ARTICLES

 

An evaluation of the use of character strengths as an asset-based approach to learner support

 

 

EM Eloff^I; MP van der Merwe^II; I Karsten^III

^IEducational Psychologist, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
^IIIDepartment of Accountancy, College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa. ikarsten@uj.ac.za

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The global movement towards inclusive education aims to create a safe environment where teachers are expected to actively pursue various methods to implement asset-based support for all learners. The prominence of the learners' challenges, however, still guides most teachers' methods of support. Teachers need to review all the resources, strategies, and practices that can be used in the classroom to provide physical, social, emotional, and intellectual support to all learners. Mindful professional development can empower teachers to support learners in all aspects of their education. In this article we report on a study in which Grade 7 teachers' perceptions of a staff development workshop, which introduced them to an asset-based approach for learner support, namely, the identification and utilisation of character strengths, were explored. The main findings indicate that teachers gained new knowledge and greater insight and awareness about character strengths, which enabled them to rethink and reshape their perceptions of learner support. They came to view the identification of character strengths as a crucial component of effective learner support. The results of the research have implications for all schools to implement an approach to learner support based on character strengths.

Keywords: asset-based learner support; character strengths; inclusive education; mainstream classroom; PERMA model; positive psychology; tall trees leadership profile; teacher development; teacher empowerment

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Introduction

In a uniquely diverse country such as South Africa, teachers face various difficulties in supporting learners with a wide range of diverse and individual needs (Donohue & Bornman, 2014). The Salamanca statement stipulates the necessity for including all learners in a mainstream classroom, regardless of their backgrounds, abilities, characteristics, and learning needs (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2018). Teachers are expected to be able to identify the diverse needs of learners, work around learning barriers, create opportunities for all learners to be actively involved in the learning process, and make suitable adaptations to curriculums (Tyagi, 2016). The South African Education White Paper 6 (Department of Education [DoE], 2001) stipulates that the provision of education for all learners is ideally based on the level of support that a child needs to overcome barriers and to achieve. In this context, teachers and schools are expected to offer learner support to all, regardless of diverse levels of abilities, different cultural backgrounds, genders, religions, and any additional situations and challenges that present in the classroom (Swart & Pettipher, 2019).

Learning support can be defined as any activity that a teacher implements to respond to the diversity of the learners in the classroom and make learning accessible to all while addressing individual needs (Department of Basic Education [DBE], Republic of South Africa [RSA], 2014). Teachers often perceive themselves to be unequipped and unqualified to support these individual needs (Nel, Tlale, Engelbrecht & Nel, 2016). Furthermore, teachers tend to focus more on the problems or challenges in the teaching environment and those of the learner, rather than on the assets and strengths (Renkly & Bertolini, 2018). Most educational institutions still focus on what is lacking regarding the child's abilities or academic performance (Bates-Krakoff, McGrath, Graves & Ochs, 2017). Bouwer (2019) believes that many educational institutions even show a disregard for individual differences and focus on deficits rather than on strengths and potential. This medical-deficit approach tends to ignore the possible potential of all learners to achieve (Seligman & Adler, 2018).

There is, therefore, a growing need for teachers to move from a strong deficit model of learner support towards a more asset-based model where learners' strengths are identified and developed (White & Kern, 2018). Creating an awareness of the implementation of positive psychology principles among teachers may be a premise for enabling them to move from a deficit approach of learner support to an asset-based approach (Schiavon, Texeira, Gurgel, Magalhães & Reppold, 2020). One way is to provide an opportunity for teachers to attend workshops to empower them with skills and knowledge to implement asset-based principles for support.

Literature Review

Numerous studies report on teacher training in asset-based principles and those based on character strength in other countries (Norrish, 2015; Seligman & Adler, 2018; Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich & Linkins, 2009). However, a gap exists in research reporting on the regular and successful empowerment of teachers in South Africa to identify character strength and use this as an asset-based approach to support learners. In this article we

explore teachers' perceptions of a staff development workshop designed to equip teachers with knowledge about the identification and use of character strengths for learner support. We address relevant challenges and answer current questions about how teachers provide learner support within the South African context. Research about the positive impact of asset-based education, especially the use of the Via Strengths Survey, is well-documented (Datu & Mateo, 2020; Niemiec, 2013; Weber, Wagner & Ruch, 2016). Little, however, is known about the identification of character strengths through the Tall Trees Questionnaire and the implementation of character strength identification as learner support within the mainstream South African classroom. With this article we thus contribute to increased knowledge and awareness of the potential benefits that the identification of character strengths can have as a tool to support all learners.

Asset-based learner support: A move from the medical-deficit model to an asset-based approach

Two leading paradigms related to learning support include the medical-deficit model and the social-ecological model (Swart & Pettipher, 2019). The principles of the deficit model involve the identification of a problem, the diagnosis thereof, and the implementation of interventions to rectify the problem (Haegele & Hodge, 2016). Before the global transformation to inclusive education, the education system was mostly guided by the deficit model for learner support for children with diverse needs (Sailor, McCart & Choi, 2018). The exclusive focus on difficulties and challenges in the classroom results in a model of support where the learner lacks the positive features needed to learn, develop, and excel (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

The shift in focus from the medical model of learner support to a more holistic, asset-based approach encourages teachers to celebrate diversity and develop individual strengths (DBE, RSA, 2014; Mukherjee, 2017). The asset-based approach is learner-centred and assumes that each learner has strengths that can be used in the classroom to empower them in areas such as increased participation, more effective learning, well-being at school, and flourishing (Missingham, 2017). The asset-based approach aims to create a supportive classroom atmosphere for a diverse range of learning, where each learner feels that they belong, regardless of their differences (Nel et al., 2016), and where it is acknowledged that all learners have strengths (Spratt & Florian, 2014). Teachers are encouraged to recognise strengths instead of magnifying challenges or problems (Florian & Beaton, 2018).

The asset-based approach to learner support does not ignore the challenges and problems experienced by learners (Ebersöhn & Eloff, 2006).

Instead, teachers are encouraged to approach the problem or challenge using interventions that have learners' current character strengths, abilities, and talents at the heart of learner support (Eloff & Ebersohn, 2001). Greater awareness of the positive aspects of an individual's inherent strengths, more specifically, a learner's character strengths, is emphasised (Bouwer, 2019).

Although teachers have implemented some of these principles within inclusive education, the principles of positive psychology, more specifically, the identification of character strengths as an intervention for learner and teacher support, are still grossly underused in the classroom (Kennette & Myatt, 2018).

Theoretical Framework: Positive Psychology

Instead of regarding diversity as a challenge, inclusive education celebrates the child's unique characteristics, interests, abilities, and diverse educational needs (UNESCO, 1994). Such an inclusive mindset focuses on what learners can potentially learn, achieve and be, and, therefore, on learners' assets and strengths rather than on the challenges. Such a mindset is embedded in positive psychology, a field in psychology that does not solely study pathology, damage, or weaknesses but also identifies, uses, and develops the strengths and virtues of individuals (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive psychology refers to the scientific study of the strengths and virtues of individuals that enable them to flourish and thrive (Ackerman, 2018).

Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) explain the field of positive psychology at three levels, namely, a subjective level, an individual level, and a group level. At the subjective level, positive psychology is concerned with an individual's experiences of well-being, hope, and happiness. At an individual level, it is concerned with positive, unique traits or character strengths, for example, interpersonal skills or the ability to persevere. Lastly, at group level, positive psychology examines positive institutions that exhibit virtues such as honesty, responsibility, and work ethic. The emphasis of this article is on the second aspect of positive psychology, which is individual character strengths.

The past two decades have seen expanding growth in research into and practice of positive psychology principles across a range of fields, including education, with a beneficial impact on learners, educators, and their families (White & Kern, 2018). Seligman and Adler (2018) reviewed the implementation of positive psychology principles in education confirming its growth in the education sector worldwide. Positive education, therefore, incorporates fundamental principles such as the science of positive psychology, education for academic skills, and proven best practice pedagogies to develop learners to flourish, reach their individual best, and create optimal, overall well-being (Norrish, Williams, O'Connor & Robinson, 2013). To encourage teachers to move from a medical-deficit approach to an asset-based approach for learner support, such as the identification of character strengths, a positive psychology perspective can be helpful (Brunzell, Stokes & Waters, 2019).

Character strengths

Seligman (2019) describes the identification and development of character strength as the cornerstone of positive psychology and essential for the overall well-being and optimal functioning of any individual. Given the interest in the identification and use of character strengths as learner support, an integration of various definitions guided the research. Character strengths are inherent personality traits which are identifiable, measurable, and can be developed (Rashid, Anjum, Lennox, Quilan, Niemiec, Mayerson & Kazemi, 2013). These positive traits are influenced by the individual's upbringing, environment, and tutelage. Character strengths are individual attributes that can help individuals participate in meaningful experiences, resulting in feelings of well-being and flourishing (Rashid & Niemiec, 2014). Swartz, Bartlett and Vele-Tabaddor (2016) explain that character strength-based practices in education, where the teacher can identify and recognise the learners' strengths in the classroom, creates a supportive environment where optimal learning can take place.

Research indicates beneficial outcomes of a strength-based approach to learner support. Doctor Martin Seligman conducted an influential study on the incorporation of an approach based on character strengths into the curriculum of the Geelong Grammar School in Australia (Norrish, 2015). Key findings include an increase in resilience among the learners, and learners experiencing a higher level of meaning and purpose, improved interpersonal relationships, and an improvement of holistic well-being (Bott, Escamila, Kaufman, Kern, Krekel, Schlicht-Schmalzle, Seldon, Seligman & White, 2017). Character strengths, such as hope, social intelligence, self-control, and perspective, can lessen the negative effects of stress and trauma and can even prevent or mitigate the onset of disorders (Peterson & Park, 2011). In addition, studies revealed a positive relationship between character strengths and educational performance (Mamatha & Chowhan, 2020; Tang, Li, Duan, Mu & Cheng, 2019; Wagner & Ruch, 2015). Toner, Haslam,

Robinson and Williams (2012) found that the identification and nurturing of character strengths, such as hope, caution, zest, fairness, curiosity, and leadership, predicted well-being and life satisfaction among learners, while a combination of gratitude, optimism, zest, and persistence predicted relatively higher levels of school engagement and pro-social behaviour in primary school learners (Wilkins, Boman & Mergler, 2015).

A greater emphasis on character strengths does not imply that the challenges of learners are ignored, but rather that educators are encouraged to use and develop learners' strengths (Climie & Mastoras, 2015). Louis and Lopez (2014) argue that the identification and use of character strengths for learner support is a valid approach to enhancing academic performance and the overall well-being of learners. When teachers acknowledge that all learners have strengths, it becomes easier to identify and recognise the fact that each child brings to the classroom a set of valuable character strengths, such as resilience, motivation, or empathy, which may be used as a resource to support their learning and that of others (Dunn, 2019). A focus on the character strengths of learners may, therefore, be one of the most beneficial ways to support the diverse needs of learners, oppose challenges, and develop inclusion, acceptance, and well-being (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2014).

The objective of the incorporation of interventions based on character strengths is to act both as a buffer against psychological distress and to promote the well-being, psychological resilience, and thriving of all learners (Bentea, 2018; Park & Peterson, 2009). This is done by creating a positive learning environment where diversity and individuality are recognised and accepted (Kibe & Boniwell, 2015). The well-being of learners and the implementation of positive psychology principles in education are explained using the PERMA model.

PERMA model of well-being

The PERMA model was developed within the field of positive psychology. Seligman (2018:333) describes PERMA as an acronym for the five elements, namely, "positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment." Seligman suggests that well-being is constructed of these five elements and that each of the elements is measurable (Seligman & Adler, 2018). Positive emotions involve feelings such as enjoyment, hope and contentment (Golab, Gengatharen, Jie, Mavi & Moore, 2018). The element of engagement is best described as a sense of intense concentration when an individual uses their skills and strengths (Rashid & Seligman, 2018). Positive relationships are described as meaningful and healthy connections that individuals seek and maintain with other people that create a sense of well-being (Niemiec, 2019). Meaning, as referred to within the PERMA model, indicates the experiences that individuals have that give them a sense of purpose or belonging and it usually involves the use of character strengths to serve a greater purpose than oneself (Kun, Balogh & Krasz, 2017). The last element in the PERMA acronym, namely accomplishments, refers to positive feelings associated with a sense of self-efficacy, achievement, and actualisation of potential (Bentea, 2018).

Seligman describes the acknowledgement and nurturing of character strengths as the backbone of PERMA (Relay Graduate School of Education, n.d.). He believes that if a child's character strengths are known to and used by teachers, all five elements of PERMA are positively influenced. Learners who are supported through practices based on character strengths are thus more likely to experience positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment in the classroom (Bentea, 2018). This will subsequently increase feelings of well-being (Seligman, 2011).

In a longitudinal study, Duan and Xie (2019) investigated the effect of individual strengths on the overall well-being and mental health of students. The study revealed that the character strengths of individuals have a positive effect on psychological well-being, as well as on the mental health of students who experience high levels of stress and anxiety. Evidence confirms the potential for successful implementation of the identification and utilisation of learners' unique character strengths for cognitive, emotional, psychological, and psycho-social support (Hausler, Strecker, Huber, Brenner, Höge & Höfer, 2017; Lavy, 2020; Niemiec, 2013).

Yin and Majid (2018) are of the opinion that the successful implementation of an asset-based approach to learner support and the improvement of well-being cannot be realised without the identification of learners' character strengths. Character strengths can be identified using various questionnaires such as the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-strengths) which was developed by Peterson and Seligman (2004). We used the Tall Trees Leadership Profile (TTLP). The TTLP is a questionnaire developed in South Africa by Hettie Brittz and Annatjie van Zyl (2018) through which they attempt to identify unique character strengths. In keeping with the framework of positive psychology, the TTLP focuses on the unique qualities of an individual's character strengths without ignoring areas of development and growth.

Tall Trees Leadership Profile

The TTLP attempts to identify an individual's strengths on a social level, in the workplace or at school, and in life in general. The adult TTLP was administered to seven Grade 7 teachers before the workshop to enhance their learning experiences. Each teacher received a comprehensive report. The Grade 7 learners were also allowed to complete the TTLP for teenagers.

The TTLP is built on the following beliefs, which are embedded within the theoretical framework of positive psychology and correspond with asset-based principles (Brittz & Van Zyl, 2018):

• Every person is an intelligent design and uniquely created

• The design of a person is linked to a life purpose

• Relationship is an important growth challenge

• The realisation of each person's potential starts with knowledge of self and an understanding of others

• Every individual can be a leader if they use their gifts in the right area, at the right time, and in the right way

• Tall Trees profiles supply individuals with a rich variety of information which is very useful with regard to personal growth

• Respect and acceptance of individual uniqueness and differences can build bridges between people and cultures.

The Tall Trees framework was used to explore and describe how teachers became aware of learners' strengths and how to use character strengths as an asset-based approach to support learners in the classroom. The teachers attended a 3-hour workshop based on the TTLP.

 

Methodology

In this article we report on a study in which Grade 7 teachers' perceptions of the identification and use of character strengths as an approach to supporting learners in a mainstream classroom in South Africa were explored. A staff development workshop was conducted to achieve this aim and the TTLP was used to identify character strengths. The study was conducted over a period of approximately 18 months.

We used a qualitative research approach within an interpretive paradigm to meet the objectives and aim of the study. A phenomenological design was appropriate to elicit the teachers' lived experiences throughout the study.

The phenomenological qualitative study was embedded within a positive psychology framework. The PERMA model of well-being was used to describe and explain a strengths-based approach to education.

There is a lack of literature referring to training programmes for teachers in South Africa to implement asset-based principles in the classroom. Therefore, the purpose with this article was to address this gap in the literature by exploring teachers' perceptions of a staff development workshop to identify and use character strengths to support learners in a mainstream school.

Based on theory and previous research in the field of positive psychology, it was concluded that if teachers are empowered with knowledge about character strengths, they will be more willing to confidently implement asset-based principles for learner support.

Participants

The participants for this study were purposively pre-selected and included Grade 7 teachers in a mainstream primary school in Pretoria, South Africa, who were willing to commit to the research project. Grade 7 learners have more experience in the schooling system than younger grades. Grade 7 teachers are in the roles of guiding the learners towards high school, with exposure to important decisions like subject choices. Seven Grade 7 teachers agreed to attend training and share their experiences of the staff development workshop. The following criteria for the purposive sampling were taken into consideration:

• Teachers must teach Grade 7 learners.

• Teachers must be fluent in Afrikaans or English to allow for good communication and understanding of the workshop content and the individual interview questions that followed the workshop.

• The participating teachers must agree and commit to the research project willingly.

Data Collection and Procedures

Qualitative data were collected in two phases. Firstly, the seven Grade 7 teachers each completed a TTLPⁱ before attending a staff development workshop. The workshop equipped the teachers with knowledge about character strengths and introduced them to the possible use of character strengths as an asset-based approach to learner support. All the teachers completed a feedback form directly after the workshop to elicit their experiences of the staff development training.

The second phase of the data collection consisted of individual, face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with each teacher. Three of the interviews were conducted face-to-face at school while four interviews were conducted on the online platform, Zoom, because of the closure of schools due to coronavirus disease (COVID-19) regulations. The purpose of the interviews was to explore the teachers' experiences of the workshop and their perceptions of the identification and use of character strengths for learner support.

 

Key Findings

The results indicate that teachers found the staff development workshop beneficial and relevant to address the challenges that they experienced in the classroom regarding the support of learners' diverse needs. The teachers reported that the workshop enhanced their knowledge and insight into the character strengths of learners and changed their perceptions about inclusive education, diversity, and learner support.

Three themes and nine subthemes emerged through thematic content analysis: teacher empowerment, character strengths as a pillar of learner support, and character strengths in the classroom. The themes and subthemes are presented in Table 1. The three themes are described in detail.

 

 

Theme 1: Teacher Empowerment

The teachers experienced a sense of empowerment, growth, and professional development as educators by attending the workshop. They described the workshop as relevant in addressing matters about the challenges they faced, especially regarding support for learners' diverse needs. Teachers had not previously been aware of character strengths as a possible support tool in a mainstream classroom. New knowledge created deeper insight, understanding, and heightened awareness among teachers about how to support the different needs of learners from within an asset-based approach. This knowledge served as a frame of reference to better support learners.

Teachers mentioned that a deeper awareness of strengths reshaped their perceptions and views, especially regarding learner support, diversity, inclusive education, and the uniqueness of each learner. It became easier to allow learners to be who they are. Teachers could re-evaluate their perceptions and traditional methods of support to better accommodate learners' diversities.

Although teachers were well-informed of inclusive legislation, they voiced their feelings of inadequacy to support learners from an asset-based approach. The data indicate that, after the workshop, teachers viewed character strengths as having a prominent place within inclusive education. Teachers believed that the identification of character strengths could serve as a baseline to plan and implement inclusive pedagogies to enhance effective learning opportunities for all.

Theme 2: Character Strengths as a Pillar of Learner Support

A theme that became prominent from the data analysis was the viewpoint of teachers that character strengths may be a pillar or the foundation on which support for learners should be built. Teachers remarked that they could implement the character strengths of learners in various settings to provide holistic support to help learners reach their full potential. Teachers described holistic support as academic, emotional, behavioural, and social support. It also included the use of learners' strengths in cultural or sports activities. The findings suggest that if teachers knew the learners' strengths, support for each learner could be given accordingly and support strategies would be more effective. The teachers indicated that if they did not acknowledge character strengths, the efficacy of learner support might not be optimal.

The teachers felt that knowing a learner's strengths helped them to get to know learners better and to create a safe space for them to be themselves and to feel that they belonged. This conveyed a message that the teachers cared about the learners' general well-being and not only about academic performance. Teachers believed that knowledge about learners' strengths could improve teacher-learner relationships and that subsequently learners would be more positive about academic work and start to excel.

The teachers believed that learners might flourish when allowed to use their strengths and that this may increase positive emotions, increased engagement, positive relationships, meaning and achievement or feelings of accomplishment (PERMA). The teachers explained that learners would feel acknowledged and noticed and subsequently experience a sense of well-being.

The teachers believed that the identification of character strengths has the potential not only to empower them but also to help the learners to become aware of their own and their peers' strengths. This would enhance their knowledge of self and increase self-development.

Theme 3: Character Strengths in the Classroom

Teachers creatively implemented some character strength principles on their own without any assistance or guided intervention. This spontaneous reaction implied that teachers demonstrated an enthusiastic and positive attitude towards the implementation and incorporation of character strengths to support learners. Some of the changes the teachers implemented were:

• Restructuring lessons and learning opportunities to accommodate the individual strengths of learners.

• Easier and more successful implementation of inclusive pedagogies such as peer learning, differential instruction, and accommodation of learners' different learning styles.

• Identification and recognition of learners' character strengths and allowing learners to use these assets in areas not previously used.

• Restructuring seating arrangements to improve discipline.

• Knowledge about character strengths guided teachers to divide learners into groups for group work. They reported that it resulted in more effective group work and a more successful learning experience because learners were assigned positions that involved using their strengths.

• Teachers indicated that knowledge of character strengths gave them more insight into and compassion for the challenging behaviour of learners and that they could adapt their methods of support according to diverse needs.

The teachers described that even the smallest changes that they made with the knowledge they had acquired during the workshop enabled learners in various ways. They noticed that some learners were more confident, were motivated to complete tasks with diligence, showed an increase in participation in learning activities, and became more involved by asking questions. The atmosphere in the classroom was more positive and some learners appeared to have a better attitude toward the subjects. Some teachers specifically indicated an improvement in discipline. Principles based on character strengths were found to complement and support inclusive pedagogies in the classroom.

 

Discussion

The challenge in learner support in mainstream schools in South Africa is to focus less on a medical-deficit approach and to increasingly use learners' character strengths. To change teachers' perspectives, however, it is important to support and empower them with the necessary knowledge, skills, and practical tools to successfully implement asset-based learner support. With this article we report on teachers' perceptions of a staff development workshop about an asset-based approach to learner support, using the identification of character strengths for learner support. We indicate that there is a strong suggestion that educators and institutions can and should consider implementing the identification of character strengths as support for learners in mainstream schools. These findings, therefore, support research as described in the section, "Character Strengths", above.

Initially, the teachers were reluctant to take part in the research project. They mentioned that they were overworked and that there was no time to attend a staff development workshop. The teachers who willingly agreed to participate completed a TTLP to enhance their learning process. They found this tool to be easy to use, and the content of the workshop was easy to understand. The teachers displayed more enthusiasm and interest after the workshop. After the presentation they mentioned that they felt energised and positive about the possible use of character strengths as a tool to support learners in a mainstream school.

The workshop feedback forms and the individual interviews indicated that the teachers perceived the staff development process as positive, insightful, and empowering. They indicated that all schools in South Africa could benefit from a workshop about character strengths. The identification of character strengths and the use thereof can be successfully implemented as an asset-based intervention for learner support in a mainstream school.

It would be interesting to further explore the effects of the identification of character strengths and the implementation of asset-based principles in more South African mainstream schools. It would also be beneficial to explore the training and support that teachers receive regarding asset-based education and character strengths, in particular, as a strategy for learner support.

 

Conclusion

The literature and the findings of this research study agree that a need exists for teachers to attend effective and relevant workshops that address the challenges they face every day and equip them with the knowledge and skills to improve support strategies for all learners. The knowledge and implementation of character strengths as an asset-based approach to support is underutilised and teachers need to be trained on a regular basis. Management and governing bodies of schools are, therefore, encouraged to allocate funds for professional staff development workshops on character strengths as an asset-based approach to learner support, presented regularly by qualified and knowledgeable professionals.

Schools and school management may benefit from developing and adopting a culture of support based on character strengths. This will ensure that all the important role-players in learners' lives become actively involved members to promote asset-based support. It is suggested that interventions based on character strengths are implemented in mainstream schools in South Africa in support of the results of this study. The support of knowledgeable and qualified individuals can assist teachers to successfully implement asset-based principles in the classroom.

 

Authors' Contributions

The researcher (Eugenie Eloff), in collaboration with Dr Van der Merwe and Dr Karsten, compiled the article.

 

Notes

i. The Tall Trees questionnaire was administered to enhance the teachers' learning experience and to prepare them for the staff development workshop. The Tall Trees questionnaire is the property of Tall Trees and therefore not available for viewing. The questionnaire can be completed online. Visit https://www.talltreestraining.com/ for more information.

ii. This article is based on the master's thesis of Eugenie Eloff.

iii. Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence.

 

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Received: 22 August 2022
Revised: 11 April 2024
Accepted: 28 June 2024
Published: 31 August 2024