Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

L.M.A.A. and R.A.A contributed to review and editing of the article. L.M.A.A. contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, data curation, and writing of the article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding information

This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU) (grant number IMSIU-RG23102).

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not available because of privacy issues.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

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Correspondence:
Laila Aladwey
laladawi@imamu.edu.sa

Received: 07 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 29 Mar. 2024
Published: 05 June 2024

 

 

1. See https://www.enicbcmed.eu/egypt-crective-project-highlights-significance-innovation-competitiveness-textile-leather-and and also see https://www.egytexfairs.com/why-egypt/
2. See https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Cotton%20and%20Products%20Annual_Cairo_Egypt_EG2023-0004.pdf
3. See https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/egypt-textile-manufacturing-industry-study-market
4. See https://www.egypt-business.com/companylist/details/2312-top10-textile-companies-in-egypt/426994
5. These interviews encompass the manager of the purchasing department (ginned cotton), head of the computer sector, head of the spinning sector, manager of spin 2 factory, head of the finishing sector, manager of the finishing factory (fabrics dying), manager of the finishing company (order accomplishment), head of the centralised control sector, quality control engineer rank one, production engineer rank one, the director in the packing department and two workers at spin 2 factory, along with two sales managers.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Analysing intermodal connectivity for the functionality of Namibia's regional logistics hub

 

 

Gloria M. Tshoopara; Thokozani P. Mbhele

School of Management, Information Technology and Governance, College of Law and Management Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: In today's interconnected global economy, logistics and supply chain management are pivotal in facilitating the movement of goods and services across regions. Supply chains have become increasingly complex, involving multiple stakeholders, diverse transportation modes, and intricate global networks. The efficient management of these supply chains has emerged as a critical determinant of competitiveness and economic growth for businesses and nations.
OBJECTIVES: The study aims to analyse the level of intermodal connectivity and how it enhances the functionality of a regional logistics hub using Namibia as a case study.
METHOD: The research study adopted a mixed-method design, collecting data through interviews, questionnaires, and documentary analysis to examine intermodal connectivity and its impact on the functionality of the Namibian regional logistics hub
RESULTS: The study's key findings reveal a fragmented railway system and a significant reliance on road transportation within the Namibian transport system. The level of intermodality is found to be low, indicating limited connectivity and integration between different modes of transport in Namibia.
CONCLUSION: The study highlights the need to address the fragmentation within the railway system, reduce the heavy reliance on road transportation, and improve intermodal connectivity to enhance the functionality and efficiency of the Namibian transport system
CONTRIBUTION: This research contributes to the existing knowledge of transportation and logistics hubs within the Namibian context. By exploring the role of intermodal connectivity, the study builds upon the theoretical frameworks of transport geography, logistics management, and infrastructure planning.

Keywords: intermodal connectivity; logistics hub; regional integrations; transport system; degree of centrality.

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Introduction

In a rapidly globalising world, where the efficient movement of goods and people lie at the heart of economic progress, the concept of a regional logistics hub has become increasingly significant. As nations strive to position themselves as pivotal nodes in the ever-expanding web of global trade, the quest to master intermodal connectivity takes centre stage (Savage et al. 2014). Among these aspiring contenders, Namibia emerges as a unique and compelling case study in the realm of logistics and supply chain management.

Namibia's strategic geographical location within the Southern African region makes it a pivotal crossroads for international trade (Petrus 2020). Its ambition to establish itself as a regional logistics hub, facilitating the seamless movement of goods and services within southern Africa and beyond, is a testament to the country's dedication to economic development and regional integration (Savage et al. 2014). This ambitious vision has, in turn, ignited a discourse surrounding the crucial role of intermodal connectivity in realising this dream.

This article embarks on critically examining the multifaceted and intricate world of intermodal connectivity, elucidating its importance in shaping the functionality of Namibia's logistics hub. In this pursuit, the study delves into the essence of the interplay between diverse modes of transportation within the Namibian context, including road, rail and air. Furthermore, dissecting the elements that hold together the logistics ecosystem reveals Namibia''s unique challenges, opportunities, and intricacies. In the context of Namibia, a country with strategic coastal access to the Atlantic Ocean and connections to various landlocked countries in the region, the role of intermodal connectivity becomes even more crucial. This article explores and analyses the role of intermodal connectivity in enhancing the functionality of Namibian regional logistics hubs, contributing to both the social and scientific understanding of this topic.

 

Conceptual framework

Developing a comprehensive conceptual model was the cornerstone of the study's analytical framework, enabling the researcher to dissect and understand the intricate dynamics within modern logistics ecosystems. The framework especially evaluated the ports and further extended the assessment of the various transportation modes, thus allowing to comprehensively address key facets that impact the efficiency and effectiveness of these hubs. The model's emphasis on intermodal connectivity, centrality, and accessibility fostered a deeper understanding of the factors underpinning their functionality within the broader transport network. The resulting insights will empower decision-makers and contribute significantly to the evolving field of transport and supply chain studies, shedding light on the critical role of logistics hubs in the modern global supply chain. In an era of complex logistics operations and globalised trade, this model plays a pivotal role in unravelling the dynamics that govern the efficiency and sustainability of logistics hubs within ports, paving the way for enhanced policy considerations and future research endeavours.

The conceptual framework of this study, as reflected in Figure 1, examines the interplay between intermodal connectivity and the functionality of Namibia's regional logistics hubs. This framework breaks down the broader concept of transport into its fundamental modal components: road, rail, and air transportation. Each mode is subdivided to account for specific attributes, capturing the critical elements crucial for investigating intermodal connectivity within Namibia's Regional Logistics Hub.

Establishing a resilient logistics hub necessitates integrating diverse transportation modes, fostering intermodal connectivity for seamless goods and passenger transfer (Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack 2013). This integration includes railway systems, road transportation, air travel, and access to ports, creating a holistic infrastructure. The nexus between railway networks and roads involves trucks facilitating the transfer of goods and passengers. Well-maintained road infrastructure complements this, featuring pavements, bridges, tunnels, and interchanges. Air transportation involves freighters, unmanned aerial vehicles, and regional cargo aircraft, supported by airport infrastructure such as runways, taxiways, terminals, and control towers (Kalić, Dožić & Babić 2022). Ports, serving as gateways to the sea, enhance global supply chains with efficient and well-connected facilities (Notteboom & Rodrigue 2022).

This holistic integration and infrastructure consolidation underpins intermodal connectivity, amplifying supply chain efficacy, reducing transit times, optimising cost structures, and providing necessary flexibility. Network metrics, such as degree centrality, betweenness centrality, degree of accessibility, and network density, are crucial for evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of this intermodal logistics network (Ezaki, Imura & Nishinari 2023). These metrics assess interconnectedness, identify critical hubs, and ensure overall network robustness.

Accessibility, defined as the degree to which transport networks and land use facilitate reach to specific destinations or economic activities via various transport modes (Albacete 2017; Rodrigue 2020), is a critical factor in infrastructure development and regional growth. Accessibility involves location importance and distance measured through connectivity, emphasising its significance in transportation activities (Rodrigue 2020). Improved accessibility benefits both transport users and operators, offering time savings and economic advantages (Pukhova et al. 2021; Rothfeld et al. 2019).

The study delves into multifaceted aspects of intermodal connectivity, encompassing road networks, railway systems, ports, and airports. It evaluates their seamless integration within logistics hubs, considering connectivity and accessibility to vital regional and international trade routes. This investigation aims to gain insights into intermodal connectivity's influence on supply chain efficiency, transit times, cost optimisation, and capacity to manage increased trade volumes.

The 'objectives of the study are twofold: firstly, to assess current intermodal connectivity within Namibian regional logistics hubs, and secondly, to analyse the impact of intermodal connectivity and accessibility on hub functionality. By achieving these objectives, the research provides practical insights and recommendations for policymakers and industry stakeholders to enhance intermodal connectivity, strengthening the overall performance of regional logistics hubs in Namibia.

 

Theoretical framework

This study is grounded in transport network analysis theory, particularly graph theory, viewing transportation systems as interconnected networks of nodes and links. Network analysis, as highlighted by Arora, Islamia and Pandey (2020), focusses on solving routing issues related to traversability, flow rate, and network connectivity. Graph theory, simplified into sub-graphs, edges, and vertices by Dayalan (2020), is instrumental in describing the spatial structure of transportation networks for geographers and transport planners.

The study simplifies the transport network into links (road and rail, excluding junctions) and nodes (junctions or marshalling yards for rail). The network's accessibility, centrality, and connectivity is measured by applying graph theory indices such as beta, alpha, gamma, diameter, pie, eta, and theta, thus analysing its impact on Namibia's logistics hub realisation.

Namibia's transport system assessment, employing network analysis theory, identifies critical nodes and connectivity patterns through centrality measures such as degree, betweenness, and closeness centrality. Challenges in major transport hubs align with centrality issues, highlighting their significance. Connectivity measures, particularly density, highlight regions with limited links, corresponding to accessibility challenges. Vulnerability analysis pinpoints areas susceptible to disruptions, emphasising threats to resilience. Network theory provides a valuable framework for analysing complex relationships within intermodal transportation systems. This approach offers a nuanced understanding of interdependencies and potential vulnerabilities in Namibia's logistics network, therefore contributing to informed decision-making and strategic planning for enhanced intermodal connectivity.

Recommendations for rail and air network improvements directly address redundancy challenges and reflect the optimistic and well-structured approach of network theory in analysing intermodal connectivity. However, precision in models derived from network theory relies on data quality and availability. While promising for comprehending intermodal connectivity, the precision of results hinges on the reliability and accessibility of the data used in the modelling process.

In the context of Namibia, a critical gateway to Southern African countries, network analysis theory must prioritise cross-border connectivity. This involves explicit evaluation of regional collaborations, trade agreements, and transport links' effectiveness to address complex geopolitical and economic dynamics. A comprehensive understanding, guided by network analysis, forms the basis for targeted, data-driven interventions to enhance efficiency and resilience.

Additionally, network analysis theory is instrumental in assessing intermodal connectivity for Namibia's Regional Logistics Hub, providing insights into efficiency and functionality. The recommended comprehensive, multimodal approach aligns with identified centrality issues, emphasising the need for road, rail, and air infrastructure enhancements to address specific study outcomes, such as reduced transportation bottlenecks, improved supply chain reliability, and increased economic productivity (Bell & Lida 2014)

 

Literature review

In the dynamic realm of global trade, logistics hubs' efficacy rests on robust intermodal connectivity (McKinnon 2015), underscoring the crucial nature of seamless interconnectivity within a logistics hub. This study examines the intricate web of transportation modes shaping Namibia's Regional Logistics Hub, by evaluating the multifaceted dimensions influencing intermodal functionality. The seamless integration of road, rail, air, and maritime networks emerges as a central element for logistical efficiency and economic competitiveness. Measured through alpha index, connectivity is crucial, while beta index assesses accessibility, emphasising smooth logistic network entry. Gamma index evaluates centrality, providing insights into critical elements for hub efficiency. By drawing on the authoritative work of Reis and Macário (2019) this structured approach ensures a comprehensive examination of intermodal dynamics within the logistics hub. As the study delves into the intricacies of intermodal connectivity, the analysis is grounded in influential studies by Rodrigue et al. (2013) on transport geography, Lowe (2006) on intermodal freight transportation, and with insights from key author McKinnon (2015), who has made significant contributions to the understanding of logistics hub dynamics. This research contributes a detailed perspective to the field, shedding light on the pivotal role of interconnected transport modes in advancing Namibia's prominence as a regional logistics hub.

 

Types of transport connectivity

Intermodal connectivity

Intermodal connectivity, as defined by Rodrigue (2020), integrates various transportation modes for efficient networks. As highlighted by Zhao, Zhu and Wang (2020), it stimulates long-term growth, reduces transport costs, and enhances supply chain efficiency.

Namibia's logistics hubs, underscored by Savage et al. (2014), facilitate effective transportation solutions by connecting landlocked nations to ports and promoting regional trade. Collaborative efforts and improved intermodal connectivity are vital for success. Intermodal connectivity, as observed by Abdallah, Alfar and Alhyari (2021), optimises processes, increases customer satisfaction, fosters supply chain reliability, and improves centrality within transportation networks (Muller 2016).

Integration of transportation modes, supported by Setiawan, Susilo and Setyadi (2022), boosts operational effectiveness, reduces costs, supports sustainability, and fosters regional trade. However, Namibia faces challenges in infrastructure, particularly in road and rail systems, hindering accessibility and connectivity (Saruchera 2020). To address these issues and enhance the transportation network's centrality, investment in infrastructure development, maintenance, and expansion is crucial (Petrus & Krygsman 2021), ensuring smooth multipurpose activities and overall connectivity in Namibia.

Infrastructure connectivity

Road

Road transportation in Southern Africa plays a pivotal role in fostering accessibility for passenger and freight movement, granting spatial flexibility and accommodating a wide range of purposes, spanning from short-distance shipments to door-to-door distribution. To further enhance the centrality and connectivity of the region's transport networks, concerted efforts are required to address persistent challenges, including fragmented national planning, road infrastructure maintenance, and border congestion alleviation. Solutions proposed in the academic literature include privatisation guided by economic viability and institutional restructuring in alignment with the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol (Engström 2016; Habiyaremye 2020; Monyepao 2015; Rodrigue 2020).

Moreover, as the region anticipates a surge in traffic, the imperative of transport demand management takes on added significance, as it can enhance both accessibility to critical destinations and the overall connectivity of transportation systems. The integration of modern technology into border processes, as highlighted by Joseph (2023) and Tralac (2021), holds the potential to streamline operations, reduce congestion, and foster more efficient centrality within the network. Namibia has set its sights on implementing key road projects to improve the connectivity and infrastructure of its transportation system, as reported by the Roads Authority (2022). By embracing these strategies and innovations, Southern Africa can embark on a transformative journey towards more efficient, accessible, and integrated road transportation systems, reinforcing the centrality of the region's vital transportation networks.

Rail

A comprehensive railway network in Southern Africa is crucial for a safe, efficient, eco-friendly transport solution bridging urban and rural areas (Rodrigue 2020). The prevailing emphasis on resource transportation by the railways in the Southern African region has posed a challenge to regional integration. This is because of the dominance of trucks in the freight market, while the railway systems are not being fully utilised. The underutilisation of railways, coupled with the dominance of trucks in transporting resources hampers the cohesive integration of transportation networks within the region (Avogadro et al. 2021; Lesmin et al. 2017). Challenges in rail infrastructure investment have led to road traffic congestion, environmental concerns, and inefficiencies as road transport has become the preferred choice (Saruchera 2017). To overcome these challenges, the development of integrated logistics hubs (Zeng et al. 2020) and strategic interventions to enhance railway speed, reliability, and interoperability are required (Oumarou 2015). Governments must transition from subsidies to strategic participation, as demonstrated by South Africa's Spoornet (TransNamib case 2023). Innovations emphasising government-driven regulatory improvements and investments in privatisation of railway sector independence are crucial (TransNamib case 2023). In addition, an intermodal approach to supply chain management can offer economic benefits (TransNamib 2022), with proper rail connectivity to ports boosting economic development and capacity growth while reducing urban congestion (TransNamib 2022). In Namibia, TransNamib's 'Road to Rail strategy' aims to shift freight traffic from roads to railways, but modernisation and legal constraints pose challenges (TransNamib 2022). Realising the full potential of the railway sector necessitates addressing historical inadequacies, encouraging strategic government involvement, and repositioning rail transport as a preferred land transportation mode, ultimately leading to a more interconnected and prosperous Africa.

Air

Air transport is vital for global economic integration and regional connectivity, which prompts policymakers worldwide to prioritise airport construction and expansion to support economic progress (Gibbons & Wu, 2017). Airports have evolved into pivotal components of regional transportation policies, facilitating opportunities in an era of globalisation and trade openness (Elburz, Nijkamp & Pels 2020). Regional development policies must recognise the importance of addressing aviation-related concerns and promoting economic competitiveness and social cohesion, particularly in remote areas (Dimitrios & Maria 2018). Critical policy considerations encompass issues such as infrastructure, dependency, airport governance, regulation, and air traffic control frameworks (Adler et al. 2020). Thus, a regional developmental policy perspective is imperative in evaluating the readiness of air transport systems to serve as logistics hubs.

 

Functional logistics hub

Supply chain efficiency, as emphasised by Kashem et al. (2023), is essential for streamlined operations, reduced delays, and minimal disruptions. A robust multimodal network enhances coordination among transportation modes by reducing bottlenecks and improving overall performance. In Namibia, the logistics hub is a cornerstone for trade advancement and economic growth (Walvis Bay Corridor Group 2016). Assessing its progress involves considering factors such as supply chain productivity, transit times, cost minimisation, and the capacity to handle growing trade volumes (ed. Ford 2010).

Establishing a thriving logistics hub in Namibia ensures streamlined supply chains, shorter travel times, lower costs, and the ability to meet increasing trade demands, enhancing competitiveness, attracting investment, and promoting sustainable economic development.

Transit time, a critical indicator of logistics hub functionality, encompasses handling, processing, and transportation durations (McKinnon 2015). Effective multimodal connectivity significantly reduces travel times by facilitating interconnections between transportation modes, minimising wait times, and improving overall coordination. Cost optimisation is vital, which impacts trade competitiveness and economic activities. It involves reducing unnecessary detours by establishing efficient transportation routes, and minimising expenses through effective intermodal connectivity (ed. Ford 2010).

Intermodal connectivity is crucial to enhancing the capacity of regional logistics hubs in Namibia. A multimodal network expands logistics centres' capabilities and improves operational flexibility and readiness. This enables them to respond promptly and efficiently to changing trade demands by seamlessly integrating different transportation modes, ensuring successful management of increased trade flows, enhancing operational efficiency, and reducing congestion.

Establishing an efficient multimodal network, optimising transit times and costs, and enhancing intermodal connectivity are vital for achieving supply chain efficiency and maximising the potential of logistics hubs in Namibia. These measures will facilitate economic growth, attract investment, and support sustainable development in the country.

Globally, logistics hubs play a critical role in facilitating the movement of goods (Verschuur, Koks & Hall 2022). Prominent examples include Singapore, Shanghai, and Rotterdam, while in Africa, Durban is a key player (Dewiatena & Bahagia 2023). Singapore's strategic location and world-class infrastructure make it a preferred choice for businesses, handling approximately 36.9 million Twenty-foot Equivalent Units (TEUs) of container traffic in 2020 (Yap 2023). Shanghai, the world's busiest container port, benefits from proximity to China's manufacturing centres, handling around 43.5m TEUs in 2020 (Nesse 2023). Rotterdam serves as a multimodal logistics hub, handling approximately 14.8m TEUs in 2020 (Banu 2022).

In Africa, Durban has emerged as a vital logistics hub, being the largest container port in Southern Africa (Mthembu & Chasomeris 2023). The Port of Mombasa in Kenya and the Port of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania are powerhouses in East Africa, overseeing substantial cargo movements in 2020 (Dooms & Muganga 2022; World Bank 2023). In contrast, the Port of Walvis Bay in Namibia, while growing, managed modest statistics in the same year (Namport 2020). The ability to seamlessly switch between different transport modes is crucial for Durban's prominence.

These logistics hubs collectively underscore the importance of strategic location, state-of-the-art infrastructure, connectivity, and the crucial role of multimodal transportation in shaping the global logistics landscape.

Measures of transport connectivity

Transport connectivity is crucial in various aspects, including trade, economic growth, regional integration, social accessibility, and sustainable development (Rodrigue 2020). It catalyses the efficient movement of people, goods, and information by enhancing market access, social inclusion, and resilience and promoting economic and environmental sustainability (Chakwizira 2022). Namibia predominantly relies on road and rail transportation as its primary modes of transport. In terms of air transport, the challenges, including the cessation of Air Namibia operations and the broader disruptions caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, pose significant risks to the success of the logistics hub. These issues introduce uncertainties in air connectivity, thus potentially impacting the hub's accessibility and operational efficiency. Hence, the measures of transport connectivity have primarily concentrated on road and rail transportation.

The beta (β) index (Equation 1), which measures the level of connectivity in a network, is determined by the ratio of the number of links (e) to the number of nodes (n) (v). A higher β value from 0 to 1 indicates a more interconnected and efficient transport network. Networks with a value of 1 have one cycle and one connection, while complex networks have a value greater than 1. In networks with a constant number of nodes, more links create more alternative paths, leading to greater network connectedness in general (Equation 1: Beta Index formula [Rodrigue 2020]):

The gamma index (road and rail network)

The gamma (γ) index (Equation 2) calculates the ratio of the actual number of edges to the maximum possible number of edges in a network. In the case of a planar graph, this index can be computed as the number of actual links divided by the maximum number of links. It is vital to compare the structures of different networks, such as Namibia's road and rail network structures. The γ index ranges from 0 to 1 and can provide valuable insights into the accessibility and connectivity of a network. The study conducted in the context of this discussion utilised the γ index to measure the accessibility and connectivity of the rail and road networks, as shown in Figure 5. This analysis's results help to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of these networks in facilitating transportation, which is denoted by the formula in Equation 2: Gamma Index formula (Rodrigue 2020):

The alpha index (road and rail network)

The alpha (α) index is an essential connectivity index used to evaluate the structure of a network. It is defined as the ratio of the actual number of circuits in the network to the maximum number of circuits possible (Chou 1999). A circuit refers to a loop within the network composed of nodes and links. This index allows for comparing different networks based on their connectivity levels by assessing the network topology regarding the number of paths between nodes. The calculation of the α index in a planar graph, as shown in Equation 3, produces a value ranging between 0 and 1 and it's denoted by the formula in Equation 3: Alpha index formula (Rodrigue 2020):

Degree centrality

The significance of intermodal connectivity in regional logistics hubs has been the subject of extensive academic research that has considered various dimensions such as degree centrality, betweenness centrality, and network density (Van Klink 2018). According to Liu, Xie and Lyu (2023), the concept of degree centrality is crucial in determining the degree of intermodal connectivity within these hubs.

A degree centrality metric measures how many connections or links a transportation node has within the logistics hub network. As stated by Zhang and Luo (2017), a transportation node with a higher degree of centrality has a greater number of connections that facilitates the smooth transportation of goods and services and enhances its integration into the more extensive logistics network. For effective intermodal operations to be carried out, the logistics hub must incorporate road, rail, and maritime transportation modes. Munim and Schramm (2018) conducted a study that found that transportation nodes with a high degree of centrality have better accessibility, a greater flow of goods, and shorter transit times. The ability of highly interconnected nodes to effectively allocate and centralise shipments across various transportation modes, optimising the hub network's overall logistics operations, is the source of the advantages mentioned earlier.

In addition, shippers, carriers, and service providers all benefit significantly from a high level of centrality when it comes to fostering productive collaboration and coordination among the various stakeholders involved in logistics. As per Bahadur (2017), it cultivates the foundation of joint efforts and connections that work with the usage of aggregate assets, trade of information, and upgrade of functional adequacy. By facilitating the smooth transfer of cargo across various modes of transportation and fostering collaboration among multiple stakeholders, intermodal connectivity contributes significantly to supply chains' resilience and responsiveness.

However, some challenges must be overcome to achieve and maintain a high degree of centrality. One of the chief hindrances lies in the foundation of an adequate framework to maintain multipurpose tasks and empower a consistent network (Ensermu 2018). According to Saruchera (2020), Namibia's inadequate road and rail infrastructure makes it difficult to establish effective intermodal connectivity. Investing in infrastructure development, such as expanding and maintaining transportation networks, is essential to meet this challenge and increase the centrality of transportation nodes.

The potential for improving transportation productivity and infrastructural development through multipurpose availability in Namibia is enormous. The country's unique geographical and demographic characteristics and the absence of robust road and rail networks present obstacles that necessitate targeted infrastructure development investments. In order to align stakeholders' interests, facilitate resource sharing, and develop comprehensive strategies to enhance intermodal connectivity, it is also essential to encourage collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders. Namibia has the potential to effectively utilise the benefits of intermodal connectivity, increase the resilience of its logistics hub network, and promote the achievement of sustainable economic growth by successfully overcoming these obstacles. This contribution emphasises the significance of focussed infrastructure investments and stakeholder collaboration efforts for Namibia to achieve effective intermodal connectivity.

Betweenness centrality

Betweenness centrality measures the degree to which a transportation node serves as a bridge or intermediary between other nodes, and this is crucial in logistics hub networks (Rodrique 2020). This measurement is instrumental in working with the productive development of merchandise inside such organisations. Wu et al. (2022) highlight that nodes with a high degree of betweenness centrality are strategically placed to make it easier for goods to move between different routes and modes of transportation. The overall connectivity is improved and transit times are cut down as a result. Zhang and Luo (2017) state that these nodes help to improve accessibility, optimise distribution, and consolidate goods within the logistics hub network. As a result, supply chain responsiveness and efficiency are enhanced. Advanced technology solutions such as real-time data sharing and predictive analytics, in conjunction with investments in infrastructure like intermodal terminals and transhipment facilities, can improve betweenness centrality and optimise the function of transportation nodes as intermediaries (Rodrigue 2020).

The challenges posed by Namibia's limited and underdeveloped infrastructure, particularly in the road and rail networks, impede the country's pursuit of optimal betweenness centrality and intermodal connectivity. Inadequate infrastructure makes it difficult to strategically position transportation nodes and make it easier for goods to be transferred between various routes and modes of transportation effectively. Focussed investments in infrastructure development and novel strategies considering the country's distinct demographic and geographic characteristics are vital to overcoming these obstacles.

Network density

Another measure of intermodal connectivity is network density, which measures how interconnected transportation nodes are in the logistics hub network (Forslund 2022). A greater level of integration and coordination is indicated by a higher density of networks, which makes it possible for stakeholders in logistics operations to collaborate and share resources effectively. Network density is an essential indicator of the degree of collaboration and interconnection among transportation nodes in the logistics hub network in Namibia. By encouraging a higher network density, Namibia can encourage improved integration and coordination among stakeholders involved in logistics operations (Eva 2016). This, in turn, makes it easier to work together effectively, share resources, and form strategic partnerships, all of which improve intermodal connectivity throughout the nation. Namibia has the potential to develop a logistics ecosystem in which stakeholders collaborate seamlessly, optimise resources, and fuel economic expansion by concentrating on increasing network density.

Weber (2016) conducted an empirical study that examined topological network connectivity measures and their application in the United States' (US) urban freeway networks. The study primarily focussed on the effectiveness of the γ measure as an indicator of network connectivity. While γ was found to be proficient in gauging the level of connectivity within a network, the research also unveiled a limited correlation between γ and freeway structure. This observation suggested a potential weakness in utilising γ as a measure of connectivity within urban freeway networks. In contrast, the α measure emerged as a valuable tool, offering fundamental insights into network connectivity and complexity. However, the study did not explicitly outline any limitations associated with α within the given abstract and context.

The research on road network connectivity and accessibility in less accessible airport regions in India, by Sharma and Ram (2023), conducted a comprehensive analysis leveraging the α, β, and γ indices. These measures played a pivotal role in evaluating transport network connectivity and identifying structural variations. Notably, the research did not specify any weaknesses in its methodology or findings.

In a study focussing on the global air transport complex network, Guo et al. (2019) conducted an analysis that examined the robustness and intricacies of the global air transport network. This examination employed the α, β, and γ indices to gain insights into the network's structural stability and complexity. These indices proved to be valuable tools for detecting shifts within the network structure, particularly in system and traffic analyses. However, the study found a limitation with the α index, which does not account for the number of potential paths in the network, potentially affecting the comprehensiveness of the findings.

Finally, the study conducted by Gankhuyag, Myagmarsuren and Altankhuyag (2021) on the spatial analysis of Mongolia's road network underscored the strengths of the α, β, and γ indices in system and traffic analyses. The βindex was particularly instrumental in assessing road connectivity levels, while the αindex provided insights into network connectivity and complexity. Nevertheless, a limitation became apparent in the αindex, which did not consider the number of feasible paths in the network, potentially affecting the overall comprehensiveness of the study's findings.

Literature gap

The impact of intermodal connectivity on the operation of Namibia's regional logistics hubs has been the subject of research in the literature. However, there are still some voids that require filling in. Firstly, there is a pressing need to investigate the particular difficulties and obstacles that stand in the way of effective intermodal connectivity in Namibia, such as the deficient road and rail infrastructure (Savage et al. 2013). Policymakers and stakeholders will benefit significantly from gaining an understanding of these obstacles to develop specific plans for infrastructure development (Forslund 2022). Secondly, the literature emphasises the advantages of intermodal connectivity in terms of capacity handling, cost optimisation, transit times, and supply chain efficiency (Edward 2021). According to Forslund (2022), there is a need to delve further into the commonsense procedures and best practices for accomplishing these results. Savage et al. (2013) found that Namibia could benefit from learning from successful case studies and examining the actions to enhance intermodal connectivity in other countries or regions.

For creating a collaborative ecosystem that supports intermodal connectivity and enhances the functionality of logistics hubs in Namibia, it will be helpful to examine successful collaboration models, identify key stakeholders, and comprehend the incentives and barriers to collaboration.

In summary, the literature emphasises the significance of intermodal connectivity in enhancing the functionality of regional logistics hubs in Namibia. It highlights the benefits of intermodal connectivity, including improved supply chain efficiency, reduced transit times, cost optimisation, and increased capacity to handle growing trade volumes. However, several gaps need to be addressed, such as understanding the challenges related to infrastructure development, identifying practical strategies, exploring the role of technology, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders. By addressing these gaps, policymakers and stakeholders can make informed decisions and develop comprehensive strategies to enhance intermodal connectivity, strengthen logistics hubs, and drive economic growth in Namibia.

 

Research methodology

The research study adopted a pragmatic philosophy, allowing for a mixed-method design that combined quantitative and qualitative methods. Data were collected simultaneously, allowing the researcher to employ any necessary technique at each study stage.

Study site

The study site for this research is Walvis Bay, in the Erongo region in Namibia, as it hosts the logistics hub and is, therefore, central for all stakeholders.

Namibia, with a vast land area of approximately 825 418 sq km, ranks among the largest countries in Africa. Notably, despite its expansive territory, Namibia's population of around 2.5m people as of 2020, with a population density of approximately 3 people per square kilometre, underscores the low population density characteristic of the country. This demographic feature further highlights the vast and sparsely populated nature of Namibia. In terms of transportation infrastructure, Namibia faces notable challenges in establishing efficient road and rail networks because of its vast size and low population density. The road network comprises around 45 000 km of paved roads and over 34 000 km of unpaved roads, while the country operates approximately 2382 km of rail lines (Saruchera 2017).

These infrastructure limitations, combined with the country's geographical expanse, contribute to the complexities associated with enhancing transport connectivity and accessibility in Namibia (World Bank 2020). Namibia's transport connectivity and accessibility can be compared to South Africa, its neighbouring SADC country with a highly developed transport network. In 2020, the Port of Walvis Bay in Namibia handled approximately 1 005 000 TEUs of containers, showcasing its significance as a regional transportation hub (Namport 2020). In contrast, Port of Durban, one of South Africa's major seaport, managed over 2.7m TEUs of containers and more than 81m tonnes of cargo in the same year, highlighting its substantial capacity and connectivity (Mthembu & Chasomeris 2023).

South Africa maintains an extensive road network with over 750 000 km of roads, a substantial portion of which is paved, facilitating efficient transport across the country (Road Traffic Management Corporation 2021). Namibia's road network comprises around 45 000 km of paved and over 34 000 km of unpaved roads, which presents challenges for access and interconnectivity, especially in more remote areas (RA 2020). While Namibia is actively working on improving its transport infrastructure, South Africa's well-established and extensive network provides it with a more advanced level of transport connectivity and accessibility. This comparison underscores the significant disparities in transport infrastructure development between the two neighbouring SADC countries.

The map in Figure 2 provides an overview of Namibia's extensive transport corridor networks, encompassing railways, town selection, ports, the coastline, and trunk road corridors. Notably, the map highlights the significant connectivity of the Walvis Bay port, facilitated by both road and rail transportation modes, thus promoting intermodal accessibility. Furthermore, the Walvis Bay port is intricately linked to all five major transportation corridors: Trans-Kalahari, Trans-Caprivi, Trans-Kunene, Windhoek-Luanda, and Trans-Oranje corridors. These corridors establish vital connections with neighbouring countries, including Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, and South Africa, underlining the port's role as a pivotal regional hub.

The map underscores the selective distribution of rail infrastructure within Namibia, with conspicuous missing links in specific regions. Notably, the country's rail network exhibits limited interconnectivity with neighbouring nations such as Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In contrast, the railway system within Namibia primarily establishes connections with Angola and South Africa but lacks compatibility with the broader regional railway network. As depicted in Figure 2, the railway tracks predominantly traverse central regions, driven by historical military considerations, resulting in inadequate linkages within Namibia and neighbouring countries.

The study population, drawn from the Walvis Bay port stakeholders list provided by Namport in 2020, included 745 port users. To account for the diverse sectors represented in this study, a combination of probability and non-probability sampling strategies was employed. Recognising the multisector nature of the study, it utilised a stratified sampling approach, which involved categorising the research population into distinct strata corresponding to various sectors, including regulatory customs and border control, direct stakeholders, freight forwarders, trucking companies, and vessel agents. Subsequently, the researcher used convenience sampling by individually selecting participants within strata based on availability or convenience. The study used Cochran's formula to calculate the sample size. Hence, the study sample size was determined to be 384 (Equation 4: Cochran's formula [Sekaran & Bougie 2016]):

Where:

• Z = 1.96²

• e is the desired level of precision of 0.05²

• p is the (estimated) proportion of the population, which has the attribute in the question of 0.5

• q is 1 - p or 1-0.5

Sample size calculations:

nₒ = 1.96² × 0.5 × (1-0.5)

0.05²

nₒ = 384

The data collection tools utilised in this study, namely documentary analysis, semi-structured interviews, and a validated questionnaire, were selected to effectively capture and assess the role of intermodal connectivity in enhancing the functionality of the Namibian regional logistics hub. Cronbach's alpha and the sample adequacy test were utilised to assess the study's reliability, revealing a Cronbach alpha value ranging from 0.706 to 0.875 and a significant Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test value of 0.908 (p < 0.001).

The study's validity was established through multiple means: (1) Content validity was ensured by reviewing pertinent literature to identify relevant variables and constructs. (2) Criterion validity was achieved by analysing comparable studies, considering their strengths and limitations, and adopting a mixed-method approach. (3) Confirmatory validity was achieved by comparing the study's findings with existing cases, which confirmed the alignment of strategies for establishing Namibia as a logistics hub with established characteristics.

The study adopted a comprehensive approach to analyse the collected data, encompassing a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Qualitative techniques, such as thematic analysis, were applied to scrutinise documentary sources and conduct semi-structured interviews. Complementary to the qualitative approaches, quantitative analysis involved the use of descriptive statistics and inferential methods. The inferential analysis employed analysis of variance (ANOVA) to discern variations in cargo volumes across distinct modes of transportation. In addition, descriptive statistical measures, including α, β, and γ indices, were employed to assess the extent of network connectivity, particularly within the domains of road and rail transport. This comprehensive analytical framework laid the groundwork for the investigation and elucidation of transportation dynamics and network performance within the research scope. Furthermore, this all-encompassing approach facilitated a thorough assessment of the data, enabling an exploration of intermodal connectivity and its influence on the operational efficiency of the Namibian regional logistics hub.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of KwaZulu-Natal Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (HSSREC). (No. HSSREC/00002928/2021), which protected the participants, ensured informed consent, upheld the principles of confidentiality, fostered research integrity, and guaranteed adherence to ethical guidelines and regulations.

 

Results

Transport modes used in Namibia

Documentary analysis was undertaken to determine the diverse methods of cargo transportation in use, and in this article rail, road and sea were the modes used. Air transportation was not used because the national airline, Air Namibia, was liquidated; thus no data were readily available. This analysis resulted in the compilation of a comprehensive dataset, visually presented in Figure 3. The figure clearly illustrates the distribution and relative importance of each mode of transportation within the specific geographical context under study.

 

 

As illustrated in Figure 3, 57.0% of exports in 2021 were shipped via sea, while air and road transport contributed 25.0% and 18.4% of the total export volume, respectively. Imports, as reported in the Namport annual report (Namport 2020), heavily favoured road transportation at 70.0%, with sea transport at 25.0% and air transport at a mere 5.0%. These statistics emphasise a significant challenge: Namibia, acting as a crucial gateway via the Walvis Bay port, plays a pivotal role in granting access to international shipping routes for landlocked neighbouring nations and countries in the SADC (AFDB 2023). Nevertheless, the prevalent reliance on road networks to transport export freight from neighbouring countries has placed considerable stress on Namibia's road infrastructure. This strain has had adverse consequences for infrastructure quality and maintenance, in addition to raising concerns about general traffic safety because of the increased volume of heavy vehicle traffic (AFDB 2023).

Conversely, there is a clear indication of enhanced capacity at the port with the Walvis Bay port expansion completed in 2019, tripling the port's container handling capacity from 355 000 TEUs to 1 005 000 TEUs per annum (Namport 2019), and sea transport currently representing 57% of the export volume (Namport 2022). However, the underutilisation of railway transportation exposes a gap in the overall transport system's interconnectivity and efficiency as TransNamib only railed 1.6m tonnages of freight rail in 2021, less than half the projected cargo for 2020 (TransNamib 2020). These findings further underscore the heavy reliance of the Namibian transportation system on road and maritime modes, with limited integration into other transport options, particularly the strategically important railway system for efficient logistics. Furthermore, the study utilised α, β, and γ indices to assess the road and rail network's connectivity using the towns, ports, and destination outside of Namibia as the nodes. The results are presented in Table 1.

 

 

The results are interpreted as follows:

Road network

Beta index

With a value of 1.11 (road) and 0.79 (rail), the β index represents the average path length between any two nodes in the rail and road network. The higher road β index suggests that, on average, it takes longer to travel between nodes in the road network. This could indicate a relatively less efficient or direct road network in Namibia. While the lower rail β index indicates that, on average, it takes less time to travel between nodes in the network. This suggests a relatively efficient and direct railway network in Namibia, as the average path lengths are shorter than the road network.

Gamma index

The lower γ index suggests a more evenly distributed network without significant hierarchy levels. This indicates a relatively decentralised railway network in Namibia, like the road network. Gamma Index value of 0.39 (road) and 0.28 (rail) suggests that there may be some gaps or challenges in infrastructure, connectivity or transportation services within the rail and road transportation network, implying room for improvement to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the transportation system to facilitate smoother movement and trade. These results, compared with the β index, suggest that factors might hinder the seamless connectivity and coordination of transportation modes, potentially affecting the overall functionality of the network.

Alpha index

The study also used the α index to evaluate network topology regarding the number of paths between nodes in a rail and road transportation network. With a value of 0.09 (road) and -0.095 (rail), the α index represents the ratio of the actual number of circuits to the maximum number of circuits in the network. The lower α index results suggest a lower network connectivity level. It indicates that there may be limited paths or routes between nodes, potentially leading to reduced accessibility and options for reaching different locations within the network. Albeit, the street network in Namibia shows a more significant level of organisation availability considering the β and γ files; it is as yet lacking in the quantity of most extreme circuits that could be associated. The road network assumes a tree structure, radiating from the port of Walvis Bay to various locations (via corridors) without branch connections, which could account for this. The negative α index result for rail indicates that the α index's estimate of rail connectivity is insufficient to calculate.

Road and railway degree of centrality

The study measured the degree of centrality to quantify the importance or prominence of a node within the rail and road network based on the number of its connections. Figure 4 shows the result for the road degree of centrality.

Figure 4 highlights that Windhoek and Otavi are the most connected and accessible towns, with a centrality value of 64%, followed by Otjiwarongo, Okahandja and Keetmanshoop at 45% relative to the maximum possible connections. This means these nodes can be accessed via links, like the hub with many spokes around. Furthermore, the coastal towns, Walvis Bay and Luderitz, have low centrality measuring at 14%. This result implies limited accessibility and connectivity to inland, which can result in outbound and inbound congestion. The fewer connections could lead to longer transport routes, increased costs, and potential delays in the movement of goods and services, hindering the ability of these towns to serve as efficient regional logistics hubs. The findings also raise concerns about the connectivity of border posts in the context of regional integration. Specifically, the centrality measurements indicate relatively low levels for Oshikango (14%), Buiepost (18%), and Sesheke (23%). More so, connections to landlocked countries are relatively low, Livingstone measuring at 23%, Upington 9% and Gaborone at 14%, linking further to Pretoria and Johannesburg.

The study further measures the degree of centrality for the railway as depicted in Figure 5.

As shown in Figure 5, the analysis reveals that Windhoek exhibits the highest accessibility and connectivity through the railway, with a centrality measure of 41% from the port of Walvis Bay. However, it is worth noting that approximately 36% of the central nodes lack railway connections, indicating significant fragmentation within the railway network. This fragmentation poses limitations on the functionality of the regional logistics hub. Consequently, the reliance on road transportation is increased, further straining the hub's transportation system.

Road and railway closeness centrality

The study employed closeness centrality to assess the efficiency and accessibility of the transportation network. Figure 6 highlights the closeness centrality of road transport.

Figure 6 highlights that Upington has the lowest closeness centrality with a value of 10% for road transport. In contrast, Okahandja has the highest closeness centrality with a value of 24%, followed by Otjiwarongo, Windhoek and Otavi, measuring 23%. This means Okahandja can be accessed via many links, like a hub with many spokes around.

Figure 7 highlights that Walvis Bay has the lowest closeness centrality for railway transport. In contrast, Windhoek has the highest closeness centrality. Closeness centrality is a measure of the average shortest distance between two points. This means that the port of Walvis Bay has the shortest distance from it to the next node of influence, that is, Swakopmund, Karibib and other vital nodes in the transport network of Namibia.

Rail and road network connectivity

Figure 8 shows the extent of rail network connectivity in Namibia to and from the port of Walvis to various economic nodes. The Ports are shown in blue (Walvis Bay, Cape Fria and Luderitz), the nodes (towns) are shown in green, and the respective links (roads and rail in blue lines and dotted yellow lines, respectively).

This study used a disaggregated approach by examining the extent to which each transportation corridor is connected by road and rail. Figure 8 elucidates a topological abstraction used to analyse this railway network map using a collection of vertices (nodes) and edges (links). In addition, several indices have been created to describe the degree to which a network approaches maximum connectivity (Kansky 1963), which necessitates the existence of a direct link to each node. The foundation for each of these indices is the link between edges and vertices in a network that is regarded as a topological graph. The results revealed the missing links within the railway network, which are Okahandja-Otjiwarongo, Grootfontein-Rundu, Rundu-Bangani, Sesheke-Livingstone, Bangani-Oshakati, Oshakati-Opuwo, Opuwo-Cape Fria, Gobabis-Buitepos and Ariamsvlei-Upington, consequently reducing connectivity and negatively impacting the regional logistics hub functionality. This demonstrates that Namibia is better connected by road than by rail. This shows that Namibia has low rail availability contrasted with the road network because of certain breaks in the rail joins in the towns.

Infrastructural challenges

The study utilised NVivo as a qualitative data analysis tool, employing a hierarchical structure with 'parent' and 'child' nodes to organise themes. Nodes represent identified coding themes, with parents encapsulating broader categories and 'child' representing sub-themes. Challenges in preparing for a regional logistics hub in Namibia were centred around infrastructural issues ('parent'), specifically modality and efficiency ('child'). The hierarchical relationship is reflected in the NVivo analysis, where child nodes such as 'Modality and Efficiency' address specific aspects within the broader theme. The emerging sub-themes encompassed modality and efficiency issues, are illustrated in Figure 9.

In order to determine transport condition and the need to improve transport systems, ANOVA test was conducted on rail, road and sea. The ANOVA test findings would determine if there are any changes needed on any mode of transport gauging with the tonnages being carried on each mode.

ANOVA on Rail cargo

This section presents the ANOVA for 2015-2019 on railway cargo. The hypotheses were:

H₀: There is no significant difference in cargo received between 2015 and 2019

H₁: There is at least 1 year with a different mean cargo from the rest

A lower p-value often less than 0.05 signifies that the observed data are unlikely under the assumption of the null hypothesis. Therefore, this evidence rejects the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative hypothesis. A large p-value greater than 0.05 signifies that the observed data are likely under the assumption of the null hypothesis, thus there is insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis.

Data extracted shows cargo in tonnes received in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 as 128.166658, 122.38667, 118.35433, 123.46458, 138.96325 and 126.26706, respectively.

Table 2 shows a significance result of 0.038; therefore, the null hypothesis (H_0) is rejected. A significance value of 0.038 implies that at least 1 year had significantly different cargo from the rest. This finding suggests that notable variation in rail cargo volumes might have been experienced in certain years. With such notable changes in tonnages, there is need to improve the rail transport system. However, ANOVA is an omnibus test that does not specify which years show a difference or the direction of the tonnage changes; it only indicates that a difference exists. It is important to note that these differences can be positive, implying an increase in tonnage, which calls for improvements in the rail transport system.

 

 

ANOVA on Road cargo

This section presents the ANOVA for 2015-2019 on road cargo. The hypotheses were as follows:

H_0: There is no significant difference in cargo received on the road from 2015 to 2019

H_2: There is at least 1 year with a different mean cargo from the rest

To conduct ANOVA, tests such as Levene are carried out first on which progression to ANOVA may not be necessarily performed if data Significance results fall in the range of higher than 0.05. Table 3 illustrates Levene's test results that were conducted to see if data can be subjected to ANOVA. However, the significance result of 0.189 renders the data not necessary to conduct ANOVA analysis because the Levene test results of Sig is 0.189, which is a significant outcome higher than the α (0.05), thus the null hypothesis is accepted as there are no significant variances in tonnages. Noticeable, as much as the null hypothesis is accepted showing that there are no significant variations in tonnages, still the road network systems need to be improved based on tonnages being carried if they are to be maintained at the level of 255.5275, 262.0789, 254.2593, 276.5891 and 319.9152 in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019, respectively.

 

 

ANOVA on sea-landed cargo

This section presents the ANOVA for 2015-2019 on sea-landed cargo. The hypotheses were as follows:

H₀: There is no significant difference in cargo received between 2015 and 2019.

H₃: There is at least 1 year with a different mean cargo from the rest

Similar to ANOVA on road cargo, Levene test on sea-landed cargo was conducted and the Sig value of 0.797 above 0.05 would render conducting ANOVA unnecessary, as the Levene test results above 0.05 already show that there are no significant variations. Once more again, the tonnages of 273.4683, 277.0348, 253.2513, 295.7488 and 296.2191 in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019, respectively, would require a re-look into building capacities and facilities on the sea-cargo because the volumes are high on the current capacities, and having an insignificant variation means these volumes will maintain being high.

As seen in Table 4, the significance value is 0.797, which is greater than 0.05. Thus, the cargo for each year is not significantly different and there is insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis (H₀) and hence, it is unreliable to run an ANOVA.

 

 

 

Discussion

Namibia's intra-regional export on the SADC mainland has been increasing for the last 10 years and is expected to double by 2044. Furthermore, the port capacity expansion at Walvis Bay has attracted increased volumes from international markets to the SADC region. This trend indicates an expected increased inbound and outbound movement of goods through the Walvis Bay Port coupled with Namibia's strategic location. Namibia has the potential to facilitate a regional logistics hub, as alluded to by other authors (Lee et al. 2022; Savage, Fransman & Jenkins 2013). However, it takes more than a strategic location to facilitate a functional regional logistics hub. The increasing trend of container volumes is affected by the development of transport network connectivity and accessibility. Hence, this study focusses on analysing the intermodal connectivity for the functionality of Namibia's regional logistic hub. Regional logistics hubs are meant to serve beyond borders. This is even more true for Namibia, which borders more than four landlocked countries with a combined nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of USD 158.5 billion (World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022).

Therefore, for a functional regional logistics hub, intermodal connectivity is crucial. The study's findings highlight the fragmentations within the railway network and connectivity and accessibility limitations within the road network. The key findings allude that the Namibian transport system is moderately connected through road transportation. Based on these results, Namibia's railway connectivity faces similar challenges as the road transport network. While the railway network may have shorter average path lengths (lower β index) and relatively decentralised structure (lower γ index), it still exhibits a low level of connectivity (lower α index). This suggests limited connectivity and options for travel within the railway network. However, the heavy reliance on roads poses challenges such as congestion, safety, increased transportation costs, environmental impacts, and vulnerability to disruptions. Diversifying and improving intermodal connectivity, incorporating alternative modes such as rail and implementing sustainable transport solutions are crucial for enhancing the performance and long-term viability of the Namibian regional logistics hub.

Managerial implications

The research emphasises the importance of addressing intermodal connectivity, infrastructure development, sustainability, and collaboration to establish a functional and thriving regional logistics hub in Namibia. By examining the extent to which intermodal connectivity contributes to the functionality of regional logistics hubs, policymakers, industry professionals, and stakeholders will gain valuable insights into the challenges, opportunities, and strategies for improving transportation networks.

Limitations and future research

This study did not consider other factors, such as geographical characteristics, population density and infrastructure investments, to comprehensively understand the railway and road network's performance and potential areas for improvement. Thus, the suggestion is made to examine how the aforementioned factors impact the functionality of regional logistics hubs.

Study delimitation

This study focusses exclusively on examining road networks parallel to railway lines. By narrowing the scope to this specific context, the study aims to investigate the dynamics, connectivity, and performance of the road infrastructure adjacent to railways. Figure 2 presents the map of the existing corridors and can be pivotal in developing the regional logistics hub in Namibia.

 

Conclusion and recommendations

In summary, Namibia holds significant potential as a regional logistics hub, driven by its strategic location, expanding exports, and the growth of the Walvis Bay Port. Quantitatively, the study exposes deficiencies and fragmentation in current railway and road networks, adversely impacting goods movement and the overall efficiency of the logistics hub. The data emphasises suboptimal connectivity levels within the existing transport infrastructure. Stakeholders' interviews qualitatively reveal a moderate intermodal connectivity, stressing the need for collaborative efforts to comprehensively address connectivity limitations. Both quantitatively and qualitatively, sustainable transport practices are deemed crucial. The study quantifies environmental impacts from heavy reliance on road transportation, underlining the necessity for sustainable alternatives. Stakeholders emphasise prioritising sustainability and integrating alternative modes such as rail for enhanced efficiency and resilience. The research advocates a crucial investment in infrastructure development, supported by data showcasing the pivotal role of improved infrastructure in overcoming connectivity challenges. Strategic planning, policy support, and collaborative efforts are underscored as essential, echoing sentiments from stakeholder interviews.

The study recommends substantial investment in infrastructure, improved intermodal connectivity, and the adoption of sustainable transport solutions for Namibia to realise its vision as a regional logistics hub. Collaboration among stakeholders is crucial, aligning with both quantitative and qualitative insights. Addressing these findings is expected to optimise the logistics hub's functionality, fostering regional trade and economic growth in the SADC region.

 

Acknowledgements

The author would like to extend his thanks to Dr T.P. Mbhele, her PhD supervisor. This article is partially based on the author's thesis entitled 'Transport systems preparedness towards a regional logistics hub in Namibia', Doctor of Philosophy in Supply Chain Management, College of Law and Management Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, with supervisor Dr T. Patmond Mbhele.

Competing interests

The author declares that there are no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced her in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

T.P.M. is the co-author of this article with G.M.T.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The study's data set is available upon request for academic use. The request must be given in writing to the author, clearly stating its goal.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Gloria Tshoopara
gtshoopara@nust.na

Received: 18 July 2023
Accepted: 20 Feb. 2024
Published: 28 June 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Travel mode choices of residents in developing cities: A case study of Lusaka, Zambia

 

 

Moses Mwale; Noleen Pisa; Rose Luke

Department of Transport and Supply Chain Management, College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: As urban populations rapidly expand across sub-Saharan Africa, promoting sustainable and efficient transportation systems is imperative for fostering economic growth and social inclusion by enhancing mobility and accessibility.
OBJECTIVES: This study examines the travel mode choices and factors influencing the use of these modes among residents of Lusaka, Zambia, for their work or school trips.
METHOD: A household survey ascertained mode choice, trip characteristics, and transportation challenges experienced. Descriptive, contingency table, and post hoc analyses explored relationships between mode and associated factors.
RESULTS: Public buses emerged as the predominant mode for work/school trips, followed by walking and private cars, highlighting public transit's and non-motorised transport's importance. However, travel behaviour varied significantly by residential density. High-density areas favoured public transit and walking, while low-density areas promoted greater private vehicle use, highlighting the influence of urban form on mode choice. Key mode choice factors included travel time, fares and safety, though environmental concerns had lesser impact. Crucially, socio-economic and demographic characteristics like age, gender, income, education, employment, car ownership, trip purpose, household composition, presence of children, and destination accessibility significantly influenced mode choices, revealing the complex interplay shaping mobility patterns.
CONCLUSION: Findings underscore the need for policy interventions investing in public transportation infrastructure, enhancing pedestrian and cycling facilities, and prioritising walkability in urban planning to encourage sustainable transportation behaviours.
CONTRIBUTION: This study contributes to the discourse on urban sustainability by highlighting the importance of integrating social, economic, and environmental considerations into transportation planning and policymaking processes.

Keywords: travel behaviour; travel mode share; mode selection; sustainable transportation; commuting trips; developing cities.

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Introduction

Transport networks are essential for the growth of any economy or society as they connect people to jobs, schools, hospitals, and to other social activities. However, transportation accounts for approximately 64% of global oil consumption, 27% of overall energy consumption, and 23% of global energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (Mead 2021). Globally, motor vehicle pollution is directly responsible for over 185 000 deaths, while road traffic crashes kill an estimated 1.3 million people annually (WHO 2018). Consequently, addressing urban transport challenges is of utmost importance to promote the sustainable growth of cities, balancing the need for connectivity with environmental and public health considerations.

The choice of a transport mode is one of the most essential aspects of urban transport planning and policy as it impacts the overall efficiency with which residents can travel in urban areas (Duleba, Moslem & Esztergár-Kiss 2021; Ort´uzar & Willumsen 2011). Travel mode share or mode split is defined as the proportion of people using a particular mode of transport and is typically presented as a percentage of each mode (McCann 2015). It can be based on a variety of factors, such as the proportion of travellers using a certain mode of transportation, the percentage of trips taken or the distance travelled using a particular mode of transportation (Fountas et al. 2020).

Many developing cities are experiencing a rapid and unplanned growth, which is placing tremendous strain on their transport systems (Mwale, Luke & Pisa 2022). In recent decades, developing cities have experienced high rates of motorisation, and this trend is expected to continue in the future (Thondoo et al. 2020). Predictions estimate that the number of vehicles will increase three- or four-fold, especially in developing nations, between 2005 and 2050 (Mead 2021). The environmental and social impacts of growing motorisation are significant and directly related to quality of life and urban productivity.

Lusaka's passenger transit system comprises a mix of private vehicles, public buses, taxis, motorcycles, and bicycles. Specifically, the public transport network in Lusaka includes minibuses, buses, and taxis. Minibuses, ubiquitous in the city, accommodate 12-15 passengers along predefined routes, while larger 25-30 seater buses serve designated city routes (Ngoma & Phiri 2016). The determination of bus routes for both minibuses and buses is influenced by a combination of supply and demand dynamics, as well as the presence of sufficient transport infrastructure. Taxis offer personalised travel and comfort for 3-4 passengers, although overcrowding is possible in larger vehicles. These taxis can be licensed, metred vehicles operated by registered companies or unlicensed, informally run taxis using private cars. The popularity of ride-hailing taxi services has soared because of their transparent pricing and convenience. Notably, unlike many other African cities, motorbikes are not widely utilised for public transport in Lusaka (Krasholucka 2022).

The transport environment in the city is fraught with various problems such as the use of shared road space by mixed-modes, traffic congestion, road traffic crashes, poor road infrastructure, and inadequate enforcement of traffic regulations (GRZ 2019a). Formalised public bus services frequently lack reliability, comfort, and safety, thereby failing to adequately meet the transportation requirements of residents (Chikuba 2014): a situation that has led to a rise in the informal or paratransit services, which often lack consistency and safety features (Pojani & Stead 2015). Furthermore, the continued horizontal growth, or urban sprawl, of Lusaka city, is becoming a major cause of the increase in travel distances (Mahendra & Karen 2019). This phenomenon discourages people from utilising non-motorised transport modes such as walking and cycling and has resulted in an increased demand for public transport services as well as private motorised transport (Kakar & Prasad 2020). To deal with the growing problem of traffic congestion, city authorities in Lusaka have embarked on massive road infrastructure improvement projects, which include the expansion of existing roads and the construction of flyovers (Mutumweno 2021). However, the development of transport infrastructure that prioritises the use of motor vehicles leaves very little room for the introduction of alternative modes that tend to reduce the share of other modes of transport (Litman 2011).

In light of the rapid urbanisation and increasing mobility challenges faced by cities in the Global South, understanding travel mode preferences and the factors influencing them in Lusaka, Zambia, becomes crucial. This study examines the travel mode choices and factors influencing the use of these modes among residents of Lusaka for their work or school trips. Additionally, it aims to explore the key challenges faced by users of each travel mode. This research contributes to the existing body of literature by offering unique insights into the travel behaviours and decision-making patterns of Lusaka's urban dwellers. This study aims to contribute valuable insights into transportation in African cities, aiding the formulation of context-specific and sustainable urban mobility policies. Understanding the travel behaviours and decision-making patterns of city residents is crucial for effective urban planning and transportation management. By gaining unique insights into how people move within the city, policymakers can tailor transportation infrastructure, services, and policies to better meet the needs of residents. This can lead to improved mobility, reduced congestion, enhanced access to opportunities, and ultimately, a more liveable and sustainable urban environment.

 

Literature review

Transportation plays a vital role in the development and functioning of urban areas, particularly in cities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where challenges related to mobility and accessibility are prevalent. The understanding of travel mode share and mode selection among residents is essential for sustainable urban planning and the formulation of effective transportation policies (ITF 2021). Within the context of cities in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) such as Lusaka, rapid population growth, unplanned urbanisation, and inadequate infrastructure are salient issues. These challenges directly impact transportation systems, leading to further problems including traffic congestion, environmental pollution, a heavy reliance on informal mobility, and poor road safety (Palanivel 2017; Pojani & Stead 2015; World Bank 2022; Mwale et al. 2023). The lack of sufficient and effective transportation infrastructure intensifies these problems, leading to safety hazards alongside the exacerbation of congestion and pollution. Public transportation systems are often ill-equipped to support the needs of burgeoning populations, which fuels congestion and environmental degradation (National Academies of Sciences Engineering, and Medicine 2018).

Expanding on specific transportation challenges, traffic congestion emerges as a significant challenge, with roots traceable to the fast pace of population growth, insufficient infrastructure, and ineffective traffic regulation (Karimi et al. 2022). Specifically, in cities in SSA, such congestion can cause extended travel delays, increase pollution levels, and can impede productivity (Agyapong & Ojo 2018). Escalating air pollution levels lead to the deterioration of air quality and the contamination of water bodies. Additionally, noise pollution, often a by-product of intensive traffic flow, is another environmental problem, causing its own range of health issues and further complicating the challenges faced by urban areas (Moroe & Mabaso 2022). Lusaka, for instance, grapples with air pollution emanating from vehicles and water pollution resulting from inadequate drainage and sewer systems (Mbuzi 2020).

Urban expansion places immense pressure on the already strained infrastructure in developing cities, while informal settlements often lack necessary amenities (Chiwele Lamson-Hall & Shahrukh 2022; Mwamba 2020). Concurrently, the city's public transportation system is marred by overcrowding and unreliability (Transaid 2021). Overcrowded buses and unreliable services create a daily struggle for residents, impacting their comfort, time management, and overall urban mobility. Residents primarily resort to walking, cycling, and public transportation for their commuting needs (Tucho 2022). Road safety is a significant issue in cities within developing countries. Lusaka, reflecting challenges in other rapidly urbanising areas of the Global South, faces alarming rates of road traffic fatalities and injuries. In 2021, Zambia reported a total of 32 372 traffic crashes and 2163 deaths, with Lusaka province accounting for 55% of crashes (13 774 incidents) and 28% of total fatalities (516 deaths) (Mwale et al. 2023; RTSA 2022). These alarming proportions demand urgent actions to enhance road safety in Lusaka and reduce preventable casualties.

In exploring travel behaviour and mode choice, various theories and concepts have been proposed to explain the decision-making process behind individuals' choice of transportation modes. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) suggests that an individual's intention to use a particular mode is influenced by their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Bamberg, Ajzen, & Schmidt 2003; Othmane & Maria-del-Mar 2019). The TPB proposes that positive attitudes, perceived social approval (subjective norms), and a high degree of perceived control over performing the behaviour lead to stronger intentions and increase the likelihood of engaging in that behaviour. This study aims to understand: What factors influence the travel mode choices of Lusaka residents for their work or school commutes, and how do these choices reflect underlying psychological drivers? The TPB provides a framework to explore this research question by examining the attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control that underlie Lusaka residents' transportation decisions. By employing the TPB, the study moves beyond demographic correlations to uncover the psychological motivations and barriers that shape commuting behaviour. This theoretical grounding offers valuable insights for encouraging sustainable transportation through interventions that address attitudes, social norms, and perceived control over travel modes.

Numerous studies have been conducted to understand the determinants of mode choice in urban settings. The selection of travel modes in urban settings exhibits notable disparities between developed and developing cities. Well-established public transportation systems, featuring buses, trains, and subways, characterise densely populated developed cities. These urban environments prioritise sustainable modes such as walking and cycling, facilitated by mixed land use and pedestrian friendly infrastructure (Rode et al. 2017). In sharp contrast, developing cities confront challenges such as traffic congestion fuelled by rapid motorisation, urban sprawl, and underdeveloped road systems. In these contexts, private vehicles, particularly motorbikes and minibuses, dominate the transportation landscape (Agyapong & Ojo 2018; Karimi et al. 2022). Despite both types of cities facing intricate mobility challenges, the nuances of their individual contexts play a pivotal role in shaping distinct travel mode preferences and policy approaches.

In exploring the intricate interplay of demographic and socio-economic factors on travel mode choice, several studies have emphasised the role of variables such as age, gender, income, and education (Li et al. 2015; Mayo & Taboada 2020; Patil, Basu & Rashidi 2020). Research indicates a gender-based pattern in travel choices with women generally preferring more environment friendly options such as walking and public transport, while men are more inclined to use private transport (Abdullah et al. 2022; Goel et al. 2023; Saigal, Vaish & Rao 2021).

However, females also show a significant preference for private cars over cycling (Ye et al. 2020). This can be attributed to safety concerns, social norms, inadequate infrastructure, time constraints, cultural influences, and marketing efforts. Age also influences these choices, notably affecting preferences for private cars and bikes (Ye et al. 2020). These findings highlight the complexity of travel mode choices, influenced by both gender and age. Household characteristics such as income, size, and number of vehicles owned can also significantly affect travel behaviour and mode choice (McCarthy et al. 2017; Taofiki¸ Adebukola & Olufemi 2018). Households with young children tend to use cars more, while those without children are more likely to use public transportation (Ye et al. 2018). Several studies also show that accessibility and availability of transportation modes can critically influence travel mode choice (Christiansen et al. 2017; Singh & Vasudevan 2018; Witchayaphong et al. 2020). An absence of a public transit system or poor-quality services can cause a reliance on other motorised modes.

Apart from demographic and socio-economic factors, travel-specific factors such as distance and time have been found to significantly influence mode choice (Li & Zhao 2015; Patil et al. 2020). For obligatory trips such as work or school, public transit is preferable for its economic benefits. During situations like the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, health implications may cause a shift from public transport to private cars (Aderibigbe & Gumbo 2022). Researchers have found that affordability and availability of public transport can attract ridership (Lekshmi, Landge & Kumar 2016; Minal & Sekhar 2014). Higher income and education levels tend to associate with greater use of private cars, while lower income and education levels correspond to more reliance on public transport and paratransit modes. Factors such as gender, residential selection, household size, presence of children, income, travel distances, and employment status influence car use and ownership (Mwale et al. 2022). Vehicle ownership increases with higher income, employment, and education levels (Dissanayake & Morikawa 2010). In addition, there is a negative correlation between age and stop frequency, which refers to the number of stops or destinations a traveller visits during a specific journey or trip (Guan, Srinivasan & Nielsen 2019). The mode choice for travel in developing countries, particularly for work and school trips, hinges on an interplay of social demographic factors, the availability and accessibility of transport modes, and specifics of the travel. Recognising these relationships is crucial in shaping equitable and efficient transportation policies.

Drawing from the literature review, three key hypotheses emerge regarding travel mode preferences and behaviours in LMICs. Firstly, socioeconomic factors such as age, gender, income, and education are anticipated to exert significant influence, with higher socioeconomic status potentially correlating with increased private car usage. Secondly, the accessibility and availability of transportation modes, particularly public transit, and non-motorised options, are expected to shape residents' travel behaviours, with inadequate infrastructure possibly leading to greater reliance on motorised transportation. Thirdly, policy interventions targeting public transportation infrastructure, pedestrian and/or cycling facilities, and walkability are anticipated to positively impact sustainable transportation behaviours, potentially shifting preferences towards more environmentally friendly options. These hypotheses provide a foundation for understanding the complexities of travel mode choice in Lusaka's urban context and highlight the importance of socioeconomic, infrastructural, and policy factors in shaping transportation behaviour.

Despite the breadth of existing research, notable gaps persist in our comprehension of travel mode share and mode selection within cities in SSA, underscoring the necessity for deeper exploration. A limited number of studies have specifically delved into mode share and determinants of mode selection in SSA cities, underscoring the imperative for expanded research to understand the distinct intricacies of travel behaviour within these contexts. These gaps notably encompass the need for a more comprehensive examination of transportation modes, particularly non-motorised transport (NMT) and public transport modes. Furthermore, there is a need for a more comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing mode choice decisions and the effectiveness of policy interventions in promoting sustainable transportation in Lusaka.

This study conducts a detailed examination of travel mode selection among Lusaka's residents. It offers insights into demographic, socioeconomic, and trip-making characteristics, and their influence on travel behaviour. The study also reports on the mode share proportion for each transportation option, providing a clear perspective on current trends and potentially informing future policy interventions for sustainable transportation in Lusaka.

 

Data and methods

Study area and sampling strategy

The study was carried out in Lusaka, the capital and largest city of Zambia, with a population of 2 946 566 according to the 2010 census projections (Central Statistical Office of Zambia 2014). Lusaka district is subdivided into 33 wards for administrative purposes. To ensure a comprehensive representation, the survey employed a three-stage sampling process, stratifying the wards into low, medium, and high density based on their size in square metres and population. Figure 1 displays a map of Lusaka District, highlighting the selected wards classified by residential density.

 

 

Typically, low-density areas in Lusaka are characterised by residents with higher incomes, while high-density areas are home to individuals from the lower income bracket (Chibuye 2014). A sampling frame for Lusaka, comprising households from the 2010 census data (CSO 2014), was obtained from the Zambia Statistics Agency. To ensure sample representativeness two (2) wards were randomly selected from each density stratum. Furthermore, each ward was divided into Enumeration Areas (EAs), and two EAs were randomly selected from each ward. Households within each EA were selected using systematic random sampling. This sampling strategy was designed to capture a representative sample of Lusaka's population across various socio-economic strata and geographical locations, providing a balanced picture of mode share for home-to-work trips in the city.

During the data collection phase, household heads in each EA were approached and asked to participate in the survey. The number of households approached in each EA was determined by the number of households present in that EA. Data collection took place from 02 May 2022 to 14 May 2022.

The sample size was calculated using Cochran's formula for sample size determination in a large population (Cochran 1977). Given a population size of 2 900 000, a confidence level of 95%, and a margin of error of 5%, the required sample size was computed to be 385 households. However, not all sampled households responded to the survey, and the final responses totalled 268 completed questionnaires, resulting in a response rate of 70%. The reduced sample size was assessed for reliability and validity. The internal validity of the questionnaire was determined through a pilot study with a separate sample of 30 households, which was not included in the final sample. These pilot study results were not added to the final study because some refinements and changes were made to the final data collection tools, which made the results from the pilot study not directly comparable to the data collected in the main study.

Questionnaire and survey design

A survey was designed to explore people's travel mode choices, social demographic characteristics, reasons for selecting a particular mode, and challenges faced. The questionnaire was composed of 13 sections and included a total of 77 questions. These questions utilised a variety of formats such as single-answer multiple choice, matrix-style queries, open-ended responses, Likert scale evaluations, and stated choice questions, all designed to effectively capture respondents' intentions and future behaviour. On average, participants took 23 min to complete the survey. The survey was structured as follows:

• information about the user's personal and household travel details and recent trip

• information on the individual's travel behaviour and habits, including use of ride hailing services, and the factors that affect mode selection, and major challenges faced

• demographic information including employment, education, age, gender, family size, income, driver's license status, and automobile accessibility.

The survey was conducted using the online tool SurveyEngine GmbH, which ensured data security and privacy through secure connections, encrypted data transmission, and restricted access levels. Trained enumerators administered the survey face-to-face using tablets.

Data analysis

To gain insights into the data and identify patterns, trends, or anomalies, a comprehensive descriptive analysis was conducted using the R programming language. Visualisations, charts, and summary measures were generated using Microsoft Excel to better understand the distribution of variables and explore the relationship between travel mode and related factors.

Contingency table analysis was performed in R to examine the association between travel mode and related factors using a Chi-square test of independence. A significance level of 0.05 (5%) was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant relationship between the variables. To further investigate the significant associations detected by the Chi-square test, post hoc analysis was conducted using adjusted standardised residuals. This additional analysis helped to identify specific variables that contributed to the significant association, providing more detailed insights into the relationship between travel mode and related factors. Residuals greater than 2 or less than -2 indicate a significant difference between the observed and expected frequencies, suggesting that there may be an association between the variables being analysed.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Johannesburg, CBE Research Ethics Committee (No. 2020TSCM-0002).

 

Results

Descriptive analysis

Sample characteristics

Table 1 provides a comparative analysis of our sample's demographic characteristics with the Lusaka district's broader population data, sourced from the 2018 Zambia Demographic Health Survey (GRZ 2018). The comparison reveals similarities and differences in gender distribution, age distribution, education level, and household size. For instance, the sample population exhibits a slightly higher percentage of males compared to females, which mirrors the gender distribution in Lusaka. However, there are notable disparities in age distribution, with the sample showing higher proportions in the age groups of 20 years or less and 21 to 30 years, while lower proportions are observed in older age categories. Similarly, variations are observed in education levels and household size. This comparison highlights the representativeness of the sample population and underscores the need to consider demographic factors when interpreting the study findings. Overall, the sample distribution serves as a critical reference point for understanding the generalisability of the study results to the broader population of Lusaka.

 

 

Figure 2 presents the demographic characteristics of the residents surveyed categorised by the travel mode selected for their daily commute. Out of the total 268 respondents, 50% were male and 50% were female. The age group between 21 and 30 years constituted the largest proportion of respondents, while those aged above 61 years were the least represented. Regarding educational attainment, the majority of respondents had completed secondary education, followed by lower secondary education. Only a small percentage of respondents held a master's or PhD degree, while a notable proportion had not pursued formal schooling.

Regarding employment, 32% of respondents were employed full-time, 12% part-time, 23% were in education, and 18% were unemployed. Household characteristics revealed that 28% of respondents owned a car, 76% lived with children, and 84% resided within walking or cycling distance to their place of employment or school. The most common modes of transportation used by respondents included public buses, walking, and private cars. Car availability in households indicated that 72% of respondents did not have a car for work or school trips, 1% - 8% had one car available, and 9% had two or more cars available. On average, it takes 33 min for travellers to reach their work or school. A total of 83% of respondents said they travel with other household members, while 22% said they travel with individuals from other houses. Table 2 presents a comprehensive overview of participants' travel behaviour and demographic characteristics, examining variables like household income, employment status, car ownership, and density across various levels.

Modes of transportation

This section presents an analysis of the modes of transportation used by Lusaka City residents to commute to work or school, as revealed by the survey data. Figure 2a provides information on the frequency and distribution of various travel modes among study participants. Walking and public bus are the most frequently used modes, accounting for 24% and 50% of the responses, respectively. Car usage stands at 15%, while bicycle, taxi, and motorcycle usage are reported at 8%, 2%, and 1%, respectively.

Public bus usage: Public buses emerged as the most popular mode of transport, with 50% of respondents using them regularly. Female respondents were more likely to use public buses, with 67% choosing this mode compared to 33% of males (see Figure 2b). Public bus usage was highest among respondents with lower secondary education (20%) and secondary education (37%) (Figure 2d). Respondents in the lower-income brackets were more likely to use public buses, with 25% of those earning up to 1000 ZMW per month and 32% of those earning between 1000 and 5000 ZMW per month choosing this mode. At the time of data collection, one Zambian Kwacha (ZMW) was equivalent to approximately 0.062 US Dollars (USD) and 0.063 Euros (EUR) (Figure 2e). Public bus usage was also more common among respondents who did not own a car, with 81% of non-car owners using public buses. The key challenges faced by public bus users included expensive fares, rude drivers, or conductors, overcrowding, and traffic congestion.

Walking: Walking as a mode of transport accounted for 24% of the total transport modes. Males were more likely to walk, with 55% choosing this mode compared with 45% of females. Walking was most common among respondents aged less than 20 years, with 40% of this age group choosing this mode (Figure 2c). Respondents in households with more than 10 members were also more likely to walk, with 22% of such respondents choosing this mode. Walking was more prevalent among respondents living in high-density areas, with 48% of these respondents choosing this mode. Pedestrian safety emerged as a concern because of careless or indifferent motorists. In addition, walking is the preferred mode for shorter distances and brief travel times, with around 40% of respondents who walk to their destinations reporting that they do so for journeys lasting between 2 and 10 min.

Cycling: Eight per cent of respondents reported using bicycles to commute. Males exclusively used bicycles, with 100% of bicycle users being male. Bicycle usage was most common among respondents aged 21 to 30 years, with 55% of bicycle users belonging to this age group (Figure 2c). Bicycle usage was highest among respondents with lower secondary education (32%) and secondary education (28%) (Figure 2d). Bicycle usage was more common among respondents who did not own a car, with 95% of non-car owners using bicycles. The most significant barriers for cyclists were inadequate cycle lanes and pedestrian ways, poor road condition, and poor street lighting.

Personal motor vehicle usage: Car usage accounted for 15% of the total transport modes in the survey. Males were more likely to use cars, with 74% of male respondents opting for this mode, compared with only 26% of females. Car usage increased with higher education levels, with 51% of respondents with university degrees and 21% of those with master's or PhD degrees choosing this mode. Additionally, car usage was more prevalent among higher-income respondents, with 41% of those earning between 5000 and 10 000 ZMW per month using cars. Car ownership was also strongly associated with car usage, as 95% of car owners used their car for transportation. Traffic congestion was cited as the primary challenge faced by motor vehicle users.

Taxi usage: Taxis represented 2% of the total transport modes in the survey. The usage of taxis was more common among females, with 67% choosing this mode compared to 33% of males. Taxis were mainly used by respondents aged 21 to 30 years, with 50% of taxi users belonging to this age group. High taxi fares, fear of crime, poor road conditions, and traffic congestion were identified as the main challenges faced by taxi users.

Motorcycle usage: Motorcycle usage represented 1% of the total transport modes. As with bicycles, motorcycle usage was exclusive to male respondents. Respondents aged 21 to 30 years were most likely to use motorcycles, with 50% of motorcycle users belonging to this age group (Figure 2c). Poor road conditions was cited as the main challenge faced by motorbike users.

Comparison of results across the enumeration areas

The analysis of travel mode choices across different residential densities in Lusaka district reveals distinct patterns in transportation preferences. In high-density areas such as Chawama and Justine Kabwe wards, residents exhibit a strong preference for public transportation, particularly public buses, and walking. In contrast, medium-density areas such as Chilenge and Roma wards, demonstrate a more diverse range of transportation options, including private vehicles, public transit, taxis, and walking. Meanwhile, low-density areas such as Lubwa and Mwembeshi, show a higher reliance on private vehicles, primarily cars and motorcycles, with walking remaining important for shorter trips (see Table 3).

Factors considered when selecting a travel mode

The survey conducted in Lusaka city aimed to identify the factors that influence residents' choice of travel mode. The factors considered were environment, convenience, flexibility, dependability or reliability, comfort, fuel cost, safety, travel time, and bus or taxi fare (Figure 3). According to the survey results, the most important factors for Lusaka residents when choosing a travel mode were bus or taxi fare, travel, and safety. These factors highlight the importance of cost-effectiveness, efficiency, and security for Lusaka residents when selecting a mode of transportation. On the other hand, fuel cost and comfort were also deemed important by a significant proportion of respondents. Dependability or reliability and convenience or flexibility were also considered crucial factors, indicating that residents value consistent and adaptable travel options (see Figure 3). Lastly, the environment, including pollution and energy consumption, was a factor that a smaller portion of respondents considered very important. However, this may still be an influential factor for some individuals when selecting their mode of transportation.

 

 

Analysing the responses across different travel modes (car, taxi, public bus, walking, bicycle, and motorcycle) reveals distinctive preferences. Fuel cost is a significant consideration for car and motorcycle users, while bus and/or taxi fare influences those opting for public buses and taxis. Safety concerns, including the risk of traffic accidents or crime, are prevalent across car, taxi, and motorcycle users. Convenience and flexibility are prioritised by motorcycle and walking commuters, while travel time is a key consideration for public bus, walking, and bicycle users. Dependability and reliability are factors for car and taxi users, while environmental impact, such as pollution and energy consumption, is a concern for car and motorcycle users (see Table 4). This nuanced understanding of factors deemed important by users provides valuable insights for urban transportation planning in Lusaka city, catering to diverse user preferences.

 

 

Factors associated with travel mode choice

Participants were assessed to understand their choice of travel mode and the factors that influenced their decision. The study defined 'walking distance' as the distance that individuals are willing to travel on foot for their daily commuting trips. Similarly, 'cycling distance' is defined as the distance individuals are willing to cycle as part of their daily commuting trips. It's important to notice that the definitions of walking and cycling distance provided in the questionnaire did not specify a specific length of distance or time. Respondents were asked to provide their own perception of the distance they were comfortable walking or cycling as part of their commuting routine.

The results indicate that gender, age, education level, household income, employment status, car ownership, trip purpose, presence of children in the household, destination within walking and cycling distance, and household composition are all significantly associated with the choice of travel mode (p < 0.05). Males were more likely to use bicycles and motorcycles, whereas females predominantly used public buses. Age also played a role, with younger participants (< 20 years) relying more on walking and bicycles, and those aged 31 to 40 years showing a higher preference for cars. Higher education levels were associated with an increased likelihood of using cars. Car ownership was strongly correlated with travel mode choice, with 95% of car owners choosing cars as their primary mode of transportation (see Table 5).

 

 

Household income influenced travel mode choice, with higher-income participants more likely to use cars and those with lower incomes preferring public buses and walking. Employment status revealed that full-time employees were more inclined to use cars, while students and pupils showed a preference for walking and public buses. Work or business trips were associated with an increased use of cars, while school trips were linked to walking and public buses. The presence of children in the household was associated with a higher likelihood of using public buses, and destinations within walking and cycling distance showed a preference for walking and bicycles. Household composition also influenced travel mode choice, with single-person households and couples without children more likely to walk or use bicycles, and households with children showing a preference for public buses and cars.

Socio-demographic factors and travel mode choice

The study examined the association between various socio-demographic factors and the mode of transportation preferred by individuals. Pearson's Chi-squared test was used to assess the relationship between each factor and the preferred mode of transportation. The results showed significant associations for gender, age, education level, income, household designation, employment status, vehicle ownership, trip purpose, presence of children, walking or cycling distance, and household size. The findings from the contingency table analysis are summarised in Table 5.

A post hoc analysis, using adjusted standardised residuals, was conducted to further explore the specific categories that contribute to the observed significance. The adjusted standardised residuals used in the post hoc analysis are presented in Table 5. The residual analysis confirmed that there were statistically significant differences in the associations between mode choice and demographic factors. Males were more likely to choose cars, bicycles, and motorcycles, while females favoured taxis, public buses, and walking. Younger individuals (0-20 years) preferred walking, while those aged 21-30 years chose bicycles. Participants aged 31-40 years and 41-50 years showed a higher preference for cars, and those aged 61 years and above preferred public buses. Individuals with higher education and income levels were more likely to use cars, while those with lower education and income levels were more likely to walk, use public buses, or ride bicycles.

Household designations revealed that single-person households and couples without children were more likely to walk or use bicycles, while couples with children and single parents predominantly opted for cars. Employment status also impacted transportation choices, with full-time employees preferring cars and motorcycles, and students favouring public buses and walking. Vehicle ownership had a significant effect on transportation mode choices, with those owning a vehicle predominantly using cars and those without vehicles more likely to use other modes of transportation. Trip purpose, presence of children in the household, walking or cycling distance to work, and household size all had significant associations with transportation mode choices.

Individuals living in high-density areas are more likely to choose public bus and motorcycle, while those living in low-density areas are more likely to choose car and bicycle. Individuals who live within walking and cycling distance are less likely to choose public bus and more likely to choose walking, while those who do not live within walking and cycling distance are less likely to choose walking and more likely to choose public bus. Those travelling for work or business are more likely to choose car, while those travelling for school are more likely to choose walking and public bus. Individuals living with children are more likely to choose car and public bus, while those living without children are more likely to choose walking and bicycle. These main findings and interpretations of the residual analysis are summarised in Table 5.

 

Discussion

The research aimed to address the following central question: 'What is the current mode split for work and school trips, and what factors influence mode selection in Lusaka?' The study findings highlight the prominence of non-motorised and public transport modes, which account for a substantial proportion of the city's mobility patterns.

Mode split for work and school trips in Lusaka city

In Lusaka city, the mode split for work and school trips unveils a dynamic landscape of transportation preferences. Notably, the most prevalent modes employed by residents are walking and public buses, constituting 24% and 50% of the reported responses, respectively. The usage of cars for work and school trips was reported to be 15%, while the usage of bicycles, taxis, and motorcycles are 8%, 2%, and 1%, respectively.

Public buses

Our findings indicate that public buses are the primary mode of transportation in Lusaka city for work or school trips, with 50% of respondents using them. Our study results show that the majority of respondents live further than walking and cycling distance from their places of employment or educational institutions, underscoring the significant impact of Lusaka's sprawling urban form on daily commutes. This urban sprawl not only stretches the city's boundaries but also increases the reliance on motorised transportation, contributing to longer travel times and less sustainable commuting practices.

The attractiveness of public buses as a mode of transportation is not only due to their physical accessibility but also their affordability relative to household incomes. A study conducted in Addis Ababa indicates that, on average, households spent approximately 14% of their income to public transport costs (Mohammed & Senadheera 2022). This proportion is considerably lower compared to personal vehicle costs, making public buses a financially viable option for many residents. Additionally, the perception of quicker travel times, despite frequent violations of traffic laws by bus drivers, further enhances the appeal of buses for daily commutes (Transaid 2021). The relatively low cost and high accessibility of public buses in the city make them an attractive option for a significant portion of the population. In addition, public bus drivers in cities across Zambia are known for frequently disregarding traffic laws, often manoeuvring onto pavements and side roads to avoid traffic congestion (Kavuyi 2017). This practice has created a perception that they can reach their destinations more quickly than those in personal vehicles. These factors contribute to the popularity of public buses as the primary mode of transportation for work or school trips in Lusaka.

Our study builds upon the findings of Chikuba (2014) by delving deeper into the nuances of public bus usage challenges in Lusaka, notably overcrowding and unreliability. These issues are not unique to Lusaka but are echoed in other developing urban areas, such as Dar es Salaam (Nkurunziza et al. 2012). The comparison underlines a common urban challenge across different contexts, suggesting a shared need for comprehensive public transportation improvements. To address these, investing in public bus infrastructure should be prioritised. This includes increasing the bus fleet, implementing reliable scheduling, and conducting training for better customer service. Further, policy interventions such as fare subsidies for low-income passengers should be considered to maintain affordability.

Walking and cycling

Walking was the second most popular mode of transportation for home to work or school trips, accounting for 20% of respondents' preferences. The similarity between our findings and those reported in Enugu, Nigeria, by Nwachukwu et al. (2023) underscores a common trend in developing African cities where walking remains a critical mode of transport due to factors such as urban form, economic considerations, and the availability of infrastructure. Urban planning and policies should prioritise walkability and mixed-use development to reduce the need for private vehicles. Cycling was preferred by 8% of respondents, with men being more likely to cycle than women, a finding consistent with research conducted in other African cities (Mendiate et al. 2022). Inadequate infrastructure and safety concerns were identified as the main barriers to cycling.

To encourage more walking and cycling, policymakers should invest in pedestrian and cyclist safety by improving road infrastructure such as dedicated cycle lanes, well-maintained pedestrian paths, and sufficient street lighting.

Private cars, taxis and motorcycles

Private car usage in Lusaka city, accounting for 15% of respondents' preferences, is mainly driven by convenience and flexibility, which mirrors findings in other African cities (Diaz Olvera, Plat & Pochet 2020). To discourage private car use and single occupancy vehicles, particularly in the context of Lusaka and other lower-middle-income cities, a range of policy recommendations such as congestion pricing and car-sharing schemes can be considered (Tao, Nie & Zhang 2021).

Safety concerns are not only prevalent among motorcycle users, the least popular mode of transportation with only 1% of respondents opting for this choice, but also extend significantly to cyclists. The current state of cycling infrastructure in Lusaka presents several challenges that contribute to the safety concerns highlighted by respondents. As it stands, the city's infrastructure for cyclists is markedly underdeveloped, with limited dedicated bicycle lanes and often inadequate road sharing practices, leading to increased risks for cyclists (GRZ 2019b). To improve safety, traffic regulation enforcement should be prioritised (WHO 2018). By addressing these challenges, policymakers can promote a diverse range of transportation options that reduce private car use and contribute to more sustainable urban mobility.

Travel mode choice and residential density

The findings suggest that transportation preferences vary based on residential density in Lusaka district. In high-density areas, public transportation and walking are predominant, while medium-density areas exhibit a mix of transportation modes, and low-density areas rely heavily on private vehicles. The correlation between residential density and transportation choices is significantly influenced by a range of socioeconomic factors. These include, but are not limited to, income levels, household size, and the availability of household resources such as car ownership. For instance, higher-income households, which are more prevalent in low-density areas, tend to have greater access to private vehicles and consequently show a higher preference for driving. In contrast, lower-income households, often situated in high-density areas, may rely more on public transportation or non-motorised modes like walking and cycling due to the lower costs associated with these options. Additionally, the size and composition of households can influence transportation choices; larger families might prefer the convenience of private vehicles, while individuals or smaller households may opt for public transport or walking, especially if these modes are readily accessible and economically advantageous (Brownstone & Fang 2014; Lotfi, Despres & Lord 2019).

To address these differences, policymakers should focus on enhancing public transit infrastructure in high-density areas, promoting modal integration in medium-density areas, and improving transportation equity and accessibility in low-density areas. By tailoring interventions to the specific needs of each area, policymakers can improve transportation efficiency and contribute to urban liveability in Lusaka city.

Factors associated with travel mode choice

Our study explored the factors influencing travel mode choice in Lusaka city and revealed that several socio-demographic factors were significantly associated with the preferred mode of transportation. These factors included gender, age, education level, income, household designation, employment status, vehicle ownership, trip purpose, presence of children, walking or cycling distance, and household size.

Income, distance to work and/or school, and household car ownership also emerged as significant determinants of travel mode choice. Notably, lower-income households and longer travel distances were associated with a higher likelihood of using public transport or non-motorised modes. Given Lusaka's income distribution and sprawling urban form, these findings underscore the vital role of affordable, efficient, and sustainable public transportation and NMT infrastructure. The gender of the respondents also exhibited an intriguing correlation with travel mode choice. The post hoc analysis showed that males were more likely to use cars, bicycles, and motorcycles, while females favoured taxis, public buses, and walking. The gender differences in travel mode preferences observed in this study have also been reported in a study on travel behaviour by gender (Wei-Shiuen & Ashley 2018). Our study also found that higher education and income levels were associated with increased car usage, while those with lower education and income levels were more likely to walk, use public buses, or ride bicycles. Higher education and income levels are associated with increased car usage, likely because of greater affordability and accessibility, while lower education and income levels are correlated with walking, public bus usage, or bicycle riding, possibly reflecting economic constraints and alternative transportation preferences. Household composition, employment status, vehicle ownership, trip purpose, the presence of children, walking or cycling distance, and household size all influenced transportation mode choices.

Initiatives targeting these factors, such as women-specific cycling programmes, age-friendly infrastructure, congestion pricing, car-sharing schemes, safe routes to school programmes, and compact urban design, can contribute to the promotion of sustainable transportation behaviours.

Comparative analysis of transportation preferences in African cities

The transportation preferences observed in Lusaka, Zambia, reveal unique insights that can be compared with findings from travel behaviour studies conducted in other African cities. Comparing these findings with other African cities highlights both similarities and differences in transportation patterns.

In Lagos, Nigeria (Amiegbebor & Poopola 2021), as in Lusaka, public buses are a primary mode of transportation, although Lagos faces challenges with traffic congestion and reliance on informal transit options such as 'danfoes' and 'molues'. Similarly, Accra, Ghana, and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania experience congestion issues and rely on shared minivans (trotros and dala-dalas) for urban transportation, although efforts to improve public transit infrastructure are underway in both cities (Infrastructure Consortium for Africa 2023; Poku-Boansi, Amoako & Obeng Atuah 2019). Comparing travel behaviour between Lusaka and Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya (Tatah et al. 2023), reveals distinct patterns. Lusaka's preferences are influenced by residential density, with high-density areas favouring public transport, medium-density areas showing diversity, and low-density areas relying more on private vehicles. In contrast, Nairobi and Kisumu show differences in trip-making and mode of transportation. While walking is common in both Lusaka and the Kenyan cities, other modes vary. Kisumu sees prominence in motorcycles and matatus, while Nairobi has higher usage of matatus, cars, and buses. Gender, income, and occupation also influence travel behaviour differently across the locations.

Our findings, when compared with a recent study conducted in Harare, Zimbabwe, by Kanyepe (2023), highlight consistent patterns in high-density areas. These trends favour public transportation and walking as preferred modes of travel because of residential density and its impact on traffic congestion. However, low-density areas in Lusaka exhibit a higher reliance on private vehicles than their counterparts in Harare. Both studies indicate a positive influence of residential density and travel behaviour on traffic congestion, with the Harare study specifically identifying travel behaviour as a partial mediator.

Across the continent, studies emphasise the importance of active mobility (walking, cycling) and efficient public transportation for sustainable urban mobility. While transportation preferences and challenges may vary across African cities, there is a shared recognition of the need for efficient, safe, and sustainable mobility solutions tailored to each city's context and unique socio-demographic factors.

Limitations

Our study presents certain limitations that deserve consideration. First and foremost is the potential representativeness of our sample. It's worth noting that while we have aimed to draw insights into the Lusaka population's travel mode choices, certain differences between our sample and the broader Lusaka population may exist because of specific sampling methods and other unaccounted factors. Furthermore, it's important to acknowledge that certain demographic groups, including elderly individuals, are underrepresented in our study. Therefore, caution is advised when generalising our findings to the broader context. In addition, we must recognise the inherent limitations associated with self-reported data. Such data can be influenced by factors such as recall bias and social desirability bias, which may impact the accuracy of the information collected.

To enhance the robustness of future research, we recommend the exploration of more comprehensive methodologies, such as the use of travel diaries or Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking devices to obtain more objective data. Longitudinal research designs may also offer insights into changes in travel behaviour over time. Additionally, conducting studies that investigate the impact of specific policy interventions on travel behaviour can provide valuable insights into promoting sustainable transportation, particularly in LMICs.

 

Conclusion

Our study contributes to the understanding of travel behaviours and mode preferences in urban areas, particularly in the Global South. Public buses are the primary mode because of their low cost and accessibility, despite challenges like overcrowding. Walking is also popular, especially for short distances, highlighting the importance of pedestrian-friendly infrastructure. Cycling, although less common, is favoured for longer trips, indicating a potential for promoting cycling as a sustainable mode. Private car usage, while significant, is driven by convenience and flexibility and could be discouraged through policies such as congestion pricing. Differences in transportation preferences are observed based on residential density, with high-density areas relying more on public transport and walking, and low-density areas favouring private vehicles. Socio-demographic factors such as income and education level also influence mode choice, suggesting the need for tailored interventions to promote sustainable transportation. Comparisons with other African cities underscore the importance of active mobility and efficient public transportation for urban mobility across the continent, despite variations in transportation patterns and challenges.

Importantly, our research addresses notable gaps in the existing literature regarding travel mode share and mode selection within cities in the Global South. By providing insights into the transportation patterns and preferences of Lusaka residents, we contribute valuable knowledge for policymaking and urban planning initiatives aimed at fostering sustainable transportation systems. Our study lays the groundwork for future research to delve deeper into these dynamics and assess the effectiveness of policy interventions in promoting sustainable urban mobility in developing cities.

In conclusion, our study offers significant scientific contributions by enriching the understanding of travel behaviours and mode preferences in Lusaka, Zambia, and similar urban contexts. By identifying key factors influencing travel mode selection and highlighting the importance of sustainable transportation policies, our research serves as a catalyst for advancing equitable and environmentally friendly transportation systems in the Global South.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors express sincere gratitude to the administration and students at the African Christian University (ACU) for their valuable support in facilitating the data collection process for this survey. Their assistance and cooperation have been instrumental in the successful completion of this study.

Competing interests

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Authors' contributions

M.M. contributed to conceptualisation, draft preparation, methodology, analysis and visualisation. R.L. and N.P. were responsible for conceptualisation, supervision, review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding information

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, M.M.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institutions of the authors, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Moses Mwale
mkmwale@hotmail.com

Received: 20 Dec. 2023
Accepted: 18 Mar. 2024
Published: 05 July 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Plastic pollution mitigation strategies in global supply chains: A thematic analysis

 

 

Arthur Mapanga^I; Nobathembu Faleni^II

^IDepartment of Management Sciences, Faculty of Management and Public Administration Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, Butterworth, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, East London, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: The extensive use of plastic in global supply chains (GSCs) has a profound impact on ecosystems and human well-being. Therefore, it is essential to implement an integrated strategy that takes into account the intricate interplay between economic factors, consumer behaviours, industrial practices, and environmental consequences to effectively address the plastic problem in global supply chains
OBJECTIVES: This study explored the factors that contribute to plastic pollution in GSCs and proposed solutions
METHOD: A thematic analysis of peer-reviewed articles, grey literature, and case studies of corporations implementing measures to reduce plastic pollution was conducted
RESULTS: Variables including production, material economics, marketing techniques, consumer choices, insufficient recycling facilities, regulatory frameworks, and GSC complexities have an impact on plastic pollution. Remedies like sustainable alternatives, circular economy methods, and extended producer accountability confront obstacles such as expenses, scalability, consumer acceptance, technological constraints, and policy fragmentation
CONCLUSION: Addressing the issue of plastic pollution in GSCs is a challenging task that demands extensive and collaborative solutions. Currently, the mitigation strategies in place have several limitations, such as the absence of personalisation, cooperation, consumer involvement, and technological progress
CONTRIBUTION: This study provides a holistic analysis of plastic pollution in GSCs, establishing a theoretical framework that incorporates environmental, economic, and social aspects of sustainability. It also offers practical suggestions for businesses to adopt more effective plastic waste reduction strategies and to enhance supply chain management practices

Keywords: plastic pollution; interdisciplinary approaches; supply chain; sustainability; environmental challenge; circular economy.

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Introduction

Plastic pollution in global supply chains (GSCs) has become a pressing environmental challenge in the 21st century (Bandh et al. 2023; Istrate et al. 2020). Despite the numerous advantages associated with the ubiquity, durability, and economic efficiency of plastics, they incur substantial environmental costs (Matheson 2022).

The prevailing linear model of 'make-disposal' has resulted in the accumulation of large quantities of plastic waste, which poses a significant threat to ecosystems, public health, and global market sustainability (Hawkins & Madden 2023; MacLeod et al. 2021). Fletcher et al. (2023) show that under a business-as-usual scenario, global plastic waste production is projected to nearly triple by 2060. Approximately half of this waste is expected to end up in landfills, whereas less than one-fifth is expected to be recycled (Borrelle et al. 2020; Law & Narayan 2021). The potential consequences of indelible plastic pollution include modifications to carbon and nutrient cycles; habitat alterations in soils, sediments, and aquatic ecosystems; co-occurring biological impacts on endangered or keystone species; ecotoxicity; and related societal impacts (MacLeod et al. 2021).

Eliminating the scourge of plastic pollution from Earth has become a global priority for governments, industries, and academic institutions (Abdel Kader & Qutb 2023; Gothár & Schanz 2024; Rabiu & Jaeger-Erben 2024). Nonetheless, the disparate nature of research on plastic pollution has impeded efforts to identify and implement effective solutions for plastic pollution (Kurniawan et al. 2023; Rochman 2020).

Researchers (Barrowclough & Birkbeck 2022a; Pollard & Marzano 2023) with diverse disciplinary backgrounds and expertise, such as environmental science, biology, chemistry, material science, health sciences, economics, public policy, engineering and technology, social sciences, and geography studies, have contributed to existing research on plastic pollution. This issue spans various sectors and regions and has resulted in a fragmented body of research (Danopoulos et al. 2023; Liboiron et al. 2023; Oturai 2023).

Research on plastic pollution is therefore, often compartmentalised into disciplinary silos, industry-specific studies, and regional research, hindering the development of comprehensive and unified mitigation strategies (Danopoulos et al. 2023; Moshood et al. 2022). The current state of research on plastic pollution in GSCs is marked by a lack of cohesion owing to the disparate nature of industries, geographical locations, and the methodological approaches employed. This fragmentation leads to inconsistent data and findings, which in turn impedes the identification of common patterns in plastic pollution and assessment of its overall impact. Furthermore, the absence of standardised terminology and definitions for plastic pollution exacerbates this problem, as studies often employ varying metrics and benchmarks that make it challenging to compare outcomes and develop a unified framework for assessing strategy effectiveness. Systematic integration of data and findings is essential to effectively inform and create successful mitigation strategies, necessitating a concerted effort to align research methodologies and standardise terminologies across studies. This will bridge the gaps between different findings and provide a foundation for an integrated understanding of the global impact of plastic pollution, as well as development of effective countermeasures.

To address this issue, we conducted a systematic literature review to map the field and systematically identify strategic approaches for dealing with plastic pollution in global value chains. By doing so, we can consolidate and integrate the existing knowledge and provide the main findings regarding this subject. A systematic literature review is a powerful tool for consolidating, evaluating, and synthesising existing knowledge on a subject, contributing significantly to the development and refinement of an integrated body of knowledge in a specific field of study (Page et al. 2021). This review aims to synthesise research across disciplines, industries, and geographies to create a unified body of knowledge. It provides an objective analysis of global plastic pollution, offers a consolidated view of policy implications, and highlights innovative solutions and best practices across various sectors. This review transcends regional narratives and presents a comprehensive global perspective that acknowledges the unique challenges and nuances encountered by distinct regions. This cross-regional synthesis is essential to uncover the underlying global trends in plastic pollution while respecting local contexts, thereby supporting the development of responsive and inclusive strategies that are sensitive to the socioeconomic and environmental intricacies of each area. This approach ensures that the devised global strategies are both applicable and adaptable to regional capacities and needs, paving the way for truly global solutions to plastic pollution in GSCs. Thus, the intention of this synthesis is to foster a multifaceted understanding of the factors fuelling plastic pollution that integrate regional insights into a GSC management context, setting the stage for globally informed, yet regionally tailored supply chain management policy frameworks. By encapsulating a diverse range of regional experiences and supply chain strategies, policymakers and stakeholders can be equipped with a more nuanced and effective toolkit to address the complexities of plastic pollution in GSC networks. This approach not only aligns with global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) but also ensures that actions taken are considerate of the varied dynamics at play across different geographic and industrial landscapes.

The remainder of this article is organised as follows. Initially, we establish a conceptual boundary to precisely define the plastic pollution in GSCs. Subsequently, we outline the methodology employed, detailing our systematic approach to literature selection and review, including information on our search strategy, analysis process, and evaluation of study quality. Next, we present the outcomes of the systematic literature review. Finally, we discuss the implications and limitations of our study, and propose key areas for future research.

 

Conceptual demarcation

Plastic refers to any synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymer that can be moulded in various forms (Kurniawan et al. 2023; Li et al. 2022; Moshood et al. 2022). Plastic pollution pertains to the accumulation of plastic objects and particles in the environment, which have detrimental effects on humans, wildlife, and their habitats (Oturai 2023). The study of the relationship between the flow and stock characteristics of plastics in GSCs is an emerging academic research field. This literature review brings together interdisciplinary studies to gain insights into how this interaction exacerbates environmental concerns. Rochman et al. (2019) provided a foundational resource that elucidated how plastics traverse global value chains from raw material extraction to waste. They emphasised the environmental consequences at each stage, arguing that the widespread use of plastics inevitably leads to increased stocks because of improper disposal. Their work lays the groundwork for understanding the intrinsic connection between the flow and subsequent stock. Horodytska et al. (2019) examined global recycling efforts and shed light on the disparities in international recycling infrastructure. They revealed the shortcomings of current systems that fail to sufficiently redirect the flow of post-consumer plastics away from stock accumulation. Hawkins and Madden (2023) examined policy fragmentation, which allows for the continued proliferation of plastic materials in global value chains without adequate end-of-life strategies. They argued that this leads to unintended waste stocks, particularly in regions with weaker waste management policies, illustrating the symbiotic relationship between flow processes and stock outcomes. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report offers a comprehensive account of the cross-border impacts of plastic waste stocks, particularly in oceans (Walters & Fuentes Loureiro 2020). The report serves a crucial function in establishing a link between the international trade in plastics and the emergence of transboundary pollution stocks. Scholarly contributions from Brooks, Wang and Jambeck (2018) underline the significance of examining socioeconomic factors that impact the movement and accumulation of plastic waste in developing regions, highlighting that economic disparities often contribute to uneven stock distribution. Bakker et al.'s (2021) proposal for a circular economy anticipates that transforming the flow characteristics of plastics can effectively address the challenges associated with stock accumulation. They recommend incorporating end-of-life considerations at the design stage to significantly reduce environmental stock and alter global value chain dynamics.

The collective body of literature underscores a critical issue - inefficiency and inconsistency in the management of the plastic life cycle creates a vicious cycle that exacerbates environmental stocks, endangers ecosystems, and exacerbates' socioeconomic disparities (Al-Shihabi & Barghash 2023; Law & Narayan 2021).

Furthermore, insufficient global policies to address this issue have compounded this challenge. A holistic forward-looking approach is necessary to align the movement of plastics in GSCs with environmental stewardships (Abdel Kader & Qutb 2023; Barrowclough & Birkbeck 2022b). Without this alignment, the accumulation of plastic waste will continue to compromise ecological integrity and human health on a global scale, rendering current and future remediation efforts costly and ineffective (Kumar, Maurya & Raj 2023; Landázuri et al. 2023; Maqsood & Altaf 2023). The literature (e.g., [Anderer, Dür & Lechner 2020; Castaldi et al. 2023; Fan, Anwar & Zhou 2023; Gentile et al. 2023]) also reveals a complex interplay in which the qualities that make plastics valuable in GSCs - their durability and versatility - also make their stocks environmentally pernicious. Although plastic materials facilitate global trade and development, their persistent residue serves as a symbol of unsustainable growth, a duality that underscores the urgent need for action from researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders (Danopoulos et al. 2023; Gentile et al. 2023; Moshood et al. 2022; Rosenboom, Langer & Traverso 2022; Tapaninaho & Heikkinen 2022).

 

Methodology

The purpose of this literature review is to identify and summarise effective strategies for reducing plastic pollution in GSCs, in line with the goal of achieving global sustainability. To achieve this, we formulated a research question that asked what measures can be taken to minimise plastic pollution in GSCs. We followed a systematic approach to gather and evaluate relevant literature, adhering to the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), to ensure a transparent report on our purpose, methodology, and findings (Page et al. 2021).

Eligibility criteria

To ensure that our systematic review was comprehensive and focussed, we established a strict criteria for selecting relevant literature. Our review included peer-reviewed research articles, case studies, and grey literature that discussed plastic pollution mitigation in supply chains. Exclusion criteria was studies that did not focus on supply chains, non-English language articles, and publications before 2014 The literature review included directly examining strategies for mitigating plastic pollution within GSCs and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions in this context. We also examined practical applications and case studies relevant to the GSC framework and the contributions that consider policy implications and alignment with international sustainability objectives.

Information sources

Our search encompassed a variety of databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, Business Source Complete, ScienceDirect, reports from the environmental organisation, GreenFILE, and grey literature databases, particularly the Open Grey System for unpublished research and policy articles. All database searches were conducted from 15 December 2023 to 05 January 2024 to ensure the inclusion of the most current research available. In addition, we conducted a general web search using Google to identify relevant unpublished literature and organisational websites that could provide supporting information. Our goal was to gather a wide range of studies to mitigate potential bias and to identify the full scope of evidence related to this topic. Furthermore, we selected various case studies in our review following a structured approach, whereby we initially applied meticulous criteria for selecting case studies that were directly relevant to plastic pollution mitigation in GSCs. Each case study was then analysed, with a focus on identifying the context, intervention strategies, outcomes, and lessons learned. This involved a detailed examination of the implementation processes, stakeholder engagement, challenges faced, and effectiveness of the mitigation strategies applied. To ensure consistency and unbiased analysis of each case study, we used a standardised template to extract and compare information. This allowed for a systematic synthesis of the knowledge gained from various contexts and interventions, providing a comprehensive view of the practical applications and real-world impacts of mitigation strategies. The findings from the case studies were then integrated with broader literature to construct a multidimensional understanding of the issue at hand.

Search strategy

We used a diverse array of search strategies aimed at comprehensively retrieving relevant information to achieve high levels of conceptual saturation and maximal variability. Keywords employed in the search included 'plastic pollution', 'supply chain', 'mitigation strategies', 'waste management', and 'sustainability'. We also adapted a search string for each database's syntax, limiting our search to the titles, abstracts, and keywords. The search string was adapted for each database's syntax involved combining subject headings and search terms, such as 'plastic pollution' AND 'global supply chains' OR 'global value chains' OR 'supply chains', to locate studies focussed on reducing plastic pollution in GSCs. For the case studies, the search strategy involved keyword development, which was based on a search query that combined key terms related to our research question, including 'plastic pollution', 'case study', 'mitigation strategies', and 'global supply chain'. The search was conducted using the Google search engine by applying advanced search parameters to filter the results by relevance and timeliness. We set parameters to prioritise authoritative sources such as governmental agencies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and industry publications. Thereafter, the initial search results were manually screened to identify links directed to potentially relevant case studies. We prioritised documents and reports that provided an in-depth analysis and discussion of mitigation strategies within the context of supply chains. Full-text documents or summaries of the case studies identified through Google search were retrieved for further assessment. Where necessary, we conducted follow-up searches using specific report titles or authors to locate full studies. Each retrieved case study was assessed against our predetermined inclusion criteria, which emphasised the relevance of plastic pollution mitigation in GSCs, adequacy of data, and methodological rigour.

Study selection

Duplicates were removed before the two reviewers independently screened the titles and abstracts of the relevant studies. Thereafter, an eligibility checklist was used by one of the researchers to screen all the titles and abstracts for relevance, moving each to one of the three groups created within the Zotero Library titled 'relevant', 'irrelevant', and 'uncertain'. A second reviewer then screened 30% of the 'irrelevant' group citations as a check on the first reviewer's decision-making consistency. We then obtained full text articles for each citation in the 'relevant' and 'uncertain' groups, which we independently reviewed to determine their relevance. Disagreements between the reviewers were discussed until a consensus was reached. As a result, the full texts of potentially eligible studies were assessed independently. Disagreements were resolved by discussion. To identify relevant case studies on plastic pollution mitigation in GSCs, we integrated the use of Google with our primary database searches to encompass a broader spectrum of applied research and grey literature. We prioritised documents and reports that provided an in-depth analysis and discussion of mitigation strategies within the context of supply chains. By employing this structured approach to search Google for case studies, we aimed to complement the systematic literature review with practical examples of how plastic pollution mitigation strategies have been applied in various GSC contexts. This strategy ensured a comprehensive collection of case studies to inform our review of real-world practice.

Mitigating the risk of bias

To ensure a precise evaluation of the risk of bias in the selected studies in our review of plastic pollution mitigation strategies, we followed the Cochrane Handbook's recommendations for comprehensive searches to mitigate publication and selection bias. We adopted a meticulous approach that included a comprehensive and systematic search strategy that entailed individual researchers conducting independent, comprehensive database searches with predetermined search terms across all the included databases and grey literature (Cumpston et al. 2019). In addition, titles and abstracts were screened and studies were selected based on the defined inclusion criteria. We also employed a cross-referencing technique in which we juxtaposed the reported results and data of each study against supplementary data sources, such as datasets from reputable environmental organisations and official statistics, to verify the accuracy of the extracted data (Ryan et al. 2021). Furthermore, we performed a comparative analysis of reported outcomes with analogous studies in the field (Kumar et al. 2022). This process encompasses examining the consistency of results and methodologies across different research works to validate our findings and ensure the reliable integration of data.

Data synthesis

In our systematic literature review, we employed thematic synthesis, a method used to identify, analyse, and report patterns (themes) within the data. This qualitative analytical approach is structured to distil complex information into overarching themes that succinctly capture core issues and insights from literature (Compernolle et al. 2020). Using this method, we sought to effectively present and summarise the results and provide a clear narrative of the findings related to plastic pollution mitigation strategies. This approach was chosen for several reasons. Firstly, we projected having to synthesise many studies, and the thematic synthesis was judged to be more appropriate for that goal than the other methods (Damarell et al. 2020; Thomas & Harden 2008). Secondly, this thematic synthesis approach extends beyond mere quantification of concepts by employing a process of pattern recognition across diverse studies (Shahi et al. 2020). Thirdly, thematic synthesis provides a systematic and transparent approach to conducting and reporting the review through its three clearly delineated stages, which involve line-by-line inductive coding of findings within the primary studies, organising any related 'codes' into descriptive 'themes', and creating more abstract 'analytic themes' (Damarell et al. 2020). The findings were categorised into recurrent themes and subthemes that describe various facets of mitigating plastic pollution in GSCs. Additionally, a detailed discussion section was included, where the implications of the synthesised data on the effectiveness of the identified strategies were interpreted, along with confidence in these estimates and the need for further research. The synthesis method ensured a structured, systematic, and transparent process for collating and presenting the findings, which allowed us to draw clear conclusions regarding strategies that are effective in mitigating plastic pollution within GSCs.

 

Results

This section describes the outcomes of an in-depth analysis of diverse data sources encompassing systematic literature reviews and case studies. Our focus was to unravel the intricate dynamics of plastic pollution in GSCs. Here, we present a nuanced understanding of the scale, impacts, and potential solutions of the pervasive issue of plastic pollution in GSCs. The results herein form the basis for our informed discussions, actionable insights, and strategic measures to address the multifaceted challenges associated with plastic pollution globally.

Search strategy and study selection

Our electronic database and grey literature, along with reference list checks, resulted in 7044 citations. After accounting for duplicates, we obtained 2147 citations. After scanning titles and abstracts against the inclusion criteria, 108 citations remained, requiring further review of full-text articles. After a more thorough full-text analysis, we ended up with 42 articles for the final synthesis. This process is outlined in Figure 1 as a PRISMA flow diagram (Page et al. 2021).

 

 

Causes of plastic pollution in global supply chains

Our systematic literature review identified several interconnected themes and subthemes related to plastic pollution in supply chains. The following is a summary of the data categorised by these themes: single-use plastic pollution is a multifaceted environmental issue, with various factors contributing to its severity and persistence. These factors reflect the diverse lifecycle of single-use plastics, from manufacturing to disposal, and encompass a range of economic, social, and regulatory influences across GSCs. We discovered subthemes related to plastic pollution in GSCs.

Production and material economics

The discussion surrounding the economics of single-use plastic production is dominated by studies that emphasise the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of plastic manufacturing as key factors that contribute to its widespread use (Nikiema & Asiedu 2022). According to Chen et al. (2021), single-use plastics are primarily derived from fossil fuels, making them inexpensive to produce and economically attractive to manufacturers in GSCs. The choice of materials often prioritises cost efficiency over environmental impact, leading to a preference for disposable items. Moreover, single-use plastics illustrate market externalities, where environmental costs are not borne by producers or consumers, but by society (Matheson 2022). Without mechanisms to internalise these externalities, supply chains continue to exploit the economic benefits of single-use plastics. Several studies (Chen et al. 2021; Vimal et al. 2020) have found that low material and production costs create a comparative economic advantage for single-use plastics, resulting in an increased production volume. However, Matheson (2022) pointed out a critical disconnect in pricing structures that fails to account for the environmental externalities of single-use plastics, thereby perpetuating their unchecked flow in GSCs.

Packaging and marketing practices

The literature underscores the significant role of marketing strategies in bolstering demand for single-use plastics. Vimal et al. (2020) shed light on how leaps in packaging technology not only enhance the appeal and prolong the shelf life of products but also anchor the use of single-use plastics in the retail sector. Walker et al. (2021) alluded that, in many cases, such innovative packaging has outpaced environmental concerns, thus reinforcing single-use plastics. In the consumer goods industry, the allure of packaging is not merely aesthetic but it also serves critical functions, such as product protection and convenience, making it integral to modern marketing tactics (Dominic 2021). Other studies (Diana et al. 2022; Hawkins & Madden 2023) have found that single-use plastics are favoured by many companies because of their cost-effectiveness, durability, and flexibility, which makes them ubiquitous in product packaging. However, this also entails a significant increase in plastic waste because these materials are designed to be discarded after only single use. The studies taken together depict a marketing landscape finely tuned to a plastic-dependent model in which sustainability and the exploration of eco-friendly substitutes have often been secondary considerations. The emphasis on short-term functionality in packaging over long-term environmental impacts underscores the need to recalibrate marketing priorities for sustainable practices.

Consumer convenience culture

A recurring theme in contemporary society literature is the prominence of consumer culture, which places a premium on convenience. This cultural tendency has been deeply ingrained by the prevalence of single-use plastics, as highlighted by Walker et al. (2021), who underscored how these materials cater to the immediate needs of consumers but at a significant long-term cost to the environment. Morseletto et al. (2023) highlighted that the rise of fast-paced lifestyles has further entrenched a disposable mindset, with individuals increasingly opting for products that offer time savings and ease of use, thus reinforcing a robust market for single-use items. Consequently, single-use plastics have proliferated in the form of food packaging, shopping bags, and beverage containers, a trend identified by Sun and He (2023) that contributes to the growing waste management crisis and environmental problems. This shift towards disposability reflects broader societal values, suggesting that substantial shifts in both individual behaviours and systemic practices are necessary to counter the environmental impacts of this consumption pattern.

Inadequate recycling infrastructure

The escalating plastic pollution problem in GSCs is further aggravated by insufficient recycling systems, a theme echoed by Kibria et al. (2023), who pointed out that the capacity to manage large quantities of waste is unavailable in many regions. Other scholars (Li et al.2022) found this challenge to be compounded by a narrow focus on recycling predominantly marketable plastics, leaving a surplus of non-recyclable plastics that contaminate the environment. In addition, as highlighted by Mihai et al. (2021), the practice of exporting plastic waste across international lines adds layers of complexity, exacerbated by the varying recycling capabilities and legislative frameworks among nations. In the economic sphere, studies (Gothár & Schanz 2024) have emphasised the competition faced by recycled plastics, which struggle to match the affordability of virgin plastics, thereby deterring investments in recycling innovation. This confluence of issues necessitates a comprehensive, research-informed strategy that promotes technological innovations in recycling, stimulates a market for recycled goods, and aligns with global policies to reduce the prevalence of single-use plastics and their adverse environmental impact.

Policy and regulatory frameworks

The literature on policy and regulation regarding single-use plastic pollution is bifurcated, presenting a complex picture of both the challenges and progress. On one side of the spectrum, researchers, such as Gentile et al. (2023), have drawn attention to the inconsistent and often ineffective nature of policies intended to regulate single-use plastics. These policies vary widely across jurisdictions, leading to piecemeal adoption and enforcement, limiting their overall effectiveness. Such measures may include bans or taxes on specific single-use items; however, without a global consensus or enforcement mechanism, their impact on pollution reduction remains largely localised. In contrast, literature shows that robust policies have led to substantial reductions in single-use plastic consumption (Borg et al. 2022; Rabiu & Jaeger-Erben 2024; Singh & Biswas 2023). Indeed, a comparative policy study by Marino and Pariso (2020) is foundational to understanding how different regulatory frameworks adapt to the complexities of international trade, as well as the propensities of individual nations participating in GSCs to attempt to mitigate or exacerbate the challenges of plastic pollution.

Global supply chain dynamics

Literature (Al-Shihabi & Barghash 2023; Bor 2020; Liu et al. 2022) describes the mixed role of GSCs in the context of single-use plastic pollution. Global supply chains require durable, lightweight materials to minimise costs and maintain product integrity during transportation, consequently leading to increased usage of single-use plastics. However, they also have the potential to implement measures to mitigate the pollution. Faced with environmental regulations and consumer expectations, companies within GSCs are increasingly exploring sustainable alternatives, promoting reuse and recycling, and aiming to establish circular economies (Despoudi 2020; Xu, Liao & Sun et al. 2023). Additionally, as Sinkovics, Sinkovics and Archie-Acheampong (2021) highlight, powerful multinationals within these chains can enforce environmental standards at the supplier level, thereby expanding their sustainability initiatives. Thus, our systematic review reveals that GSCs stand at a juncture, serving both as conduits for single-use plastic pollution and channels for widespread sustainable practices.

Public awareness and education

There is a growing awareness of the environmental impacts of single-use plastics, yet education and public engagement efforts vary significantly. Limited awareness and education about the detrimental effects of single-use plastics are accorded significant culpability for fuelling the prevalence of plastic pollution and associated environmental issues across the globe (Senturk & Dumludag 2022). Without a broad understanding of the impact, consumers may not recognise the importance of reducing plastic use, leading to a continued high demand for convenient, disposable plastic products, as observed by Kittu, Aruljothi and Chellamuthu (2023). Furthermore, limited education on the topic means that many individuals may not know how to properly recycle or may be unaware of the recycling options available, as Borg et al. (2022) elaborated, resulting in higher volumes of plastic waste in landfills and the natural environment. This knowledge gap can also hinder consumers' demand for sustainable products. Efforts to inform consumers about sustainable alternatives and the importance of reducing plastic use are critical to changing usage patterns (Borg et al. 2022).

In summary, this review points to a complex interplay between economic incentives, cultural practices, market mechanisms, infrastructural limitations, and policy landscapes that sustain the flow of single-use plastics in GSCs. Each of these dimensions influences the extent of single-use plastic pollution and highlights the interconnectedness of the actions needed to mitigate this issue from material innovation and design to waste management and consumer education. Addressing single-use plastic pollution requires a multifaceted approach that acknowledges these dimensions and incorporates stakeholders across the entire life cycle of the plastic products.

 

Solutions to plastic pollution in global supply chains

Theme 1: Sustainable alternatives

The literature reveals the important role of sustainable alternatives in minimising the negative impact of plastics on GSCs. Driven by environmental concerns and regulatory demands, these alternatives aim to reduce reliance on traditional plastics through eco-friendly replacement and circular economic practices. Notable innovations in the literature include bio-based materials, reuse and refill systems, and recycling technologies that are shaping the transition towards a more sustainable global supply chain (Costa et al. 2023; Versino et al. 2023). In view of this, we also examined how the economic feasibility, market acceptance, and logistical considerations of these alternatives, as well as the challenges and opportunities they present in replacing single-use plastics are presented in the extant literature.

Bio-based materials

Bio-based materials such as polylactic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates are universally identified as potential environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional single-use plastics, owing to their renewable origins and biodegradability (Abdelshafy et al. 2023; Costa et al. 2023; Versino et al. 2023). Nonetheless, it is evident in the literature that despite their potential to reduce the environmental impact and carbon footprint, significant challenges must be addressed before they can be adopted more widely (Asna Ashari, Oh & Koch 2024; Gerassimidou et al. 2021; Landázuri et al. 2023). Rosenboom et al. (2022) highlighted the scalability of production, high cost, and variations in mechanical properties that limit their competitiveness with traditional plastics. Other studies (e.g., Khan et al. 2022; Ordoñez, Atarés & Chiralt 2022; Wei et al. 2017) have found that the biodegradability of bio-based materials is heavily dependent on the availability of specific composting conditions, thus casting doubt on their practical disposal and degradation in diverse environments. This suggests that further research is needed to improve production efficiency, material performance, and composting infrastructure to fully realise the sustainable potential of bio-based materials within GSCs.

Reusable packaging

Our systematic review demonstrates the significance of employing reusable packaging to address the issue of plastic pollution and that it requires a synergistic approach encompassing both behavioural modifications and system design. Numerous scholars (Pahl, Richter & Wyles 2020, Kibria et al. 2023, Oturai 2023) have underscored the potential of reusable packaging systems and have emphasised the need for a shift in consumer habits, infrastructure development, and design practices for their successful implementation. Fletcher et al. (2023) show that closed-loop and take-back programmes can contribute to a more sustainable future. However, many previous studies (e.g., Betts et al. 2022; Eisenreich et al. 2022; Kumar et al. 2023) have found that the success of reusable packaging is dependent on consumers' willingness to embrace new behaviours, the practicality of these systems, and the presence of robust infrastructure for the collection, maintenance, and redistribution of packaging. Existing literature indicates that the high initial costs involved in the implementation of reusable packaging remain a significant barrier for businesses. This underscores the need for strategic investments and consumer incentives to encourage widespread adoption and to ensure the long-term environmental impact of eco-conscious packaging solutions within GSCs (Kibria et al. 2023; Vanapalli et al. 2021).

Eco-friendly substitutes

The literature recognises how the use of eco-friendly alternatives to conventional plastics can be harnessed as a strategic approach to reducing plastic pollution in GSCs, as it offers benefits such as renewability and biodegradability (Mangal, Rao & Banerjee 2023; Moshood et al. 2022; Sheldon & Norton 2020).

However, the limitations of these alternatives have also been observed, including issues with the actual degradation conditions, production scalability, and higher costs (Abe et al. 2021; Thakur et al. 2018; Zaaba & Jaafar 2020). Additionally, the suitability of these materials for a variety of products, the need for broader market penetration, and the critical role of policies in promoting their adoption have also been highlighted (Baranwal et al. 2022). Therefore, it is clear from our review that transitioning to eco-friendly materials, requires a multifaceted approach that integrates material innovation, economic strategies, and regulatory support to address the plastic pollution crisis effectively.

While the challenge of transitioning to eco-friendly materials is a well-documented issue in mitigating plastic pollution, our analysis offers a unique perspective by examining this transition, specifically within the context of GSCs. We argue that supply chains' global nature presents unique challenges and opportunities for this transition.

For instance, while the global reach of supply chains can complicate the transition owing to differing regulations and standards across countries, it also provides opportunities for learning and innovation transfer across borders. Furthermore, our analysis highlights the role of multinational corporations in driving this transition on a global scale. By focussing on these aspects, our study adds to the existing literature by providing a more nuanced understanding of the transition to eco-friendly materials in the context of GSCs'.

Theme 2: Circular economy practices

Our systematic literature review reveals the widespread adoption of circular economy practices within GSCs, highlighting the urgent need for a transition towards more sustainable and regenerative models. Circular economy practices aim to replace the conventional linear 'take-make-dispose' approach with a sustainable closed-loop system that enhances resource efficiency and minimises waste (Bandh et al. 2023; Goyal, Esposito & Kapoor 2018). Such an approach can emphasise incorporating essential circular principles within GSCs encompassing closed-loop systems, design for recycling, and waste-to-energy solutions.

Closed-loop systems

As a result of the environmental advantages of continuous recycling, several studies have focussed on the important role of closed-loop systems in fostering a sustainable circular economy(Maqsood & Altaf 2023; Reddy et al. 2023). However, despite the numerous benefits, the literature reveals that implementing such systems is a difficult endeavour for businesses in GSCs because closed-loop systems by their nature require sophisticated infrastructure capable of managing intricate material flows and ensuring the requisite product quality (Debnath et al. 2023; Marsh, Velenturf & Bernal 2022). Other studies (e.g., (Ahmed 2021; Amjad et al. 2022) have emphasised the significance of consumer engagement because successful recycling relies heavily on behaviour. Several studies (e.g., Andersen et al. 2023) found that the economic viability of closed-loop systems depends on the initial investment and long-term competitiveness with virgin materials, thereby necessitating strategic investments and policy frameworks that support recycled commodities.

Design for recycling

Another key strategy in the circular economy relates to recycling design, which involves the proactive use of single materials to enhance material purity and recycling efficiency (Antonopoulos, Faraca & Tonini 2021; Milios et al. 2018; Thompson et al. 2021), standardisation of components to streamline the recycling process through bulk handling (Kristoffersen et al. 2020; Morseletto 2023), and the easy disassembly of products to maximise resource recovery and prolong their life cycles (Alsafran et al. 2023; Wang et al. 2021). Rajaeifar et al. (2022) established that this requires collaboration between designers, manufacturers, and recyclers, as it faces challenges in aligning product functionality with recyclability, managing transition costs, and ensuring that standardised design aspects meet consumer expectations and approval. This evidence points to the necessity of integrated and innovative industry practices, guided by strong regulatory frameworks.

Waste-to-energy solutions

Waste-to-energy (WtE) solutions have emerged as pivotal tools in GSCs, providing the dual advantages of waste management and energy production to address the challenges of plastic pollution. These technologies, including incineration, gasification, and anaerobic digestion, have contributed to a more sustainable and circular approach by converting waste into energy, reducing landfill dependence, and reducing the carbon footprint (Istrate et al. 2020; Longsheng et al. 2022; Porshnov 2022). However, the research laments the hindrances posed by obstacles such as high costs, environmental concerns regarding emissions, and technical challenges associated with diverse waste streams to the widespread adoption of WtE solutions. Other studies have claimed that public perception and community acceptance, along with the need for improved waste management practices, pose significant hurdles (Varjani et al. 2022). This suggests that navigating these challenges requires continuous innovation, research, and collaboration to enhance the effectiveness of WtE solutions in GSCs.

Theme 3: Extended producer responsibility

Extended producer responsibility (EPR), a policy approach that shifts the responsibility for waste management and recycling upstream to the producers for the entire life cycle of products, has emerged as a crucial strategy for enhancing sustainability in GSCs (Hou et al. 2020; Leclerc & Badami 2020; Liu et al. 2022; Tumu, Vorst & Curtzwiler 2023). This approach encourages eco-friendly materials, recycling processes, and responsible product disposal, thereby contributing to a circular economy and reducing the environmental footprint. Despite its benefits, Leclerc and Badami (2020) observed that challenges persist in its widespread implementation as fairness is questioned across the supply chain. Furthermore, studies indicate that the harmonisation of regulations across diverse regions and industries, ensuring effective enforcement, managing compliance costs, and fostering public awareness are critical hurdles (Abdel Kader & Qutb 2023; Bening, Pruess & Blum 2021; Walker et al. 2021). It is clearly evident from the systematic review that collaborative efforts between governments, businesses, and consumers are essential to ensure transparent and standardised frameworks, increase stakeholder engagement, and enhance accountability throughout the supply chain, which are intrinsic to the realisation of the full potential of EPR in transforming GSCs towards more responsible and sustainable practices.

Case studies

After exploring various solutions to plastic pollution that encompass sustainable alternatives, circular economy practices, and EPR solutions within the complex dynamics of GSCs, we conducted an analysis of their real-world applications through a review of pertinent case studies (see Table 1). By examining specific instances where the strategies were implemented, our aim was to draw valuable insights into the success, challenges, and overall effectiveness of sustainability strategies. These case studies serve as practical illustrations and provide tangible examples of how these solutions can be integrated into a complex web of GSCs. Through this examination, we sought to enhance our understanding of the practical implications and potential refinements necessary for the successful implementation of these solutions to combat plastic pollution.

These case studies reinforce the assertion that mitigating plastic pollution in GSCs is a multifaceted task that involves both success and challenges across various strategies. Biodegradable materials and recycling have proven to be sustainable alternatives that can effectively reduce single-use plastic wastes.

Nonetheless, the adoption of sustainable materials still faces challenges including higher costs and the need for broader implementation. Circular economy practices, such as reusable packaging in Loop UK and efficient waste management in Green Africa Recycling, have also demonstrated success in reducing single-use plastics and pollution. However, these practices encounter initial high costs, require consumer behaviour change, and require an expansion of waste management infrastructure. Navigating diverse industries, regulations, and socioeconomic contexts on a global scale remains challenging. Extended producer responsibility initiatives have successfully shifted responsibility to producers, but consistent enforcement, compliance, and cost management, including sourcing enough recycled materials and balancing cost-effectiveness, remain significant challenges. In addition, consumer awareness and participation remain crucial, emphasising the importance of engagement in circular practices. Finally, technological and logistics challenges underscore the need to overcome resistance and manage complexities in the collection and recycling processes. In essence, addressing plastic pollution requires a comprehensive and collaborative approach to navigate the multifaceted issues inherent in GSCs.

 

Discussion

The objective of this study is to investigate the various factors contributing to plastic pollution in GSCs and to suggest possible solutions to minimise plastic pollution in the global economy. This study underscores the significance of adopting context-sensitive solutions that leverage industry-specific knowledge and adapt them to local circumstances. It advocates an integrated framework that fosters cross-sectoral collaboration and emphasises the strategic importance of actively involving consumers as a critical component of the supply chain. Moreover, this study sheds light on the specific technological and logistical challenges that must be overcome to facilitate progressive innovation. By presenting these findings using newly gathered empirical evidence, this study contributes to the theoretical discourse on sustainable supply chain management and provides a solid foundation for future advancement in this field. This research suggests that current strategies are insufficient to achieve optimal levels of cooperation and consumer engagement. Therefore, it recommends implementing targeted awareness campaigns and advocates for a more nuanced and context-specific approach to global initiatives.

 

Conclusion

Plastic waste presents a significant challenge to supply chains worldwide, necessitating coordinated action from all stakeholders. This study contributes to both the theoretical and practical aspects of supply chain management by presenting a dynamic recalibration model that considers the fluidity of the global economic and technological landscapes. The theoretical value of this study lies in introducing a nuanced framework that identifies emerging variables that influence plastic pollution and integrates them into existing sustainability strategies. Practically, this study offers empirically derived insights that enable practitioners to implement adaptive evidence-based approaches for reducing plastic waste. The recalibration model goes beyond static solutions, advocating for iterative assessments and swift responsiveness to new data and global trends, thus enriching the strategic toolkit available for supply chain managers to confront the multifaceted challenges of plastic pollution. This study identifies crucial areas that require further investigation to effectively combat plastic pollution in GSCs. Previous studies have explored economic measures, such as plastic taxes and EPR systems, but a comprehensive examination of their long-term consequences is lacking. Future research should assess the potential economic benefits and losses of sustainable practices and the economic feasibility of biodegradable alternatives. Although previous studies have focussed on alternatives to conventional plastics, detailed studies are required to evaluate their environmental impact, durability, and recyclability. This study also emphasises the role of consumer behaviour in plastic pollution. However, there is a lack of research on ways to encourage sustainable choices among consumers. Future studies should explore strategies to promote the principles of reduction, reuse, and recycling among consumers. Although international frameworks aimed at reducing plastic pollution have been studied, research evaluating their effectiveness is scarce. Future studies should assess the impact of these policies and identify best practices. Multidisciplinary research that integrates insights from economics, materials science, and other relevant fields is necessary to effectively address the complex problem of plastic pollution.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

Both authors, A.M and N.F., contributed equally to the work. A.M. contributed to the conceptualisation, research and structure of the paper and was instrumental in shaping the narrative and arguments presented in the article. N.F. played a crucial role in the research and writing process and synthesis of information.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, A.M.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Arthur Mapanga
amapanga@wsu.ac.za

Received: 20 Jan. 2024
Accepted: 21 Apr. 2024
Published: 15 July 2024

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A^sAladwey^rND^1A01^nRaghad A^sAlsudays

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Accounting information sharing within buyer-supplier collaborations: Insights from a developing country

 

 

Laila M.A. Aladwey^{I, II}; Raghad A. Alsudays^I

^IDepartment of Accounting, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
^IIDepartment of Accounting, Tanta University, Gharbia, Egypt

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: The significance of the context, or the environment, is pivotal in influencing the practices of management accounting
OBJECTIVES: This article aims to explore the significance, methods and challenges of accounting information exchange in buyer-supplier collaborations
METHOD: In buyer-supplier collaborations, data are gathered from 13 semi-structured interviews and 250 questionnaires. The analysis is conducted using SPSS version 25, employing non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test and content analysis techniques
RESULTS: Respondents recognise its benefits but prefer informal communication. Challenges such as diverse systems and mistrust hinder formal sharing. Despite obstacles, informal channels remain effective, although concerns about data leakage persist, leading to a conservative approach
CONCLUSION: In the Egyptian textile supply chain, members prioritise individual goals over collective ones. Informal methods, such as backdoor access, facilitate accounting information sharing among buyer-supplier partnerships. Formal sharing protocols are lacking, with limited one-way technical data exchange. Trust issues and data security concerns persist. Despite the absence of formal disclosure, cost estimations remain feasible. The company adopts a conservative approach, limiting access to records in most cases
CONTRIBUTION: In essence, the article not only sheds light on the complexities and nuances surrounding accounting information sharing in the textile supply chain but also emphasises the resilience of informal communication channels in overcoming challenges. As the industry navigates these dynamics, recognising the importance of relational ties and informal exchanges could be pivotal in fostering a more efficient and collaborative supply chain ecosystem

Keywords: accounting information sharing; textile supply chain; Egypt; formal mechanisms; OBA.

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Introduction

In recent decades, there has been a renewed interest in horizontal agreements among legally independent partners, evidenced by the proliferation of various inter-organisational relationships such as joint ventures, strategic alliances, partnerships, outsourcing and supply-chain collaborations (Matinheikki et al. 2022). The literature consistently highlights the limitations of traditional management accounting in addressing the complex interrelationships within such collaborations. The argument is that conventional accounting, confined within individual firm boundaries, provides minimal value in the context of buyer-supplier collaboration (Dekker et al. 2019).

Collaborations that blur organisational boundaries, reflecting an integrative philosophy, necessitate the development of inter-organisational accounting to effectively manage these intricate relationships (Yawar & Seuring 2017). In response to Hopwood's (1996) imperative to reorient firms towards a perspective that transcends traditional hierarchical structures, a considerable body of academic scholarly literature has undertaken an exploration of the ramifications for accounting within collaborative environments (Kornberger, Pflueger & Mouritsen 2017). Information sharing is crucial in integrated supply chain management (Maskey, Fei & Nguyen 2019). Conventional management accounting focuses on hierarchical information for control and decision-making (Fliegner 2015), but it is insufficient for the interconnected dynamics of supply chains. Management accounting has shifted from internal to inter-organisational information sharing across the supply chain. The literature suggests that accounting information sharing is influenced by the specific context (Agndal & Nilsson 2023; Diab et al. 2020; Phan et al. 2023).

Accounting information sharing within a firm manifests in diverse forms and serves multiple objectives, including financial reporting, cost analysis, internal control implementation, performance evaluation, inventory management and more. In less developed countries with informal institutions, management control processes differ from stable contexts. Formal management control systems emerge as complexity increases (Phan et al. 2023). Agndal and Nilsson (2023) argue that the extent of accounting information sharing depends on the domain. In low-trust contexts, sharing is limited, while high-trust contexts encourage free data exchange. Relational social norms prevent opportunistic exploitation of disclosed cost data (Möller & Windolph 2012). Agndal and Nilsson (2023) advocate analysing domain-specific trust and distrust for data sharing among supply chain partners.

Integrated IT systems enhance communication and information exchange (Phan et al. 2023), contingent on partners' willingness to disclose financial information. Context matters, examined in dyadic connections or broader supply-chain networks (Håkansson & Lind 2007; Lind 2013). Firms prefer revealing cost data to those directly influencing them (Biswas et al. 2023). Open-book accounting (OBA) focuses on sharing cost data within the supply chain, as identified in various studies (Fayard et al. 2012). Open-book accounting is often viewed as a means to identify improvement areas and cost-saving opportunities through collaborative efforts among supply-chain partners (Möller, Windolph & Isbruch 2011). It is acknowledged for enhancing supply-chain relationships by fostering cooperation, trust and commitment (Lima et al. 2023). However, the alignment of normative perspectives with actual practices is questioned, especially without robust empirical evidence (Agndal & Nilsson 2010, 2023). Implementing OBA is more challenging in network settings unless a firm serves as a nodal point, as seen in cases of multiple bilateral contracts (Caglio & Ditillo 2012).

It is noteworthy that studies exploring factors influencing supply chain partners' information-sharing decisions have predominantly been conducted in developed countries, particularly in the United States of America (Maskey et al. 2015). Limited research in small and least-developed countries suggests that the concept of supply chain management is still in its infancy in developing and underdeveloped nations (Jia et al. 2018; Phan et al. 2023). The article aims to explore the significance, mechanisms and challenges associated with information exchange within the buyer-supplier collaborations embedded in the Egyptian textile supply chain. The focus of this investigation lies particularly in contexts where informal relationships and traditional management accounting methods dominate, with a specific emphasis on OBA.

The existing literature on OBA offers limited insight into the level of formality regarding the cluster at which data disclosure procedures occur, whether formal or informal. In this regard, OBA practices may be formally integrated within a routine control system where the responsibilities of both buyers and suppliers are clearly defined (Kumra, Agndal & Nilsson 2012). Similarly, Agndal and Nilsson (2023) posit that the realm of cost management represents the formal environment in which information is exchanged. Consequently, OBA is perceived as an inter-firm accounting practice that facilitates inter-organisational cost management (IOCM) by disclosing cost data among supply chain partners to regulate inter-organisational activities and enhance supply chain efficiency (Windolph & Möller 2012).

Egypt's textile industry enjoys a global reputation, standing as the country's second-largest sector. It contributes 30% to industrial production, 10% to total exports and accounts for 3.4% of GDP. Egypt hosts the sole fully vertically integrated textiles industry in the Middle East, encompassing the entire production cycle from cotton cultivation to yarns, fabrics and ready-made garments, all conducted domestically.¹

The perspective of the supply chain may vary depending on the viewpoint of each of its members, as each member typically considers their own company as the central focal point (Lambert & Cooper 2000). Given that a supply chain comprises all companies involved in direct and indirect interactions from the point of origin to the point of consumption, it is crucial to pinpoint the focal point where inter-organisational relationships are to be examined and explained from that vantage point. The textile industry involves complex relationships across various tiers. To simplify the investigation and understand inter-organisational dynamics, we adopt a direct supply-chain approach. This method focuses on the flow of production and information among three key partners: an immediate supplier, a manufacturing company and a customer. The study designates the manufacturing company as the focal entity, serving as the primary unit of analysis. The focal company, namely the spinning and weaving company, is responsible for producing yarns, fabrics and ready-made garments. Data are presented from the perspective of this focal company.

Information pertaining to the significance, mechanisms and barriers of accounting information shared within buyer-supplier collaborations is gathered through 250 questionnaires and 13 semi-structured interviews. The data collected through the questionnaire are analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25, while the semi-structured data are analysed through manual coding techniques.

The findings reveal that, despite the establishment of long-term relationships with various customers and suppliers within the Egyptian textile supply chain, individual chain members tend to maintain a singular vision based on their specific circumstances, rather than seeking a collective vision for the entire chain. Informal mechanisms, such as accessing accounting information through backdoors, are employed to gather necessary information. While explicit accounting information sharing practices, as defined in the literature, are not observed within the company, there are underdeveloped forms of such sharing. The predominant form involves one-way sharing of technical information from customers to the company.

Several factors contribute to this approach. Firstly, the concept of trust is not robust among supply chain partners, as the company is concerned about the potential leakage of data to competitors. There is also apprehension that other partners in the chain might exploit shared data to negotiate lower prices for the company. Secondly, even though the company does not formally disclose cost data, it can be easily estimated or obtained through informal means. The price of raw cotton, for instance, is publicly available, allowing partners to estimate the costs of further processing activities within the company and predict its profit margins. Additionally, with the entry of the private sector into the Egyptian textile industry, information proxies and espionage have made obtaining cost data more accessible. In general, the company adopts a conservative approach, keeping its records closed to clients except in specific cases.

The finding contributes to the literature by shedding light on the intricate relationships and challenges within the Egyptian textile supply chain, highlighting a divergence between the existence of long-term relationships and the lack of a collective vision among chain members. The reliance on informal mechanisms, such as backdoor access to accounting information, to gather necessary data underscores the complexity of information sharing practices. The identified factors contributing to limited sharing, particularly the lack of robust trust among supply-chain partners, and the fear of potential exploitation or data leakage, provide valuable insights into the dynamics of collaboration in the textile industry. Furthermore, the conservative approach of the company in keeping cost data and profit margins confidential, except in specific cases, reflects a cautious stance that has implications for transparency and cooperation within the supply chain.

The structure of the article is delineated as follows. The 'Literature review' section outlines the concept of accounting information sharing within dyadic relationships between buyers and suppliers, subsequently formulating hypotheses. Section Hypotheses development presents the research methods employed in this study Section Methodology encompasses data analyses and a discussion of the study's findings. Lastly, Section Discussion and results provides a summary of concluding remarks.

Literature review

Open-book accounting is integral to identifying cost reduction opportunities by sharing cost data among supply chain partners (Kajüter & Kulmala 2005; Lima et al. 2023). While not a cost management tool, OBA aligns with formal cost management practices. Inter-organisational cost management efficiently manages costs across supply-chain interfaces by coordinating efforts to uncover cost-reduction opportunities beyond individual firms (Hoffjan, Lührs & Kolburg 2011). It applies traditional cost management principles in an inter-organisational supply chain context, aiming to optimise combined resources (Fayard et al. 2012; Möller et al. 2011). Researchers explore inter-organisational applications of tools such as budgeting, target costing and activity-based costing, emphasising the need for high-quality information sharing (Narouei et al. 2023). Inter-organisational cost management introduces formal tools such as chained target costing and functionality-price-quality trade-offs during product development (Kulmala 2002).

Open-book accounting supports IOCM tools, especially those relying on buyers' awareness of suppliers' cost structures (Agndal & Nilsson 2010; Hoffjan et al. 2011). However, OBA does not always lead to joint cost management activities (Möller et al. 2011), and certain IOCMs may not involve direct cost data discourse (Hoffjan et al. 2011). The literature on OBA should delve into the formality of data disclosure procedures, whether in formal or informal clusters. Open-book accounting practices may integrate formally into routine control systems, contributing to inter-firm accounting practices that enhance supply-chain efficiency (DhaifAllah et al. 2016).

The notion of openness in open-book accounting

Open-book accounting, as argued by Colicchia et al. (2019), primarily revolves around the sharing of cost data among supply-chain partners. Within the literature, it is often depicted as a tool for pinpointing areas for improvement and identifying opportunities for cost savings through collaborative efforts among these partners (Fehr & Rocha 2018). Furthermore, OBA has the potential to enhance supply-chain relations by fostering cooperation, trust and commitment among partners (Colicchia et al. 2019). However, the question arises as to whether this idealised portrayal of OBA aligns with real-world practices, particularly given the dearth of empirical evidence supporting these assertions (Agndal & Nilsson 2023). The answer to this question is not straightforward, but a review of the literature can provide some insight into exploring the extent of openness within OBA.

Given the limited empirical findings regarding OBA practices, it is conceivable to consider various interpretations of openness. Open-book accounting practices can be seen as existing along a continuum, with differing degrees of openness depending on how these practices are implemented. As depicted in Figure 1, the concept of openness can be examined from various dimensions, including what information is shared and with whom it is shared.

 

 

What information is shared via open-book accounting

The literature on OBA reveals a wide spectrum of interpretations regarding what should be opened up. This can be approached from two angles: the first concerns the nature or the quality of the data to be disclosed, while the second pertains to the quantity of the disclosed data. Some scholars advocate for a narrow perspective, suggesting that only financial information, particularly cost data, should be shared (Hoffjan et al. 2011). Conversely, others take a broader view, arguing that various types of data should fall under the umbrella of OBA (Romano & Formentini 2012). The core argument posited here is that companies cannot effectively enhance their supply chains without access to detailed information about their partners' resources and activities, encompassing aspects such as costs, revenues, quality, cycle time, reliability and delivery (Lima et al. 2023; Purwaningsih et al. 2024). Thus, the disclosed information may span a wide range, including details about cost structures, setup times, inventory levels, turnover rates and sales forecasts. A more expansive understanding of inter-organisational information encompasses all business-related data, including accounting details such as quality, pricing, delivery issues, R&D capabilities, cost structures and target costs (Lima et al. 2023). Additionally, considerations extend to quality and environmental information, projected investment plans and product development programmes (Kumra et al. 2012).

The second perspective pertains to the quantity or level of detail at which data are shared. Empirical findings suggest that in practice, the disclosed data may vary from aggregated levels, such as total cost data or selected cost items such as direct material costs, to more in-depth information organised in cost tables detailing each component and operation as reflected in the internal accounting system (Kumra et al. 2012).

To whom open-book accounting is opened?

The concept of openness in OBA can also be examined from two additional perspectives. Firstly, it involves considering the direction of the flow of disclosed data, which essentially addresses the question of who initiates the disclosure. When only suppliers open their books to buyers, this is termed unilateral one-way cost data disclosure or open book costing (Fehr & Rocha 2018), whereas multilateral OBA or cost transparency occurs when cost information flows in various directions (Caglio & Ditillo 2012). Empirical evidence suggests that unilateral one-way data disclosure from suppliers to buyers can lead to unfavourable consequences for both parties. Suppliers may risk their cost structure data being exploited during price negotiations by buyers, who may base their negotiations on theoretical cost structures or threaten to share the data with competitors (Fehr & Rocha 2018). Conversely, buyers risk damaging their reputation and reducing suppliers' willingness to collaborate, leading to instances of opportunistic behaviour on both sides. To mitigate these risks and ensure fair sharing of benefits, it is recommended to adopt a multilateral version of OBA. Unlike unilateral OBA, cost transparency involves a mutual agreement for the joint sharing of benefits and risks. This entails an understanding of how the disclosed data will be used, allowing all parties to align their improvement plans for mutual benefit.

Another aspect of analysing OBA practices involves considering the scope within which partners are willing to share their financial information. This perspective focuses on the domain of inter-firm relationships and can be categorised into two main levels: the dyadic buyer-supplier relationship or the broader supply-chain network.

The literature on inter-organisational accounting often explores vertical collaborations between purchasing firms and their suppliers. These relationships are typically marked by extended durations, the participation of individuals with diverse functional specialities, and endeavours to align product features, production processes and logistical activities (Desai 2023). Within this context, OBA emerges as a prominent inter-organisational accounting practice that contributes to the success of such relationships. Depending on the nature of collaboration, dyadic relationships may vary across cases, considering factors such as the formality of inter-organisational agreements, the duration of collaboration and the degree of inter-relationship among collaborating companies (Lima et al. 2023).

Inter-firm relationships evolve through stages: autonomy to serial dependence, serial dependence to reciprocal dependence and reciprocal dependence to mutual dependence (Gurcaylilar-Yenidogan & Erdogan 2023). Table 1 illustrates the alignment of OBA practices as an inter-organisational technique alongside these stages of maturity in supply-chain relationships. Open-book accounting practices align with these stages in supply-chain relationships, emphasising OBA's role in facilitating collaboration. Unidirectional OBA, observed in serial dependence, shows power asymmetry. Empirical studies focus on this version, limiting supplier rights. Advancing to reciprocal dependence allows increased accounting information sharing among partners. A matured OBA phase supports collaboration, involving multifunctional teams managing supply chains. The progression to ideal supply-chain relationships may involve an ideal OBA. Lima et al. (2023) found that OBA can enhance trust and collaboration in mutual dependence relationships, but challenges may arise because of weaknesses in firms' internal cost systems.

 

 

Textile industry in the Egyptian context

Egyptian cotton is renowned globally for its exceptional qualities, attributed to the fertile soil along the Nile River and the surrounding humid climate. However, the reputation suffered because of a lack of effective quality assurance systems by local seed companies, resulting in subpar and mixed variety cotton output (Aslam et al. 2020). To restore the esteemed reputation, the Egyptian Ministry initiated a comprehensive 19-step plan in early 2017. The government took control of cottonseed production and distribution, previously managed by the private sector. Egyptian cotton farmers now participate in dedicated cotton auctions, with recorded prices ranging from $182 to $257 per quintar as of February 2023. Before the auction system, average prices were around $82 for lower-long staple cotton and $163 for upper-long staple varieties.²

Egypt boasts the Middle East's only fully vertically integrated textiles industry, covering the entire production cycle within the country's borders, from cultivating cotton to manufacturing yarns, fabrics and ready-made garments. Private companies, particularly in ready-made garment production, have entered the industry, while the public sector predominantly owns spinning (50%) and weaving (60%) in upstream processes. Downstream, ginning companies, whether public or private, separate seeds from cotton plants. Public ginning companies exclusively procure cotton from local farmers, while private entities have the option to buy locally or import raw cotton for further processing by spinning and weaving companies.

The Egyptian textile industry's supply chain is characterised by complex relationships among various partners. To simplify this complexity, the study adopts a direct supply-chain approach, as illustrated earlier in Figure 2. In this simplified model, the ginning company sells ginned cotton to the spinning and weaving company (the focal company), which is responsible for producing yarns, fabrics and ready-made garments. The focal company then distributes its final products to local or international fashion companies (the customers). The research primarily focuses on analysing the focal company as the central unit of study.

Objectives of the study

The main objective of the study is to investigate the perceptions of multiple employees at the focal company in the textile supply chain regarding several aspects of accounting information sharing. Specifically, the study aims to address the following research questions:

1. What are the perceptions of employees within the focal company regarding the importance of accounting information sharing?

2. What methods are employed for accounting information sharing within the textile supply chain?

3. What are the key hurdles and obstacles encountered in accounting information sharing throughout the supply chain?

 

Hypotheses development

Tracking the literature around the tendencies of sharing accounting information among the collaboration of supply chain reveals that many issues are not yet settled and need further examination. It remains questionable how accounting information sharing affects the performance of supply chain partners (Kankam et al. 2023); how accounting information is shared (Agndal & Nilsson 2023) and what are the main challenges that hinder the sharing of accounting information within the whole supply chain (Basu 2023).

The importance of accounting information sharing among supply chain partners

A conclusive understanding of the impact of sharing accounting information on supply-chain partner performance remains elusive. In dyadic relationships, conflicting results emerge. Carr and Ng's (1995) findings suggest positive outcomes for Nissan car producer suppliers, as cost data disclosure enables them to justify higher prices and benefit financially. Wagner (2008) contends that high-performing companies intensively implement accounting information sharing compared with low-performing ones. Reliable information is vital for effective supply chain activities (Adaa et al. 2021).

Trust-building can lead to positive outcomes, reducing governance costs, optimising relationship investments, expanding inter-organisational activities and enhancing overall supply chain performance (Lima et al. 2023). Similarly, Kankam et al. (2023) assert that quality information enhances coordination, fostering synergy and positively impacting overall supply chain performance. Phan et al. (2023) accentuate the role of accounting information sharing in enhancing supply chain performance.

Conversely, literature acknowledges the negative impact of unilateral accounting information sharing on supply-chain partner satisfaction, especially among suppliers. One-sided OBA is criticised for enabling buyers to opportunistically misuse suppliers' disclosed cost data, potentially reducing profit margins (McIvor 2001). Kajüter and Kulmala (2005) suggest that suppliers derive fewer benefits than customers from accounting information sharing. Windolph and Möller (2012) highlight the relational damage caused by cost data disclosure because of recurring buyer opportunistic practices.

There is a clear absence of a definitive conclusion regarding the effects of accounting information sharing on the performance of the supply chain. Literature lacks a dominant voice supporting or refuting the positive consequences of OBA. The value of cost transparency, as argued by Lamming et al. (2001), relies on reciprocal and justified information sharing, rather than strict symmetry. Therefore, the outcomes of accounting information sharing may depend largely on how it is applied. Accordingly, the first hypothesis is formulated as follows:

H₀: Job roles of employees at the focal company has no effect on their perceptions towards the importance of accounting information sharing between supply chain members.

The mechanism through which accounting information is shared among supply chain

The literature reveals that most findings regarding OBA pertain to dyadic settings rather than network environments. Incentives for OBA often revolve around enhancing cost-reduction efforts and increasing cooperation levels between suppliers and customers (Agndal & Nilsson 2008; Carr & Ng 1995; Hoffjan et al. 2011; Windolph & Möller 2012). In practice, the partner with the strongest financial position tends to derive most of the realised potential benefits (Windolph & Möller 2012). To mitigate unfavourable consequences, many supplier-customer relationships are built upon the implementation of win-win principles (Kajüter & Kulmala 2005; Suomala et al. 2010).

The use of a multilateral version of OBA is crucial under this principle, requiring both customers and suppliers to open their books to ensure a fair distribution of benefits on agreed terms (Yarbrough & Yarbrough 2014). Such an agreement is effective only if reliable cost information is available (Lima et al. 2023).

Given that informality is a notable characteristic in many developing or emerging economies, as highlighted by Diab et al. (2020), such as Egypt, it is anticipated that within the textile supply chain, informal methods of disseminating accounting information may be more dominant than formal approaches. Consequently, we articulate the hypothesis in its alternative form:

H₁: Individuals in varied roles within the focal company prioritise informal mechanisms over formal ones for sharing accounting information within the supply chain.

The hurdles of sharing accounting information among supply chain partners

A comprehensive examination of the literature on challenges associated with sharing accounting information among supply chain partners reveals several key themes. Firstly, deficiencies in information systems and cost systems at certain chain partners can impede data sharing at the supply chain level (Kembro, Näslund & Olhager 2017). Even if suppliers are willing to disclose their financial information, their ability to generate the necessary cost data depends on the status of their cost accounting systems and their adherence to quantitative and qualitative standards for shared data (Kajüter & Kulmala 2005). Additionally, differences in accounting systems among supply chain partners may hinder OBA, making the interpretation of cost structures challenging because of variations in cost definitions and treatments (Kajüter & Kulmala 2005; McIvor 2001).

Secondly, the technical shortcomings of cost systems pose another challenge (Kembro et al. 2017). While there is limited knowledge of how OBA operates in practice, studies suggest that having sound cost accounting systems is crucial for successful OBA implementation (Kajüter & Kulmala 2005; Kulmala, Paranko & Uusi-Rauva 2002). The existence of mutual trust between partners is considered as important as having robust cost accounting systems for the ideal practice of OBA (Kajüter & Kulmala 2005).

Thirdly, the presence of mistrust between chain partners can hinder the sharing of accounting data (Agndal & Nilsson 2023). Research findings are divided into three sets, with the majority emphasising that the adoption of OBA requires a foundation of trust between collaborative partners (Agndal & Nilsson 2008, 2023; Hoffjan et al. 2011). A second set of researchers suggests that OBA can be a tool to build trust within supply chain collaborations (Lima et al. 2023). The third set argues that trust has consequences for OBA, with a minimum level of trust needed to introduce OBA, and over time, the practice of OBA contributes to the level of trust (Fayard et al. 2012; Kulmala 2002, 2004).

Fourthly, insufficient cooperation among supply-chain partners complicates data sharing (Lima et al. 2023). Building trustworthy relationships among supply-chain partners is a critical challenge that requires time and collective efforts, involving factors such as the willingness to take risks and engage in close interactions, and a long-term history of fair treatment and commitment (Dekker et al. 2019).

In the light of these findings, the literature highlights various challenges in sharing accounting information among supply chain partners, and these themes may vary in importance based on the perspectives of employees at different stages in the focal company. Consequently, the third hypothesis can be formulated as follows:

H₀: Employees with different roles at the focal company apply equal importance to the hurdles for sharing accounting data among supply chain members.

 

Methodology

Unit of analysis: The focal company

The textile industry chain is complex, involving intricate relationships across various partners. As illustrated earlier in Figure 2, the research adopts a direct supply-chain approach. This approach focuses on the streamlined flow of production and information among three interconnected partners: an immediate supplier, a focal company and a customer. The focal company then sells its finished products to local or international fashion companies (the customers). The research primarily analyses the focal company as the unit of study, presenting all collected data from its perspective. This focused approach enables a more in-depth exploration of supply-chain dynamics.

Methods

To conduct a more comprehensive investigation into the mechanisms of accounting data sharing, mixed data collection methods are employed.

Firstly, we employed a questionnaire to gather data regarding respondents' perceptions concerning the importance, methodologies and obstacles related to the accounting information exchange within the textile supply chain. In Egypt, our research targeted employees within the textile industry, particularly those engaged in supply chain processes related to the focal company. The textile manufacturing sector in Egypt displays fragmentation, with a limited number of dominant companies³ collectively employing approximately 1.8 million individuals.⁴ To ascertain the total population, we relied on official records and industry reports. Our sampling encompassed individuals across various departments including production, procurement, logistics and management roles within the focal company's textile supply chain. From this pool, we selected a sample of 250 respondents, prioritising those with accessible email addresses. This approach ensured a representative sample while optimising the feasibility of data collection. Following the receipt of responses, we excluded incomplete and invalid submissions, resulting in 140 valid questionnaires. This process yielded a response rate of 56%.

Respondents' opinions were evaluated using a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire comprised two main sections. The first section explored respondents' demographic attributes, covering variables such as gender, age, education, professional tenure, occupational designation and familial associations. The second section focused on the perspectives of numerous employees in the textile supply chain, specifically addressing the significance, challenges and impediments related to accounting information sharing across the entire supply chain. Egyptian auditors used a Likert scale, ranging from one for minimal importance to five for utmost significance, to discern and rank their perceptions in this context.

The collected data were processed using the SPSS version 25. A reliability test was conducted on the collected data using Cronbach's alpha model to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire based on the average inter-correlation among items. The alpha coefficient, at 0.95, indicates a relatively high level of internal consistency. Consequently, the reliability test results confirm the high reliability of the questionnaire design and the collected data.

In the study, non-parametric tests are favoured for their flexibility with various data distributions, particularly in handling small samples and nominal, ordinal or ranked data. The Kruskal-Wallis test is used to analyse questionnaire responses, aiming to uncover significant differences among respondents at different production stages in the supply chain cycle. This analysis investigates the implications of accounting information sharing within the textile chain.

Secondly, we conducted semi-structured interviews with employees from the focal company to gain additional insights into their perceptions regarding the sharing of data, as well as to explore the significance and obstacles associated with data sharing. In semi-structured interviews, a set of core questions is consistently posed to each interviewee, allowing for flexibility in altering the question sequence or phrasing based on the interviewee's responses. This approach fosters a positive rapport between the interviewer and interviewee and contributes to a favourable response rate (Dunwoodie, Macaulay and Newman 2023). Specifically, the study involves 13 semi-structured interviews with individuals occupying various hierarchical positions at different production companies.⁵

They focused on participants' experiences, perceptions and observations, with open-ended questions allowing for elaboration. Interview sessions were conducted in person or virtually, based on participant preferences, lasting approximately 30 min each.

The interviews were originally conducted in Arabic. The data collected were subsequently transcribed into Arabic and later translated into English. For analysis, a manual coding method was employed, facilitating the identification of insights pertinent to the core of the research. This approach also enables researchers to tailor the coding process to the specific research questions and objectives (Linneberg & Korsgaard 2019).

 

Discussion and results

Descriptive statistics

Table 2 provides descriptive statistics detailing the frequency and percentages of demographic characteristics of respondents. This descriptive overview provides a comprehensive snapshot of the respondents' demographics, shedding light on gender distribution, age ranges, educational qualifications, years of experience, job roles, job titles and familial ties within the surveyed population. From a gender perspective, the majority of respondents are male, comprising 91% of the total, with females constituting only 9%. Age distribution reveals that over 40% of respondents are under 30 years old, over 45% fall within the 30- to 50-year age range, while only 13% are aged 50 and above, indicating a diverse age profile among respondents.

 

 

In terms of educational qualifications, 61% of respondents do not hold a university certification. The distribution of respondents based on years of experience shows that the largest group, at 31%, has 11-15 years of experience. The remaining experience categories exhibit a relatively balanced distribution, showcasing varying proportions.

Examining job roles within the specified supply chain processes, there is an equitable distribution among respondents in various roles: spinning (17%), weaving (16%), Fabrics outfitting and finishing (23%), manufacturing ready-made garments (17%) and other (27%). Analysing job titles, individuals with the job title of Engineer or Chemist constitute the largest proportion, making up 24% of the total. In terms of maintaining familial ties with colleagues, 78% of respondents affirmed that they do, while 22% indicated that they do not.

Discussion

Respondents were surveyed to gauge their perception of the significance of sharing accounting information among supply chain members. Table 3, panel 1 reveals that over half of the respondents acknowledged the positive impact of enhancing the exchange of accounting information in a supply chain, leading to improved product quality, including responsiveness to customer requests, on-time delivery, efficient ordering and increased customer awareness. In addition, an equal percentage of respondents (65.7%) affirmed that sharing accounting information among chain partners promotes trust and cooperation, and reveals cost reduction opportunities at both intra and inter-firm levels.

The Kruskal-Wallis's test, detailed in Table 4, panel 1, indicates unequal mean degrees of importance regarding the perception of sharing accounting information among employees with different roles at the focal company. The Chi-square values for the mentioned themes (ranging from 3.175 to 5.219) surpass the tabulated Chi-square value of 2.59 at a 0.05 significance level, with 4 degrees of freedom (DF). Consequently, the null hypothesis that employees with different roles at the focal company assign equal importance to accounting information sharing among supply chain members is rejected. Therefore, there is variability among respondents working in various production processes of the chain cycle regarding the perceived role of accounting information sharing among supply chain partners.

Consistent with the findings, Utomo, Suhartono and Machmuddah (2020) acknowledge the crucial role of top management in cultivating support, motivation and attention among employees to efficiently utilise accounting information system (AIS), leading to increased productivity and favourable supply chain performance outcomes. Furthermore, in underlining the importance of trust and collaboration among supply-chain partners to enhance supply-chain performance, Panahifar et al. (2018) empirically illustrate that three collaboration facilitators - trust, information readiness and secure information sharing - bolster supply-chain collaboration. Furthermore, echoing Karaosman et al. (2020), the findings underscore the significance of supply chain collaborations in mitigating costs at both the firm and supply chain levels. This reduction stems from the shared cost among the partners within the supply chain (Karaosman et al. 2020).

As illustrated in panel 2 of Table 3, respondents were asked to express their overall perceptions regarding the way in which accounting data are disseminated in the textile chain. According to Table 3, panel 2, almost two-thirds of respondents do not prioritise the necessity for an integrated information system to fulfil information needs at the supply chain level. Furthermore, less than a quarter of respondents emphasise the formal mechanisms of data sharing, such as an integrated information system or OBA. In contrast, nearly three-quarters of respondents believe that informal relationships could facilitate the sharing of accounting data within the textile supply chain.

Table 4, panel 2 signifies that there is no substantial disagreement among the perspectives of focal point employees regarding the mechanisms through which accounting information is shared. The Chi-square values for the themes in panel 2, ranging from 2.132 to 3.918, are lower than the tabulated Chi-square value of 5.059. The significance levels for the three themes (0.156, 0.120 and 0.107) in panel 2 of Table 3, respectively, are higher than the 0.05 confidence level. Consequently, the null hypothesis can be affirmed, suggesting the absence of variations in employees' perceptions regarding the methods through which accounting information is communicated among supply chain partners. Thus, employees commonly hold the belief that accounting information can be readily exchanged through informal channels, negating the necessity to establish a formal mechanism for sharing such data. In a similar vein, Lissillour and Ruel (2020) emphasise the significance of informal mechanisms, particularly social media, for sharing information among supply chain partners in China. Furthermore, Lissillour and Ruel (2020) underscore the role of cultural dimensions in a context where a preference for informalisation exists.

The interviews reveal the mechanisms by which accounting information is disseminated in the dyadic textile supply chain. Workers within the ginning companies frequently maintain familial and collegial connections, fostering a culture where they casually share sensitive information, including internal costs of ginned cotton and other processing expenses, during routine discussions. Consequently, the association with suppliers or ginning companies does not necessitate any formal data-sharing protocols, as information regarding the raw ginned cotton is readily exchanged.

Within the focal company, the production department possesses immediate access to information about the available types and quantity of cotton inventory. Upon receiving a customer order, the department initiates a production plan to estimate the required inventory quantity and the necessary working hours to fulfil the order by its due date. If the needed cotton is not in stock, the production department collaborates with the material control department to procure the necessary quantity of cotton and other raw materials. In such cases, the production flow follows a backward flashing approach, initiated by customer orders. Information regarding the price and quantity of raw ginned cotton from suppliers is effortlessly shared because many employees maintain relational social ties at various levels.

Alternatively, the company may engage in production without specific purchase orders to anticipate future demand. For instance, recognising October as the peak period for brocaded bedding sheets because of an increase in marriage rates, the company may proactively manufacture and store these sheets to meet the anticipated surge in demand. Consequently, the company may produce for inventory purposes rather than solely to fulfil the existing customer orders.

As seen in Panel 3 of Table 3, respondents expressed concerns about obstacles to accounting data sharing and a substantial majority (80%) believed that diverse cost accounting systems among chain partners hinder OBA implementation.

In addition, a significant majority (82.8%) identified the lack of a well-designed infrastructure for data generation and transfer as a major obstacle. Relational factors, including mistrust, were acknowledged by 74.3% as hindrances to effective OBA application. Over three-quarters found obstacles in sharing accounting information formally, citing high costs associated with building firm-level accounting systems and even higher costs for integrated systems at the supply chain level. These challenges involve additional costs for coordination and implementation.

The outcomes of the Kruskal-Wallis test, presented in panel 3 of Table 4, indicate no significant differences among respondents from different production processes concerning the impediments to the applicability of OBA, with the exception of H2, which pertains to the absence of facilities for sharing data. Except for H2, the Chi-square values for the themes in panel 3 of Table 4, ranging from 3.896 to 8.796, exceed the tabulated Chi-square value of 2.059 at a 0.05 confidence interval and 4 DF.

Consequently, the null hypothesis can be rejected at a significance level of 0.05, except for H2. The results strongly suggest that employees hold varying perceptions regarding the obstacles to accounting information sharing among supply chain partners, with the exception of H2. The Chi-square value for H2 is 1.487, which is lower than the tabulated Chi-square value of 2.059. The observed significance level for H2 is 0.059, higher than the 0.05 confidence level, implying no differences among employees in their perception of the lack of necessary infrastructure as a barrier to sharing accounting data. Yuhua et al. (2023) highlight the results by underlining the significance of infrastructure and platforms for sharing accounting data among supply chain partners. They emphasise the role of cloud accounting in providing users with extensive services by leveraging resources, services and applications as public facilities, aiming to achieve the integration of accounting information resources.

Despite the mentioned challenges, accountants themselves assert that obtaining the necessary data to assess ginned cotton prices is a straightforward process. Employees at the ginning companies often have familial and collegial relationships, leading them to freely exchange confidential data related to the internal cost of ginned cotton and other processing expenses as part of their everyday discussions. An excerpt from an interview with an accountant at the focal manufacturing company illustrates this point:

I can easily determine whether the ginned cotton prices are reasonable or not. I don't require any formal arrangements. Instead, my colleagues at the ginning company inform me about these prices during our casual conversations at the club without any extra effort on my part. They don't consider it as sharing confidential information because I already have many relatives who are farmers that regularly inform me about raw cotton prices.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Tanta University, Faculty of Commerce (reference no. N/A).

Results

The results underscore the significance of accounting information sharing in enhancing supply chain dynamics and fostering cooperation. The survey's findings highlight the positive perceptions regarding the benefits of sharing accounting information and the preference for informal channels. Interviews reveal the practical mechanisms through which accounting data are exchanged, emphasising the role of informal relationships. However, challenges such as diverse cost accounting systems and infrastructure limitations pose barriers to formal information-sharing mechanisms. Despite these challenges, employees demonstrate resourcefulness in obtaining necessary data and leveraging informal networks and relationships.

Drawing from institutional theory, particularly insights from Helmke and Levitsky (2004), the findings highlight the significance of both formal and informal organisational structures in shaping management control processes. In less developed countries, informal institutions wield considerable influence. Despite prevalent challenges to accounting data sharing, such as varied cost accounting systems, infrastructure limitations and relational factors such as mistrust, these obstacles do not appear to hinder accountants' ability to access data for evaluating ginned cotton prices. The efficacy of informal channels in surmounting perceived barriers is evident in the interview excerpt. Several factors contribute to restricted sharing, including a lack of robust trust among supply-chain partners, apprehensions about data leakage to competitors and concerns that partners may exploit shared data to negotiate lower prices. The company adopts a cautious approach, maintaining confidentiality regarding cost data and profit margins, divulging them only in specific instances.

Overall, the findings emphasise the need for a balanced approach to accounting information sharing, considering both formal mechanisms and leveraging existing informal networks. Addressing infrastructure limitations and building trust among supply chain partners are critical steps towards enhancing information exchange and collaboration.

 

Conclusion

The contextual significance plays a pivotal role in shaping management accounting practices. In less developed countries, where informal institutions are widespread, the dynamics of management accounting control processes differ significantly from those in developed and stable contexts. The research delves into the intricate landscape of the Egyptian textile supply chain, focusing on the significance, methods and challenges associated with accounting information sharing in developing countries.

The findings unveil critical insights into the perceptions and practices surrounding accounting information sharing within the textile supply chain. Respondents overwhelmingly recognise the positive impact of enhanced accounting information exchange on various aspects of supply chain management. Notably, the emphasis on improved product quality, timely delivery, efficient ordering, increased customer awareness, and the cultivation of trust and cooperation resonates throughout the responses. However, variations in the perceived importance of accounting information sharing emerge among respondents engaged in different production processes. Despite this diversity, a consensus prevails when examining employees' perceptions of communication methods. Informal channels are favoured over formal mechanisms, reflecting a shared belief that a formal system is deemed unnecessary.

The existence of long-term relationships within the Egyptian textile supply chain does not necessarily translate into a collective vision for the entire chain. Individual chain members prioritise their own circumstances, resorting to informal mechanisms such as backdoor access to accounting information. While formal practices of accounting information sharing are not explicitly observed, underdeveloped forms exist, primarily involving one-way sharing of technical information from customers to the company.

Interview insights shed light on the informal nature of accounting information sharing within the dyadic textile supply chain. Familial and collegial connections within ginning companies foster a culture where sensitive information is casually exchanged during routine discussions, negating the need for formal data-sharing protocols. Similarly, within the focal company, relational ties facilitate the effortless exchange of information about raw materials, production plans and customer orders.

Challenges to accounting data sharing, including diverse cost accounting systems, infrastructure limitations and relational factors such as mistrust, are acknowledged. However, these challenges do not seem to impede the ease with which accountants access data to assess ginned cotton prices. The effectiveness of informal channels in overcoming perceived obstacles is underscored in the interview excerpt. Several factors contribute to limited sharing, including a lack of robust trust among supply-chain partners, concerns about data leakage to competitors and fears of partners exploiting shared data to negotiate lower prices. The company adopts a conservative approach, keeping cost data and profit margins confidential, revealing them only in specific cases.

In essence, the discoveries not only illuminate the intricate details and subtleties of accounting information sharing within the textile supply chain but also underscore the robustness of informal communication channels in overcoming obstacles. As the industry grapples with these dynamics, acknowledging the significance of relational bonds and informal exchanges may play a crucial role in cultivating a more streamlined and cooperative supply chain ecosystem.

The research enhances theoretical understandings by elucidating the contextual significance of management accounting practices, particularly in less developed countries with prevalent informal institutions. We shed light on the role of informal communication channels and their impact on management control processes within the textile supply chain. Additionally, we highlight variations in the perceived importance of accounting information sharing among respondents involved in different production processes, offering insights into supply chain management practices. Furthermore, the study investigates the impact of long-term relationships within the textile supply chain on collective vision and information-sharing practices, contributing to the theoretical discourse on inter-organisational dynamics.

The findings also offer practical insights for improving supply chain management and accounting practices in the textile industry. We highlight the positive effects of enhanced accounting information exchange on various aspects such as product quality, delivery efficiency, ordering processes, customer awareness and trust-building. Recognising the preference for informal channels over formal mechanisms in accounting information sharing suggests opportunities for refining communication within supply chains. Addressing challenges such as diverse cost accounting systems, infrastructure limitations, mistrust and data security concerns can guide strategies for enhancing collaboration and efficiency in the textile supply chain ecosystem. Emphasising relational bonds and informal exchanges to overcome obstacles underscores the significance of nurturing cooperative relationships for effective supply chain management.

The limitations of the article pave the way for future research avenues. Initially, the focus is on information sharing within dyadic interorganisational relationships. However, in a network setting, accounting information sharing might yield contradictory outcomes. Despite the assumption of positive results, existing literature indicates complexities arising from relationship interdependence and numerous participants, leading to negative implications such as sharing manipulated data or leaking confidential information, which may be more pronounced in networking. Consequently, future research could explore the concept of accounting information sharing within a broader network setting.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

L.M.A.A. and R.A.A contributed to review and editing of the article. L.M.A.A. contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, data curation, and writing of the article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding information

This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU) (grant number IMSIU-RG23102).

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not available because of privacy issues.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

 

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Correspondence:
Laila Aladwey
laladawi@imamu.edu.sa

Received: 07 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 29 Mar. 2024
Published: 05 June 2024

 

 

1. See https://www.enicbcmed.eu/egypt-crective-project-highlights-significance-innovation-competitiveness-textile-leather-and and also see https://www.egytexfairs.com/why-egypt/
2. See https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Cotton%20and%20Products%20Annual_Cairo_Egypt_EG2023-0004.pdf
3. See https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/egypt-textile-manufacturing-industry-study-market
4. See https://www.egypt-business.com/companylist/details/2312-top10-textile-companies-in-egypt/426994
5. These interviews encompass the manager of the purchasing department (ginned cotton), head of the computer sector, head of the spinning sector, manager of spin 2 factory, head of the finishing sector, manager of the finishing factory (fabrics dying), manager of the finishing company (order accomplishment), head of the centralised control sector, quality control engineer rank one, production engineer rank one, the director in the packing department and two workers at spin 2 factory, along with two sales managers.