engage music in all their endeavours:

There is no occasion in Yoruba life that is not accompanied by songs. Births, marriage, house warming and funeral are all occasions for lyrical songs of great beauty. Everyday life is also accompanied by a great deal of impromptu singing, a kind of musical thinking, in which the singer puts everything to tune which happens to pass through his head. (23)

Beier's argument regarding the Yoruba engagement of musical composition in all spheres of life is germane as nothing happens whatsoever that doesn't prompt the Yoruba people to sing. Mention one area of human participation in life, and the Yoruba people always have a ready-made song that can neatly fit into that domain. It is pertinent to also consider the contribution of Nketia's (African Music in Ghana) belief of Africans and music, of which the Yoruba society is an integral part. He explains thus:

The African life and music are inseparable. Music accompanies him in the worship of his gods. The African gods (divinities), some of whom are deified heroes, and each with his own praise chants, chanted in his praise by his own established cult and devotees at worships and special rituals, serve intermediary purposes. The African believes in the existence of a Supreme God, who is the "Prime mover" and maker of all that exists. The African approach Him in worship, praising Him and making their request known through the gods. And in doing this, song is mostly adopted. (4)

The above statement explains that music is one of those tools Africans makes use of during the worship of their gods or deities. It is used to invoke the spirit of the gods, to make supplications, and to pray in terms of people's need. The power of music is brought to the lime-light here. This implies that there is a strong spiritual bond in music generally. In another vein, Nketia (Music of Africa) tries to categorise the African songs. He ponders the category of songs that he terms the 'songs of the elders'. He stresses that these types of songs remind one of the past, and it requires some kind of knowledge to understand them: "One of the most important categories of songs found in African societies, may be described as 'songs of the elders'. They remind people of the past and values of a society and require some knowledge of oral tradition before one can understand them" (196).

Nketia's position here is very straightforward and can be likened to the Yoruba songs meant for the elderly people, Orin agba (songs of the elders). This type of song, unlike contemporary music, takes more experience of life to digest and understand, hence they are mainly understood by the elders. Apart from this, there are songs referred to as Orin awo (songs of the initiates). Omibiyi gives a detailed explanation of the effect of music on the Yoruba life and the categories of songs:

Among the Yoruba of Nigeria, as well as other ethnic groups in Africa, music is an integral and functional part of daily activities. It permeates every level of traditional life be it social, religious or ceremonial. Consequently, there exist a large repertory of both vocal and instrumental music such as various songs for entertainment, songs for individual and group labour, praise songs for kings, deities and other important people to mention a few. (492)

Wachsmann gives an insightful explanation as to how the African child imbibed the spirit of musicality from the mother at cradle. He asserts:

He starts off on his mother's back and for a long time he never leaves it [...] When she speaks he must feel the vibrations of her body, when she pounds a mortar he must be aware of the muscular effort of lifting the pestle; he probably is aware of the actual thud of the pestle reaching the bottom of the mortar. Here an experience of rhythm is introduced. (499)

Idowu supports Omibiyi's views about the African take on music, providing further evidence that Africans always accompany everything in life with music:

We have the songs. These constitute a rich heritage of all Africa. Africans are always singing; and in their singing and poetry, they express themselves: All the joys and sorrows of their hearts, and their hopes and fears about the future, find outlet. Singing is always a vehicle conveying certain sentiments or truth [...] in each people's songs, there is a wealth of material for the scholars who will patiently sift and collate. (85)

Awolalu and Dopamu (qtd in Ajikobi) compliment the above statements on music thus: "In all, songs tell the stories of the people's past [...] they also express the joy and sorrows of the people, their assurances, hopes and fears of the future and life after death" (1).

One important point he tries to lay emphasis on with the above statement is the fact that a good relationship exists between dance, drum, and music.

Olukoju (118) explains the various ways and manners by which one can make use of songs or music. He outlines those ways based on life phenomenon and human endeavour, and views music as a vehicle that transports our thoughts for people to hear in terms of joy, sadness, or during praise and thanksgiving. He attests to the fact that music serves as a therapeutic tool to heal and ease the mind of the bereaved and goes further to explain that music serves as a motivational tool that boosts and encourages the mind of the African towards any physical engagements such as war or during stressful work.

 

Themes of Gospel Apala

Praises, thanksgiving, and adoration of God

This theme is common to Gospel Apala artistes as it is their usual practice to make it a priority. Before they commence their performance, they give praises to God for the gift of life, their audience, and their hosts' invitation to minister. The praises they offer include the gift of salvation which speaks volumes of deep knowledge of Jesus. It is obvious that praises permeate their performances.

Salvation/acknowledging Jesus

In the excerpt below, Osoba, a female Gospel Apala artist, sings about salvation thus: "Ore e kalo, wa lo to Jesu wo" (Friends follow me, come and taste Jesus)":

Lile: Ore e kalo, wa lo tp Jesu wo)

Egbe: Kajumpjump gbe Jesu soke

Lile: ore elese taraye n fe

Egbe: Öre e kalo, wa lo to Jesu wo Lile: Eni ti o ba sa ti ni Jesu o)

O ti daju, o n fina sere

Egbe: Dajudaju, oluwa re a fimu danrin)

A gba pe beliiti yato si bante o e

Lile:Èyin elegbe mo ni

E sa a ngfoohun lenu mi n na

A ni o gfoa Jesu,

O lp ngfoemu

Egbe:O lp n sapa kcmdu)

Lile: Aanu re lo se mi, mi o fe ko o jo ninu ina

Eni ti o basa ti ni Jesu

Eni ti o basa ti ni Jesu

Egbe: O ti daju, o nfinasere

Lile: Dajudaju, o n fina sere

Egb: A gbagfoe pe beliiti yato si bante

Lead: Friends follow me, come and taste Jesus)

Chorus: Let us together lift Jesus up

Lead: Friend of sinners that the world loves

Chorus: Friends follow me, come and taste Jesus)

Lead: Anyone who does not have Jesus)

Certainly, he is playing with fire

Chorus: Certainly, he will suffer seriously

He will know for sure, that belt is different from charmed belt.

Lead: My esteemed comrades

At least you are hearing my voice

We implore you to accept Jesus,

You are proving stubborn.

Chorus: You are proving arrogant

Lead: I am only pitying you, I don't want you to burn inside fire

Anyone who does not have Jesus

Anyone who does not have Jesus

Chorus: Certainly he is playing with fire

Lead: Certainly he is playing with fire

Chorus: He will know for sure that belt is different from apron.

From the excerpt above, the artist projects Jesus as a friend of sinners whom the world loves (ore elese taraye nfe). She also spells out the spiritual implication of not accepting Jesus such as playing with fire and encounters with poverty/suffering (O tidaju, onfinasere). She counsels people not to be stubborn and arrogant. The next example is titled, "Since I've known Jesus, I have liberty".

Lile: Since I've known Jesus, I have liberty

Egbe: There is no tirpbu fun mi rara)

Lile: Afplasade

Since, I've known Jesus, I have liberty

Egbe: There is no tirpbu fun mi rara.

Lile: Gan an ni a fi ji, iroyin o tafojuba

Egbe: Gan an ni afi ji, iroyin o tafojuba

Lile: Gbogbo eniyan e sare wa

Egbe: Gbogbo eniyan e sare wa

Lile: The difference is clear, I teii you

Egbe: Oga ni Jesu wa lpjokpjp

Lile: Mo wokun, mo wp sa

Egbe: Oluwa tobi

Lile: O dasanmp

Egbe: O tun deja sinu ibu

Lile: Dajudaju pe ko spba bii TOluwa

Egbe: Dajudaju pe ko spba bii TOluwa

Lile: Olupese saa ni Jesu

Egbe: O ku ka wa le ni igbala

Lile: Jesu mi o

Egbe: Since I've known Jesus, I have liberty

Lile: I have liberty o

Egfoe: There is no tirpbu fun mi rara

Lile: Beyin bafori so apata)

Egfoe: O ti daju, fifp lo mi afp dajudaju, ko sOba bii tOluwa)

Lile: Anu re lo se mi lo je ki n ba e damoran

Egbe: O ba ni Jesu, Koo lüluwa.

Lile: See ri eni ba ni Jesu ko lOluwa

Egbe: See ri eni ba ni Jesu ninu aye re

Lile: Iyen daju.

Egbe: Amp eni i ba ni Jesu ninu aye re.

Lile: Di eni a mu sere fun satani

Since I've known Jesus, I have liberty o

Egbe: There is no tirpbu fun mi rara

Lead: Since I have known Jesus I have liberty

Chorus: There is no trouble for me at all

Lead: Afolasade

Since I've known Jesus, I have liberty

Chorus: There is no trouble for me at all

Lead: Seeing is believing, news cannot be compared to eyewitness

Chorus: Seeing is believing, news cannot be compared to eyewitness

Lead: Everybody come quickly

Chorus: Everybody come quickly

Lead: The difference is clear, I tell you

Chorus: Our Jesus is the master any time

Lead: I look at the seas and rivers

Chorus: God is big

Lead: He created the firmament

Chorus: He also created fish in the depths of the sea

Lead: Surely, there is no king like Lord

Chorus: Surely, there is no king like Lord

Lead: The provider is Jesus

Chorus: He died that we may have salvation

Lead: My Jesus

Chorus: Since I've known Jesus

Lead: I have liberty

Chorus: There is no trouble for me at all

Lead: If an egg collides with a stone)

Chorus: It is certain, it will break, certainly there is no king like God)

Lead: I pity you, that is why I'm counselling you

Chorus: You would have accepted Jesus, have God

Lead: You see, anyone who does not have Jesus, has no God

Chorus: You see, anyone who has Jesus in his life

Lead: Certainly,

Chorus: But anyone who doesn't have Jesus in his life

Lead: Becomes a play person for Satan

Since I've known Jesus, I have liberty

Chorus: There is no trouble for me at all.

In the above example, she emphasises confidently that she has not encountered trouble since she encountered Jesus, thereby sending out such invitation to accept Jesus into their lives. She expresses that, since she received Jesus, she has never been disappointed.

The following example is titled "Oruko Jesu Lawa Nlo" (It is the name of Jesus that we use):

Lile: Oruko Jesu la wa n lo

Egbe: Iwo dim mo Jesu

Lile: A afi o se wonda

Egbe: A afi o se wonda

Lile: Oluwa ni transformer to n tona)

Kéni ma nii ro poogun ni, ori ni

Egbe: Kéni ma nii ro poogun ni:

Lile: You na de du mi well well

Egbe: Jesus you too much

Lile: You na de du me well well

Egbe You carry my matter

Lile: You carry my matter for your head

Egbe: You na dey do me well well

Lead: It is the name of Jesus, we use

Chorus: You uphold Jesus

Lead: He will turn you to wonder

Chorus: He will turn you to wonder

Lead: God is the transformer that is bringing light

A selfish person thinks it is medicine, it is destiny

Chorus: A selfish person thinks it is medicine

Lead: You are doing me well

Chorus: Jesus, you are too much

Lead: You are doing me well

Chorus: You shoulder my matter

Lead: You shoulder my matter as a priority

Chorus: You are doing me well

From Osoba's examples above, she mostly sings about her salvation and the liberty she has in Christ Jesus. She narrates her encounters since she came in contact with Jesus and says there is no trouble for her (There is no tirobu fun mi rara). She mentions the differences between her former life and her present experiences.

Olabisi, a male Gospel Apala artist, also makes the theme of appreciation to God his major pre-occupation as he sings: "Ladies & Gentlemen, E sopa ijo" (Let us dance):

Lile: Ladies & Gentlemen, E sppaijo

Egbe: O my Jesus mo love re gan-an

Lile: Waka je je omo Jesu)

Egbe: Waka small small

Lile: Waka jeje

Egbe: Waka jeje

Lile: Lefu mi ti change mo ti elevate

Egbe Mo ti elevate

Lile: Mi o nii pegba visa lo si ilu oba

Egbe: E ba mi dupe

Lile: Aye mi ti change

Egbe: Mo ti elevate

Lile: Sanmpri e dide, e je a jo, o yasope

Egbe: Gbese je ka yin Oluwa

Lile: Rora gbese, e je ka yin Baba Egbe: Gbe bodi re, je ka yin baba o

Lead: Ladies and gentlemen let us dance

Chorus: Oh my Jesus I love you very much

Lead: Walk gently, child of Jesus

Chorus: Walk softy, softly

Lead: Walk gently

Chorus: Walk gently

Lead: My level has changed I am elevated

Chorus: I am elevated

Lead: I will soon collect my Visa to overseas.

Chorus: Join me to thank God

Lead: My life has changed

Chorus: I am elevated

Lead: Important dignitaries, stand up, let us dance, please, rejoice

Chorus: Lift up your leg, let us praise God

Lead: Lift up your legs gently let us praise father

Chorus: Lift up your body, let us praise father

Olabisi makes appreciation to God his major priority as seen above. He employs loan words from English and Pidgin English. He expresses faith in Christ by using faith language such as "Lefu mi ti change (my level has changed), mo ti elevate (I am elevated), Mi o nipe gba visa lo si ilu pba (I shall soon obtain visa abroad), Aye mi ti Change (my life has changed), Rora (lift your leg gently), gbese (lift your leg), e je ka yin Baba (let's praise Father), Gbe bodi re (lift up your body), je ka yin baba o let's praise Fathero)". This use of language portrays him as an international man in this age of civilisation and globalisation.

Another male Gospel Apala artist, Olorun, focuses on appreciation and gratitude to God. The name "Boiz Olorun" means "God's Boys". This implies that "God's boys" is a special name chosen by the leader of the group. Just like other Gospel Apala artists, Olorun's preoccupation is praises and adoration to the Lord. He mentions many negative experiences that God shields one from as in the examples below: "Ölp run ti o je o ya were'" (God that does not allow you to run mad), "Ölprun ti o je ki spja na p" (God that does not allow soldier to beat you), "Olprun ti o je ki o rin lo" (God that does not allow you to get lost) in the song "Olorun ti o je o ya were" (God that does not allow you to run mad):

Lile: Olorun ti o jé o ya were

Oiorun ti o jé ki soja na o

Oio run ti o jé ki o rin lo

Jesu lo damilola, mo se wa n dupe

Egfoe: Jesu lo damilola, mo se wa n dupe

Lile: O ti ni ki n ma ma jawe

O ti ni ki n ma ma jobi

Chorus: Jesu lo damilola, mo se wa n dupe

Lead: God that does not allow you to turn mad

God that does not allow soldier to beat you

God that does not allow you to get lost

Jesus has made me wealthy, that is why I'm giving thanks Chorus: Jesus has made me wealthy, that is why I'm giving thanks Lead: He has said I should not go eat leaves

He has said I should not eat Kolanut

Chorus: Jesus has made me wealthy that is why I am thanking Him

Olorun also sings "Sope tie" (Give thanks for your own):

Lile: Sope tie

Egbe: Mo sope temi

Lile: Eni ba moore Oluwa

Egbe:Ε ma masope

Lile: Dakun wa sope

Egfoe: Ε seun ti Ε ku fun wa

Lile: Immortal Invisible God

Titi aye la o ma a yin O o

Egbe: A dupe

Lile: Somebody shout Hallelluyah

Immortal Invisiole God

Egbe: O ya ka praise the Lord

Lile: Lokunrin -Lobinrinpraise the Lord

Egbe: A dupe

Lile: E ma ma praise the Lord

Egbe: Mo ni ki la o ba se fun Baba

Lile: A fi ka maa dupe

Bi baba ba ni ka mu pepeye wa

Egbe: Pepeye one million o le to lailai

Lile: Won ni baba n je raisi

Egbe: Rara

Lile: Abi n je Boga?

Egbe: Rara

Lile: Ab i n je Semo?

Egbe: Rara

Lile: N mu kooki?

Egbe: Rara

Lile: N mu kunu

Egbe: Rara

Lile: Ki lounje baba mi?

Egbe: Ope lounje baba mi

Lile: Ki lounje baba mi?

Egbe: Ope lounje baba mi

Lead: Thank God for your life

Chorus: I thank God for my life

Lead: Anyone who knows the goodness of God

Chorus: You better give thanks

Lead: Please come and give thanks

Chorus: Thank You for dying for us

Lead: Immortal invisible God

Forever we shall praise you

Chorus: We give thanks

Lead: Somebody shout Halleluiah,

Immortal, invisible God.

Chorus: Its time, let us praise the Lord

Lead: Men, women, praise the Lord

Chorus: We give thanks

Lead: We should please praise the Lord

Chorus: I say what can we do for the father

Lead: We should give thanks God

If father say we should bring duck.

Chorus: One million ducks can never be enough

Lead: They say father eats rice?

Chorus: No

Lead: They say father eats Burger?

Chorus: No

Lead: Or He eats Semo?

Chorus: No

Lead: He drinks coke?

Chorus: No

Lead: He drinks a type of Hausa drink called Kunu?

Chorus: No

Lead: What is the food of my father?

Chorus: Appreciation is the food of my father

Lead: What is the food of my father

Chorus: Praise is the food of my father.

and "Children of God are you here?":

Lile: Children of God are you there?

Egbe: Yes, we are here?

Lile: Some have food, and cannot eat

Egbe: Awon kan leje'le run ti won o rounje je

Lile: Ki la abafi san an?

Egbe: Ki la a ba fi san ore Baba mi

Lile: Ti won bani n kowo wa?

Egoe: Se kere n be nibi

Lile: Omele n be nibi

Egbe: Onigangan n be nibi

Lile: Ope lounje baba mi

Egbe: Ope lounje baba mi

Lead: Children of God are you there?

Chorus: Yes, we are here?

Lead: Some have food, and cannot eat

Chorus: Some people can eat a whole building but don't have food to eat

Lead: What shall we use to appreciate?

Chorus: What shall we use to appreciate my Father?

Lead: If they say I should bring money?

Chorus: There is rattle

Lead: There is a type of talking-drum

Chorus: There is gangan drummer here

Lead: Appreciation is the food of my father

Chorus: Appreciation is the food of my father

God's greatness/miracles

Another song by Olorun is "Ise Oluwa O Ta Lenu" (God's work is pepperish in the mouth):

Lile: Isé Oluwa o ta lenu

Egbe: Isé Oluwa o ta lenu

Lile: Abi e o ri lójó ojoyen?

Egbe: Ki lo se?

Lile: O so enu eja di ATM

Egbe: O so enu eja di ATM

Lile: Mi o gfooo ri

O ni 'Peter wa lo gfoowo wa

Egbe: O ni 'Peter wa lo gfoowo wa

Lile: As in, o ki ike bo enu irin

Egbe: O ki ike bo enu irin

Lile: Ki le lo wi?

Egbe: O ni 'enter your pin'

Lile: Lo ba ni "JE S U S"

Egbe: A fi gctrom, lowo ba jade

Lile: Lo je wi pe

Egfoe: Ise Oluwa o ta lenu

Lile: Lo je wi pe

Egfoe: Ise Oluwa o ta lenu

Lead: God's work is pepperish

Chorus: God's work is pepperish

Lead: Can you see on those days?

Chorus: What did He do?

Lead: He turned the mouth of fish to ATM

Chorus: He turn the mouth of fish to ATM

Lead: I have never heard it before

He said 'Peter come and go and withdraw money'

Chorus: He said 'Peter, come and go and withdraw money'

Lead: As in he inserted ATM card inside the ATM machine

Chorus: He inserted ATM card inside the ATM machine

Lead: What do you say?

Chorus: He said 'Enter your pin'

Lead: He then said 'J-E-S-U-S'

Chorus: Instantly money started gushing out

Lead: That is

Chorus: God's work is pepperish in the mouth

Lead: That is

Chorus: God's work is pepperish in the mouth

Olorun showcases sekere, omele, and gangan as the major instruments of Gospel Apala music. He mostly asks his audience to praise and appreciate God for all His goodness. An example of such appreciation is "Olorun ti o je o ya were'" (God that does not allow you to run mad), "Olo run ti o je ki soja na o" (God that does not allow soldier to beat you), "Olorun ti o je ki o rin lo" (God that does not allow you to get lost), "Eni ba moore Oluwa" (whosoever appreciate the goodness of God), and "A fi ka maa dupe" (We should just thank Him)". He frequently asks pertinent questions about the nature of the appreciation, for example "Bi baba ba ni ka mu pepeye wa, Pepeye One Million o le to lailai" (perishable things or natural things are not enough to appreciate God). He asks if God eats rice, burgers, or drinks coke: "Abi n je Bo ga?" (Does he eat burger), "Se ke re n be nibi" (There is rattle here), "Omele n be nibi" (There is talking drum here), "Onigangan nbenibi" (Gangan drummer is here), and his lyrics "Ise Oluwa o ta lenu" (God's work is pepperish in the mouth) align with current happenings and money-related matters as it happens in a globalised world. It is very germane to mention this aspect as it showcases the present/modern day foods and drinks such as burgers, cokes. etc.

 

Stylistic devices

The use of stylistic devices and oral traditional materials such as repetition, rhetorical question, personification, loan words, code-mixing/switching, and proverbs explicitly beautify, embellish, and magnifying the dominant intents of the singers. It thereby positions the two genres-traditional Apala and Gospel Apala-as pieces that breathe into one another in terms of form, voices, and popularity. The excitement most Christians get from it affirms people's nostalgic feeling for their heritage embedded in Apala music. Scholars such as Isola, Bamgbo.se, Olabode, Olatunji, Adebowale, Olateju, and Ojo have emphasised the importance of stylistic devices in works of art. Stylistic devices are linguistic resources employed deliberately to fulfil a stylistic task or expressive means of the language. Their primary goal is to achieve aesthetic ornaments, that is, to beautify literary works. In order to make their Gospel Apala music enticing and classical, the artistes employ different stylistic devices to enrich their performances. They dexterously exploit the resources of the Yoruba language in a special and heightened manner with the intention of transforming their experiences into works of art. Olat.eju asserts that the ambition of any literary writer/artist is to achieve two things, and these are 'message' and 'entertainment' (277). Olateju's point is further buttressed with the fact that in order to achieve his purpose of writing, the "writer/artist employs consciously his literary and linguistic skills by packing into the work all ingredients that would generate aesthetic pleasure" (277). As a work of art, literature involves a skilful exploitation and manipulation of language and, through this, an artist may be described as brilliant and ingenious. In the following section, I examine a few stylistic devices employed by the multi-talented artistes who skilfully mint and mend words in both Yoruba and English languages. This act of skilfully smiting words could be seen in all their songs. They achieve this through the use of stylistic devices such as repetition, rhetorical questions, personification, loan words, code-mixing/ code-switching, and proverbs, among others.

Repetition

This is a stylistic device that involves intentional usage of a word, phrase, or full sentence two or more times in a speech or written work to create effect. As an aesthetic device and chief among all stylistic devices, repetition creates beauty and good taste in a work of art (Babalola). It projects creativity of the writer's sense of value, thereby aiding and sustaining memorability. It helps in shaping and sharpening one's memory and is used as a foregrounding tool in highlighting and reiterating an important message. For repetition to be noticeable, the words, phrases, or sentences should be repeated within close proximity of each other for the purpose of emphasis and memorability. The lexico-structural pattern can be either full or partial (Olatunji). Repetition is common in almost all the Yoruba poetic genres, such as orin (songs), orfkl (praise-poetry), ofo (incantation), ese-ifá (ifá divination poetry), ckún-iyáwó (bridal cry), and owe (proverbs). There are six types of repetition: full, partial, lexical, semantic, phonetic, and thematic repetition. Traditional Apala also use repetition, which explains the occurrence of repetition in Gospel Apala.

Full/sentential repetition

Full or sentential repetition is the intentional repetition of a sentence structure in several lines in a literary work for effect, usually to create a concrete and stronger impact in a poem or song. Osoba, Olabisi, and Olorun repeated the full sentences to provide clarity and emphasis, highlighting deeper meanings of their songs. Also, the whole elements of the sentence being repeated are reduplicated to vividly express what they have in mind. The examples given below are sentential repetition:

Ore e kao, wa lo to Jesu wo

Ore e kao, wa lo to Jesu wo

Eni ti o basa ti ni Jesu

Eni ti o basa ti ni Jesu (Osoba, "Ore e kalo, wa lo to Jesu wo")

Friends follow me, come and taste Jesus

Friends follow me, come and taste Jesus

Anyone who does not have Jesus

Anyone who does not have Jesus

Ise Oluwa o ta lenu

Ise Oluwa o ta lenu (Olorun, "Ise Oluwa o ta lénu")

God's work is pepperish in the mouth

God's work is pepperish in the mouth

The layman's judgement of the above repetitions may be light and inconsequential, but a close look at them will make one see the basic rudiment and stylistic purpose of full/sentential repetition

Lexical repetition

Lexical repetition foregrounds or focuses on some items which may occur at the beginning, middle, or end of the sentence. The effect of this kind of repetition is intensification and topicalisation. The writer beams his searchlight on a particular word repeatedly for emphasis, bringing out a central message. Whenever there is a preponderance of a particular word, lexical repetition is found. To avoid ambiguity, lexical repetition is necessary. Lexical repetition is shown in the example below:

Lefu mi ti change

Mo ti elevate

Mo ti elevate

Aye mi ti change

Mo ti elevate (Olabisi)

My level has changed

I am elevated

My life has changed

I am elevated

Sope tie

Mo sope temi

Eni ba moore Oluwa

E ma ma.sope

Oakun (Olorun, "Sope tie")

Thank God for your life

I thank God for my life

You better give thanks

Please come and give thanks

Wem ni baba n je raisi

Rara

Abi n je Boga?

Rara (Olorun, "Sope tie")

They say father eats rice?

No

They say father eats Burger?

No

The words Jesu, change, elevate, sope, and rara are constantly repeated to prevent ambiguity.

Partial repetition

In partial repetition, the sentence structure is repeated, but not all the lexical items are repeated. Below are few examples of partial repetition:

O ti daju, o n finasere

Dajudaju, o n fina sere (Osoba, "Ore e kalo, wa lo to Jesu wo")

Certainly he is playing with fire

Certainly he is playing with fire

Olórun ti o je o ya were

Olórun ti o je ki soja na o

Olorun ti o je ki o rin lo (Olorun, "Olorun ti o je o ya were")

God that does not allow you to turn mad

God that does not allow soldier to beat you

God that does not allow you to get lost

In partial repetition, half of the sentence, that is, a phrase, is repeated for effect. The phrase may occur at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. In the above example, the bold phrases such as: "O lo n, Olorun ti o je, o n fina sere'" are examples of partial repetition.

Semantic repetition

Semantic repetition is the re-occurrence of words that are synonymous which are placed at close range in a given literary text. For example:

A ni o gfoa Jesu,

O lo n gfoemu

O lo n sapa kondu (Osoba, "Ore e kalo, wa lo to Jesu wo")

We implore you to accept Jesus,

You are proving stubborn.

You are proving arrogant

In the above examples, the words gfoemu and sapa kondu are semantic repetition for they are synonymous and mean "proving stubborn". Jawe and jobi are examples of semantic repetition, meaning consultation with other gods. Also, ya were and soja na o, rin lo are examples of semantic repetition representing something evil.

Rhetorical questions

The rhetorical question is derived from classical rhetoric. It is the art of public speaking in which a speaker asks some questions in order to buttress a point. A rhetorical question is stylistic use of interrogative language, in such a way that the response to the said interrogation is already suggested as provided by the speaker him/herself. In literature, a rhetorical question is a question posed to the audience in which an answer is not expected since the answer is already suggested in the question. This is known as apparent interrogation and when rhetorical questions are uttered, they are not expected to be responded to by the referents/addressee. This stylistic technique is very conspicuous in the songs of all the artistes. Examples abound in the provided texts.

Personification

Personification is a stylistic device which gives animate qualities and strength to inanimate things (Ojo, "Predominant Stylistic Devices of Proverbs in Selected Yoruba Literary Texts" 282). Personification is a reference to inanimate objects as if they were animate. It is an extension of a metaphor, especially as it invests non-human things with human attributes with the intention of making them vivid (Olatunji). Examples of personification employed by the artistes are "Sekere n be nibi" (There is rattle here) and "Omele n be nibi" (There is talking drum here) (Olorun, "Sope tie")-the gourd or rattle, and talking drum are personified, as if they can attend events.

Loan words

These are words taken from one language and incorporated into another language's vocabulary. The selected artistes loan words from English, Pidgin, Hausa, etc. Examples are: "A a fi o sewpnda" (He will make you a wonder) (Osoba, "Orúko Jésü Läwa Nlö") "bêliiti" (belt); (Osoba, "Ore e kalo, wa lo to Jesu wo"; "There is no tirpbu fun mi rara" (There is no trouble for me at all), "The difference is clear and "I teli you" (I tell you) (Osoba, "Since I've known Jesus"); "You na de du me well well" (You are doing me well) and "Gbe bodi re, je ka yin baba o" (Lift up your body lets praise the father) (Osoba, "Orúko Jésü Läwa Nlö"; and "Gan an ni a fi ji" (Osoba, "Since I've known Jesus"). In these examples, the following words are loaned from English: wonder, belt, trouble, tell, rice, burger, coke, body, and level, while Gan an ni a fi ji is from the Hausa language.

Code mixing/code switching

Code-mixing is a means of linguistic socialisation and a sign of modernisation. It signifies an interaction of two languages within a sentence as a result of bilingualism. In the following examples the inclusion of words like transformer, love, ATM, and Visa makes for a code-mixing expression: "Oluwa ni transformer to n tpna" (God is the transformer that brings light), "You carry my matter" (You shoulder my matter) and "You carry my matter for your head" (You shoulder my matter on your head) (Osoba, "Orúko Jésü Läwa Nlö"); "Ladies & Gentlemen, E sopa ijo" (Ladies and Gentlemen, let us dance), "O my Jesus mo love re gan-an" (Oh my Jesus, I love you seriously", "Léfu mi ti change mo ti elevate" (My level has changed, I am elevated), "Mi o nii pe gba visa lo si ilu pba" (would soon get VISA abroad), "Gbe bodi re, je ka yin baba o" (Lift your body, let us praise the father) and "Waka jeje omo Jesu (Tread softly, child of Jesus) (Olábísí); "O sp enu eja di ATM (He turns the mouth of fish to ATM) and "O ni 'enter your pin', Lo ba ni 'JESUS'" (He said enter your pin, He then said JESUS) (Olorun, "Ise Oluwa O Ta Lenu").

The examples contain many instances of alternation between Yoruba and English.

Proverbs

Proverbs are reflections and expressions of wisdom, ethics, philosophy, and beliefs of a given society (Ojo, "A Stylistic Analysis of Proverbs in Selected Yoruba Written Literature" 2). Proverbs employ figurative language to make a statement of fact as shown below:

Beyin ba fori so apata

O ti daju, fifp lo mi afp (Osoba, "Since I've known Jesus")

If an egg collides with a stone

It is certain, it will break certainly there is no king like God

The above proverb expresses the truth that if an egg collides with the rock, it will break. It shows how fragile an egg is. This proverb means "to attempt the impossible".

 

Conclusion

In this article I explored the description, thematic, and stylistic traits of Gospel Apälä music which is a variant of Apälä music. I argued that Gospel Apälä artistes Osobä, Olábísí, and Olorun improved on traditional Apälä's original form in terms of the music, lyrics, language, and instrumentation by resuscitating the dying traditional Apälä into global limelight. I I present the description and relevance of Gospel Apälä in line with the principles of systemic functional linguistics and sociology of literature. Themes of Gospel Apälä focus mainly on praise and worship of God, thereby projecting God's greatness, and entertaining, educative, informative, and therapeutic functions of literature. The styles, beats, and instruments of traditional Apälä have been retained but modernised to project the continuity of the genre. Stylistic devices which garnish their music include repetition, rhetorical questions, personification, loan words, code-mixing/code-switching, and proverbs. From the discussion, it is clear that traditional Apälä has become a variant of Apälä music. It is therefore safe to conclude that Gospel Apälä has become a new register of African music.

 

Works cited

Adebowale, Oluyemisi. "Style in Yoruba Crime Fiction." Diss. U of Ibadan, 1994.         [ Links ]

Ademowo, Paul Wale. History ofFuji Music in Nigeria. Effective, 1993.         [ Links ]

Ajetunmobi, Rasheed, Babatunde Osiyale & Dele Sogbesan. Haruna Ishola: The life and time of Baba Ngani Agba. Tai Solarin U, 2009.         [ Links ]

Ajikobi, Oladimeji. "Agbeyewo Awon Koko-Oro Inu Orin Nosiru Ti Apeje Re N Je Ayeke Afowofa." Laangbasa, edited by Deji Medubi. U Lagos, 1995, pp. 25-40.         [ Links ]

Babalola, S. Adeboye. The Content and Form of Yoruba Ijda. Oxford U P, 1976.         [ Links ]

Bamgbose, Ayo. The Novels of D. O. Faggunwa. Ethioppe, 1974.         [ Links ]

Barber, Karen. "Why Do We Need Sociology of Literature?" Paper presented at the Sociology of Literature Seminar, U of Ife, 1978.         [ Links ]

Beier, Ulli. "Yoruba Vocal Music." Journal of the International Library of African music vol. 1, no. 3, 1956, pp. 23-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21504/amj.v1i3.305.         [ Links ]

Euba, Akin. "The Interrelationship of Music and Poetry in Yoruba Tradition." Yoruba Oral Traditional Poetry in Music, Dance and Drama, edited by W. Abimbola. U of Ife, 1978.         [ Links ]

Halliday, Michael. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Edward Arnold, 1984.         [ Links ]

Halliday, Michael & Christian Matthiessen. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Hodder Arnold, 2004.         [ Links ]

Idowu, E. Bolaji. African Traditional Religion. Redwood Burn, 1977.         [ Links ]

Isaac, Adeniyi. "Indigenous Music Education in Nigeria: The Bata Drum Ensemble Experience." Interlink: Ajournal of research in Music, Awka vol. 4, 2009, pp. 63-71.         [ Links ]

Isola, Akinwumi. "The Writers' Art in the Modern Yoruba Novels." Diss. U of Ibadan, 1978.         [ Links ]

Lasisi, S. Adebusola. "Traditional Music in Nigeria: Example of Ayinla Omowura's Music." Developing Country Studies vol. 2, no. 10, 2012, pp. 108-18.         [ Links ]

Mustapha, Oyebanji. "A Literary Appraisal of Sakara: A Yoruba Traditional Form of Music." Yoruba Oral Tradition: Poetry in Music, Dance and Drama, edited by W. Abimbola. U of Ife, 1975, pp. 517-49.         [ Links ]

Nketia, Joseph Hanson Kwabena. African Music in Ghana. Longman, Green, 1962.         [ Links ]

_____________________. The Music of Africa. Norton, 1974.         [ Links ]

Ogunsina, Johnson. A. The Sociology of Yoruba Novels. Gospel Faith Mission, 1976.         [ Links ]

Ojo, Esther Titilayo. "Predominant Stylistic Devices of Proverbs in Selected Yoruba Literary Texts". Journal of Yoruba Studies Association of Nigeria vol. 8, no. 1, 2015, pp. 253-92.         [ Links ]

_____________________. "A Stylistic Analysis of Proverbs in Selected Yoruba Written Literature". Diss. University Ibadan, 2013.         [ Links ]

Olabisi, Yomi. Performance of "Ladies & Gentlemen, Ε sopá ijó" at Sanctuary of Christ Evangelical Church, 11 Olabisi Agoro Street, SEM-N-BIO, Adesola Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria, on 15 Mar. 2020.         [ Links ]

Olabode, Afolabi. "The Semantic Basis of Metaphor and Related Tropes in Yoruba." Diss. U of Ibadan, 1981.         [ Links ]

Olateju, Adesola. "The Language of Myth: The Yoruba Example." African Culture and Mythology, edited by Egbe Ifie & Dapo Adehigba. End Time, 1999.         [ Links ]

Olatunji, Olátúndé O. Features of Yoruba Oral Poetry. Ibadan U P, 1984.         [ Links ]

Olorun, Boiz. Performance of "Ise Oluwa O Ta Lenu" at Gospel Faith Mission Church Centre, 27 Olukemi Street, VIA Oke-Ogba, Oyo, Oyo state, Nigeria on 21 Jun. 2020.         [ Links ]

_____________________. Performance of 'Olórun ti o je o ya were" at Gospel Faith Mission Church Centre, 27 Olukemi Street, VIA Oke-Ogba, Oyo, Oyo state, Nigeria on 21 Jun. 2020.         [ Links ]

_____________________. Performance of "Sope Tie" at Gospel Faith Mission Church Centre, 27 Olukemi Street, VIA Oke-Ogba, Oyo, Oyo state, Nigeria on 21 Jun. 2020.         [ Links ]

Oludare, Olupemi. "Compositional Techniques in Apala Music." Nigerian Theatre Journal vol. 14, no. 1, 2014, 86-107.         [ Links ]

Olukoju, Emmanuel. O. "Music in Religious Worship." Orita: Ibadan Journal of Religious Studies vol. xix, no. 2, 1987, p. 118-33.         [ Links ]

Olusoji, Stephen. "Comparative Analysis of the Islam influenced Apala, Waka and Sakara Popular Music of the Yoruba." Diss. U of Ibadan, 2008.         [ Links ]

_____________________. "Nigerian Dances for Piano." Lagos Right Time Services. Vol. 1. 2010.         [ Links ]

Omibiyi, Mosunmola. "The Training of Yoruba Traditional Musician". Yoruba Oral Traditional Poetry in Music, Dance and Drama, edited by Wande Abimbola. Ibadan U P, 1975. pp. 492-516.         [ Links ]

Omojola, Bode. Yoruba Music in the Twentieth Century. U of Rochester P, 2012.         [ Links ]

Osoba, Sade. Performance of "Ore e kalo, wa lo to Jesu wo" at CAC, Ayo Street off Olabiyi Avenue, Idimu area, Lagos, Nigeria, on 10 Nov. 2019.         [ Links ]

_____________________. Performance of "Orúko Jésü Läwa Nlö" at the Apostolic Church, Iyana-Soosi, Alimoso area, Lagos, Nigeria, on 24 Nov. 2019.         [ Links ]

_____________________. Performance of "Since I've known Jesus, I have liberty" at the Methodist Church Elekuro Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria, on 31 Nov. 2019.         [ Links ]

Taine, Hippolyte, A. History of Engish Literature. Vol. 1. Henry Holt, 1886.         [ Links ]

Vidal, A. O. "Selected Topics on Nigerian Music." Ile-Ife, edited by Femi Adedeji. Obafemi Awolowo U P, 2012.         [ Links ]

Wachsmann, K. P. Essays on Music and History in African Evanston. Northwestern U P, 1963.         [ Links ]

 

 

Submitted: 28 July 2022
Accepted: 10 March 2023
Published: 13 December 2023