ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Mediating role of psychological capital in achievement goals' impact on vocational students' entrepreneurial readiness

 

 

Syarifah Farradinna^I; Wella Jayanti^II

^IDepartment of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru, Indonesia
^IIDepartment of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities, Binus University, Jakarta, Indonesia

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

ORIENTATION: Substantial investment in entrepreneurship education did not resolve the issue of only 50% of vocational graduates finding employment, highlighting the need to foster entrepreneurial pursuits
RESEARCH PURPOSE: To examine the impact of achievement goals on the entrepreneurial psychological readiness (EPR) of vocational high school students, as mediated by psychological capital in Pekanbaru, Indonesia
MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: This study involved 378 vocational high school students from all available vocational fields. Data were collected with the assistance of class teachers after completing administrative processes with the school
RESEARCH APPROACH/DESIGN AND METHOD: This research employs a quantitative methodology and is assisted by SEM-SmartPLS statistical analysis. The data collection instruments consist of four components: self-report, the Goal Measure-Revised (AGQ-R), 12 items; the PsyCap questionnaire (PCQ), 12 items and the EPR, 24 items. A two-step partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) approach was used to evaluate the measurement and structural models
MAIN FINDINGS: The relationship between achievement goals and entrepreneurship psychological readiness is completely mediated by psychological capital that this hypothesis indicates. We conclude that the relationship between achievement goals and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship through psychological capital shows a significant influence
PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: The study underscored the critical role of psychological capital in enhancing entrepreneurial readiness and suggested that balancing goal orientation with psychological well-being was essential for developing entrepreneurial potential among vocational students
CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This study underscores the importance of psychological capital in fostering entrepreneurial readiness, revealing its indispensable role in achieving entrepreneurial success

Keywords: achievement goals; entrepreneurship; psychological capital; psychological readiness; vocational students.

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Introduction

The decision-making process for a prospective business owner is complicated and multifaceted. Certain individuals harbour a disdain for entrepreneurs because of their exceptional flexibility and tendency for risk-taking. The Indonesian government has implemented entrepreneurship education across every phase of the educational system, with a particular emphasis on vocational education (Mutiaraningrum et al., 2024). Vocational education is designed to produce and educate competent people with specialised knowledge and skills that coincide with the expectations of the employed economy, enhance their capabilities and keep up with technological advancements (McGrath & Yamada, 2023). The Age of Society 5.0 follows, with a system that integrates the digital world and physical space and focuses on helping people strike a balance between identifying social issues and advancing economic development (Tavares et al., 2022).

Strengthening entrepreneurship education in vocational schools is one way to increase the number of novice entrepreneurs throughout Indonesia (Karyaningsih et al., 2020). This is in line with the government's concerns about the increasing number of unemployed among vocational school graduates in almost all regions of Indonesia. The proportion of unemployed vocational school graduates is the highest among those with equivalent education levels. However, only 50% of vocational school graduates are employed in the workforce, and only 1% - 2% decide to become entrepreneurs. Encouraging vocational students to become entrepreneurs is an important step in developing human resources and the economy in practice (Sun et al., 2022). Previous research explains that the psychological capital through the goal of achieving and the intention to become an entrepreneur has a significant positive relationship (Baluku et al., 2018).

Several strategies have been employed to encourage an early interest in entrepreneurial activity. One such technique involves helping develop business plans, engaging participants in periodic entrepreneurial events and providing access to a self-sufficient entrepreneurship programme (Astuty et al., 2022). Even the submission of business proposals for students and students is given financial support as business capital from the government and the private sector (Guerrero et al., 2020). In reality, running a business is not easy; individuals must be prepared and accept various entrepreneurship programmes, such as attending forums, seminars and conferences (Timotius, 2022). Governments and private institutions worldwide, one of which is Malaysia, have invested in and contributed to various entrepreneurship programmes so that students, especially in vocational schools, can take advantage of existing opportunities (Olugbola, 2017).

Several studies have documented the impact of goal attainment on forming entrepreneurial goals and behaviour (Baluku et al., 2018; Johnson, 1990). Entrepreneurs have a strong mastery orientation and are motivated by their psychological resources and abilities (Clercq et al., 2012; Coduras et al., 2016). However, the precise influence of psychological capital as to mediate the relationship between entrepreneurial readiness and objective achievement has yet to be investigated (Tang, 2020). The measure to which achievement goals and psychological capital influence entrepreneurial readiness remains to be investigated. Entrepreneurs who possess superior psychological capital demonstrate adaptability, resilience and a greater capacity to confront obstacles during the establishment or growth of their enterprises (Baluku et al., 2018).

In addition, psychological capital as a positive psychological state indicates that individuals have self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism as important factors in the entrepreneurial career decision-making process (Tsai et al., 2021). Finally, goal achievement and psychological capital need to be studied further, to predict psychological readiness for entrepreneurship. At the same time, this study investigates the effect of goal achievement on psychological readiness for entrepreneurship among vocational high school students mediated by psychological capital.

 

Literature review

Achievement of goals

The achievement goal theory is based on the first generation of Dweck's research (1986), which is defined as a self-regulatory commitment that directs individuals to respond to situations relevant to their competence. This definition was later developed by Elliot (1999) to understand achievement goals as competency assessments by focusing on standards that refer to task completion. Educational psychology-based achievement goal theory emphasises motivation and cognitive representation in driving competence in achievement (Pintrich et al., 2003; Urdan, 2010). Research in educational psychology has been conducted extensively, involving several psychological factors that influence the motivation and academic achievement of high school students (Beharu, 2018). The theoretical framework of achievement goals was then expanded to explain that there are other goal orientations that are equally important, namely environmental mastery goals and cooperative learning, to drive performance goals (Bruno et al., 2019).

Achievement goals are divided into two different goal orientations, namely mastery and performance goals. The solution focuses on task goals, which are meaningful mastery goals that enhance learning, competence and self-improvement. These goals are associated with positive outcomes, such as increased effort, persistence and proficiency in effective learning strategies (Guan et al., 2020; Pekrun et al., 2014). In contrast, performance goals focus on the potential that individuals have to achieve success (Pahljina-Reinić & Kolić-Vehovec, 2017). The mastery component is explained as being most strongly related to process and outcome because it is driven by interest, predicts deep learning strategies, shows positive emotions, is predominantly intrinsic motivation, is reciprocally oriented and exchanges information with others (Sommet & Elliot, 2016). Ultimately, the meaning of achievement goals includes the tendency to view achievement situations as behavioural responses to successful and unsuccessful task outcomes.

Entrepreneurship into vocational education

In the last decade, Indonesia has achieved considerable progress in the development and integration of entrepreneurship within vocational education. In recent years, Indonesia has experienced a 9.6% increase in early-stage entrepreneurial activity, indicating that an important portion of the population is engaged in the management of new enterprises (Adam et al., 2024). Indonesia's vocational education system receives education and training designed to prepare students to be directly involved in the world of work. Along with efforts to navigate the global economic landscape, the integration of entrepreneurship into vocational education plays an important role in building the country's economy through innovative and resilient entrepreneurs (Suharno et al., 2020). Entrepreneurship education in Indonesia is one of the investments in overcoming challenges by strengthening the entrepreneurial ecosystem by empowering a generation of entrepreneurs to drive economic growth and innovation (Hestiningtyas & Santosa, 2017; Widodo et al., 2024).

Psychological capital

Psychological capital, or PsyCap, is a new concept of positive psychology for defining behaviour in organisations that have begun to receive attention in recent years. PsyCap is a positive psychological state of an individual, characterised by the development of levels of hope, confidence, resilience and optimism (Dimino et al., 2020). Recently, psychological capital research has been associated with attributes and symptoms to study entrepreneurial success, focusing on psychological processes and factors of entrepreneurial success (Baron et al., 2016a; Newman et al., 2014).

Psychological capital is described as a positive psychological strength (Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017), which is considered a positive mindset such as entrepreneurship. The mindset of entrepreneurs is to learn from various sources and adapt to accepting social change and economic growth to achieve success (Baluku et al., 2018; Haynie et al., 2010). The construction of psychological capital based on the literature contains four components, namely hope, efficacy, resilience and optimism (HERO), which are important characteristics in determining entrepreneurial success (Dimino et al., 2020; Tang, 2020). The four key components are the core of the psychological capital theory, namely (1) hope, referring to the individual's positive motivation based on success in making choices; (2) efficacy, a positive belief in the ability to adapt and make decisions in completing tasks; (3) resilience, the individual's capacity to recover from difficulties, conflicts and frustrations quickly and finally (4) a positive perspective on profits (Dimino et al., 2020; Tang, 2020).

Entrepreneurship psychological readiness

Researchers examine various factors that influence success and failure in entrepreneurship, with psychological readiness emerging as a key attribute of successful entrepreneurs. The concept of psychological readiness for entrepreneurship involves the cognitive framework, decisions and competencies that individuals require to successfully deal with the unpredictable and evolving nature of entrepreneurship (Daddi et al., 2020; More & Rakibe, 2023; Yueh et al., 2020). Wang et al. (2022) emphasises that this concept focuses on the phase of personal inquiry in which individuals develop the necessary attitudes, intentions, beliefs and skills to become entrepreneurs.

Entrepreneurial psychology researchers have identified factors contributing to an individual's psychological readiness as an entrepreneur (Bockorny & Youssef-Morgan, 2019; Farradinna et al., 2023; Hisrich et al., 2007). A successful entrepreneur indicates leadership style, communication and the development of interpersonal relationships (Kerr et al., 2018; Hood & Young, 1993). Additionally, they possess the ability to innovate and be creative, develop an opportunistic mindset, maintain a vision for the future, and exhibit positive thinking (Mazla et al., 2020). While the personality characteristics shown such as high self-motivation, tending to dare to take risks, and applying deep ethical values are considered important for achieving success (Mayanja et al., 2019; Visser et al., 2005). Based on the aforementioned explanation, it explains that important implications for entrepreneurial psychology researchers are to identify psychological readiness factors that influence success as an entrepreneur. According to the literature outlined, psychological readiness for entrepreneurship is influenced by a variety of factors, including achievement goals and psychological capital.

Based on the conclusions of this analysis, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1: There is a significant positive relationship between the achievement of goals and the psychological readiness for entrepreneurship.

H2: The achievement of goals and psychological capital are significantly and positively related.

H3: Psychological capital and entrepreneurial psychological readiness (EPR) are significantly positively related.

H4: Psychological capital mediates the relationship between the achievement of goals and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship.

The illustration in Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework that describes the relationship between achievement goals, psychological capital and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship.

 

 

Methodology

This research used a quantitative methodological approach with an explanatory correlational scope, a cross-sectional cohort design and a nonexperimental design. Ethical considerations, including institutional permission issued by the programme administrators, validate the scale used by researchers while ensuring no elements of discrimination are present.

Participants and procedures

The research sample was taken from the population of vocational high school students in Riau Province, Indonesia. We collected data from a sample of 378 using a self-filled questionnaire. The students filled out a set of questionnaires given in Grade 10, Grade 11 and Grade 12; Table 1 presents data describing the demographic attributes of the participants. The first part of the questionnaire included questions about sociodemographics and confirmed that the respondents had previously taken and were currently enrolled in the entrepreneurship education course during that semester, which incorporated three measurement scales.

 

 

Measures

Goal Measure-Revised (AGQ-R) contains 12 items. This questionnaire was initially designed by Elliot and McGregor (2001) and later amended by Elliot and Murayama (2008). The AGQ-R scale consists of four dimensions, namely (1) mastery-approach goals (e.g. 'my goal is to learn as much as possible'), (2) mastery-avoidance goals (e.g. 'my goal is to avoid learning that is difficult for me to complete'), (3) performance-approach goals (e.g. 'my goal is to achieve better results than other people') and (4) performance-avoidance goals (e.g. 'my goal is to avoid doing worse things than other people do'). The measurement of psychological capital is conducted using the PsyCap questionnaire (PCQ) developed by Luthans et al. (2007); after being tested by Ephrem et al. (2021), the questionnaire consists of 12 items that assess entrepreneurship. It consists of four measurement dimensions of PCQ, namely hope (e.g. I can list the most important goals for my life in just a few minutes), efficacy (e.g. I can stand up to share my business ideas with others with confidence), resilience (e.g. I adapt quickly to the stress of my business) and optimism (e.g. I am optimistic about what will happen to me in the future) (HERO). Psychological readiness for entrepreneurship was measured using the EPR instrument (Faradinna et al., 2023) that contains 24 items with 5 dimensions, including personal knowledge (e.g. Getting the complete information before making a decision to open a business), passion achieved (e.g. I decide to act in this way because I want to), personal growth (e.g. I have the opportunity to develop myself), personal relationship with others (e.g. Be able to take actions that significantly affect other persons) and personal adversity (e.g. I maintain close relationships with people I care about). The items are measured using a five-point Likert scale, with 1 representing strong disagreement and 5 representing strong agreement.

Data analysis

The partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used because of the research's nature as there are nonobservable variables that will be measured by indicators and research background (Hair et al., 2011, 2014). The data analysis employed a second-order factor model. A second-order factor is a measurement model for multidimensional variables, where several dimensions assess the variables, and a set of measurement items evaluates these dimensions. The research model was estimated using a two-stage approach, stage one and stage two.

This research evaluates the measurement model and tests the structural model. The entire analysis is considered significant if the p-value shows < 0.05. The following criteria were used to evaluate the measurement model: factor loading, internal consistency measured (through alpha coefficient and composite reliability), convergent validity (through average variance extracted [AVE]) and discriminant validity (through the Fornell & Larcker, 1981 index). The criteria for evaluating the structural model are the statistical significance of the hypotheses and the total direct and indirect effects of its statistical significance.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from Universitas Islam Riau Faculty of Psychology Research Ethics Committee (ERC-2024/A-15).

 

Results

Stage one

In stage one, the focus is on evaluating the construct validity of higher-order variables. EPR is assessed through various dimensions, with each dimension measured by specific items (higher-order variables). The objectives of this stage include assessing convergent validity, construct validity and determining the latent variable scores (LVS) that will be used to represent the dimensions of entrepreneurship psychological readiness in stage two. Figure 2 depicts the factor loadings, where some items were dropped because of low factor loadings (< 0.6). This shows that the indicator has a reasonably strong relationship with the latent construct it represents (Hair et al., 2019).

We assessed the construct validity for entrepreneurship psychological readiness in stage one. Convergent validity was assessed by examining the loading factors, AVE and composite reliability in Table 2.

 

 

All the dimensions' loading factors are > 0.6. The AVE values meet the minimum threshold criteria of > 0.5. Cronbach's alpha values for all the dimensions are > 0.7. The composite reliability of a variable exceeds the threshold of 0.7.

Discriminant validity in this study refers to the level of a measurement model construct to ensure that specific construct indicators are more closely related to their construct than to other constructs (Henseler et al., 2015). Discriminant validity in stage one was evaluated as measured by Fornell and Larcker. If the AVE is set at 0.8 and the correlation with other constructs that can be supported is 0.6, Table 3 shows that the correlations between the variables are less than the AVE's square root in all cases, and the evaluation criterion (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) was met.

 

 

Stage two

Stage two aimed to determine the influence of the achievement goals, psychological capital and entrepreneurship psychological readiness through path analysis. Path analysis was conducted after assessing the first-order convergent validity.

Convergent validity was assessed by examining the loading factors, AVE and composite reliability in Table 4 for the stage two. Discriminant validity in stage two was evaluated as measured by Fornell and Larcker. Table 5 shows that the correlations between the variables are less than the AVE's square root in all cases, and the evaluation criterion (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) was met.

 

 

 

 

Stage two also involves evaluating the structural model through hypothesis testing, which includes latent scores for high-order variables and variables measured by their indicators in the first order. This is shown in Table 6:

 

 

H1: The significant effect was rejected on the relationship between achievement goals and entrepreneurship psychological readiness with a t-statistics of 0.826 (p = 0.409). Achievement goals have no significant relationship with psychological readiness for entrepreneurship.

H2: A significant effect was confirmed in the relationship between achievement goals and psychological capital, with a t-statistics of 19.953 (p = 0.000). This explains that achievement goals have a significant positive relationship with psychological capital.

H3: A significant effect was confirmed in the relationship between psychological capital and entrepreneurship psychological readiness with a t-statistics of 3.622 (p = 0.000). It means psychological capital and entrepreneurship psychological readiness are positively related.

H4: The significant effect shows a positive and significant mediation of psychological capital on the relationship between achievement goals and entrepreneurship psychological readiness with a t-statistics of 3.420 (p = 0.000). This hypothesis indicates that psychological capital fully mediates the relationship between achievement goals and EPR. The direct relationship between achievement goals and EPR was found to be insignificant, suggesting that achievement goals influence readiness only through psychological capital.

The mediation analysis reveals that the influence of achievement goals on EPR operates entirely through psychological capital, underscoring its role as a full mediator. Figure 3 illustrates the refined measurement model evaluated in the second stage of the analysis, providing a clear visualisation of these relationships.

 

Discussion

This study explains four hypotheses, outlining their development, purpose and the relationships they aim to test within the research framework. The main results of this study confirm that psychological capital fully mediates achievement goals with psychological readiness to become entrepreneurs in vocational high school students. The main results of this study indicate that psychological capital can be considered a complete mediator in the relationship between achievement goals and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship among students in vocational high schools. This suggests that achievement goals have an indirect influence on entrepreneurial readiness by supporting the development of psychological capital. This study's findings align with Olugbola's (2017:155) research on factors fostering entrepreneurial readiness in the younger generation. Entrepreneurial readiness refers to the attitudes and behaviours individuals indicate in managing decisions and adapting to change, which are essential for entrepreneurial success. This study found that enthusiasm, optimism, resource availability, individual psychological capital and opportunities significantly influence the development of a successful entrepreneurial mindset. These findings align with Sánchez (2013), who emphasised that entrepreneurial competencies, such as setting achievement goals and leveraging psychological capital, are key predictors of entrepreneurial readiness in dynamic environments. The primary hypothesis, supported by a t-value of 3.420 and a p-value of less than 0.05, demonstrates that the relationship between achievement goals and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship is fully mediated by psychological capital. This indicates that psychological capital plays a crucial role in translating achievement goals into entrepreneurial readiness, highlighting its significance in fostering entrepreneurial potential. In line with this, psychological capital - comprising self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism - plays a crucial role in shaping the thinking patterns of vocational students, influencing their psychological readiness, workability and entrepreneurial potential (Berg & Heidbrink, 2017).

The proposed hypothesis suggests that achievement goals and entrepreneurial readiness are not directly linked, indicating that achieving specific goals may only sometimes be essential for vocational students in preparing themselves for entrepreneurship. According to Santosa et al. (2020), integration of value-based education is more important to prepare for entering the workforce or entrepreneurship. To the best of our knowledge, meaningfulness in learning and competence are a series of positive outcomes in the goal achievement dimension indicating individual psychological readiness for entrepreneurship (Guan et al., 2020, pp. 115-124).

Entrepreneurship, which is increasingly popular from the perspective of vocational education, can create jobs through entrepreneurship. Research reveals that various dimensions of entrepreneurial success are inseparable from the topic of achievement goal (Fatoki, 2019; Johnson, 1990; Razmus & Laguna, 2018). Achievement is part of a difficult but important drive to aim for because it is related to an individual's ability to take risks, control themselves and make decisions (Širec & Močnik 2012, pp. 11-39). A study by Jähn and Geißler (2016) found that individuals with a strong drive to achieve goals tend to display more courage when faced with uncertainty and obstacles in entrepreneurship. However, the results of this study cannot be fully supported, as an excessive focus on achieving goals can lead to the development of weaknesses, such as an inability to adapt to changes in the environment, increased stress and the setting of unrealistic objectives (Baron et al., 2016b, pp. 55-71), and as a result, future researchers have to conduct some further research.

Entrepreneurship has recently been identified as an important driving force for economic growth and innovation, and vocational education provides a key role in developing an entrepreneurial mindset (Moloi et al., 2022; Urban, 2008). Research by Luthans and Yossef-Morgan (2017) shows that PsyCap positively correlates with motivation and goal achievement, especially in education and work. This means that PsyCap not only forms a positive mindset but also encourages the achievement of goals relevant to entrepreneurship. The present study has demonstrated that psychological capital is a significant and favourable predictor of achieving goals and the psychological readiness to engage in entrepreneurial activities. According to Contreras et al. (2017, pp. 8-80), psychological capital is an important factor in predicting entrepreneurial intention and performance. It is particularly successful in connecting the supply of training with the success of vocational students in entrepreneurship. The current study contributes specifically to examining how PsyCap interacts with the unique circumstances of vocational students. For example, students in technical or trade-specific fields may require tailored PsyCap interventions to align their practical skills with entrepreneurial aspirations (Baluku et al., 2018, pp. 5-42; Olugbola, 2017, p. 155; Zhang & Hu, 2013, pp. 1-5). This study investigates the role of psychological capital as a mediator in the relationship between goal achievement, psychological capital and psychological readiness to become entrepreneurs among vocational students.

In conclusion, we highlight the findings of this study that we feel are important to note, namely the interaction between the dimensions of achievement goals and psychological capital to be further investigated. While achievement goals directly affect psychological capital, psychological capital directly correlates with psychological readiness for entrepreneurship. However, the current study showed that psychological capital contributes to a mediating effect on the positive correlation between achieving goals and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship. The study's quantitative approach has specifically identified different aspects of psychological capital that contribute to achievement goals in vocational students and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship. This emphasises the important role of psychological capital in supporting an entrepreneurial mindset (refers to a set of attitudes, behaviours and ways of thinking that enable individuals to recognise opportunities, take initiative and create value in uncertain and dynamic environments), motivation and behaviour among vocational students.

 

Conclusion

Limitations and further research

The findings of this research provide implications for understanding the direct and indirect relationship of psychological capital in predicting the relationship between achievement goals and psychological readiness for entrepreneurship among vocational students. The results of the discussion of this study can be a basis for formulating strategies to increase the psychological readiness of vocational students in starting and running a business. However, this study also found various significant limitations for future researchers. The limitations of this study arise from the large population of vocational students across three different levels, distributed throughout various cities and districts in Riau Province, which may have resulted in uneven sampling. In addition, limitation of our data is its cross-sectional nature, which means it captures a single point in time, making it unable to account for potential changes or trends that may occur as the research progresses.

Future studies should strive to ensure that the sample size is truly representative of the vocational student population across the country despite the significant costs and logistical challenges associated with achieving such representativeness. This will enable them to describe their readiness for entrepreneurship following the training or lessons they have received. Future researchers may enhance their studies through applying a qualitative approach and utilising triangulation methods, which involve integrating multiple data sources or methods to attain more comprehensive and reliable findings.

The results we have presented include other unmeasured symptoms that may have more influence on students than the achievement goals and psychological capital explored in this study. Still, it needs to be further tested for different conditions that influence students, such as social support, family background or perhaps self-regulation. We believe this line of research can provide insight to several educational policymakers and schools in better identifying psychological capital to mediate the enthusiasm and motivation of students who have received entrepreneurship education to develop self-confidence and are ready to face challenges as young entrepreneurs.

 

Acknowledgements

The author has received assistance from supervisor Afdhal in the processing of data and in the translation of statistical analysis results. Additionally, Afdhal has supervised the author in the compilation of numerous statistical analyses that were conducted.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

S.F. is responsible for the concept, writing the original draft, conducting the research with W.J. project administration, managing resources, data accuracy and validation and final injection. W.J. was responsible for formulating the research method, organising the visualisation, collecting the data with S.F. and data accuracy.

Funding information

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, S.F., upon reasonable request. The research location's background and precision may prevent the release of data sets generated during the study to maintain anonymity.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Syarifah Farradinna
syarifah.farradinna@psy.uir.ac.id

Received: 27 Sept. 2024
Accepted: 12 Dec. 2024
Published: 20 Feb. 2025