SPECIAL SECTION

 

YouTube video approaches to the rescue of learning english language in higher education in selected African countries

 

 

B. Mthembu^I; S. B. Khoza^II

^IMedia, Language & Communication Durban University of Technology Durban, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3756-8631
^IIEducation Studies Cluster University of KwaZulu-Natal Durban, South Africa http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7153-2990

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The use of YouTube videos in learning English language has produced disruptive or alternative innovations for students learning anywhere in the world. YouTube English language learning videos have been dominated by content-driven and outcomes-driven curriculum approaches at the expense of a self-driven approach. The purpose of this study was to explore the YouTube video approaches used by students in the learning of English language in higher education in selected African countries. The study also sought to establish why students use YouTube approaches in learning English language in particular ways. Undergirded by the pragmatic paradigm and the mixed method approach, the study employed the use of the natural identity framework (NIF). A participatory action research with one-on-one semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, document reviews and YouTube reviews/observations were applied in collecting data from 20 purposively and snowball sampled participants (English language students) to be thematically analysed for this study. The findings indicate that the dominance of these two approaches has produced tension between them that needs to be addressed by a self-driven approach which is capable of creating a space for self-reflection before learning processes take place. It is for this tension that this study explores YouTube video approaches used in the learning of English language in higher education in Africa post the COVID-19 pandemic. A self-driven approach concentrates on actions, beliefs behind the actions, and their outcomes of using YouTube videos. This study therefore recommends the application of a self-driven approach and awareness of natural forces/laws that promote natural actions, thus addressing personal, and natural needs.

Keywords: content-driven, English language, outcomes-driven, self-driven, YouTube

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INTRODUCTION

YouTube is a website used by technology users to upload, share and view online videos (Putri and Sari 2020). It was invented by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim (former employees of the American e-commerce company PayPal) on the 14^th February 2005. The erstwhile employees wished to assist ordinary people in sharing their personal videos everywhere in the world. They established their company which is headquartered in San Bruno, California to serve the users with the YouTube as their learning resource. Learning resource is any species or object that communicates learning (Khoza 2023). YouTube videos have been effectively used as a resource in the learning of English language (Wahyuni, Utami, and Education 2021). YouTube videos are mostly either dominated by a content-driven approach which uses authentic English or an outcomes-driven approach which produces sanitised English (Watkins and Wilkins 2011; Khoza 2017; Sokhulu 2023).

On the one hand, a content-driven approach has been promoted by an integration of YouTube videos into higher education learning management systems for a professional authentic English that addresses professional needs. On the other hand, an outcomes-driven approach has been promoted by an integration of YouTube videos into social media sites for social sanitised English (communication resource) that addresses societal needs. The dominance of the two approaches mostly denies the students the opportunity of promoting a self-driven approach with self-reflection/critique which is capable of addressing personal individual unique needs (Khoza 2023; Zuma, Khoza, and Sokhulu 2022; Ataboyev and Tursunovich 2023). Therefore, it is for this denial of the self-driven approach that this study explores YouTube video approaches used in the learning of English language in higher education selected countries in Africa during and post the COVID-19 pandemic. The exploration process of this study addressed the following research questions based on the following structure:

• What are the YouTube video approaches used by students in the learning of English language in higher education in Africa?

• Why do students use YouTube approaches in learning English language in particular ways?

The structure of the next sections consists of literature review (YouTube approaches); natural identity framework; pragmatic paradigm, qualitative approach, participatory action research, data collection methods (course outlines with YouTube review/observation, focus group discussions and one-on-one semi-structured interviews), purposive with snowball sampling, guided thematic analysis, validity/trustworthiness (credibility, dependability, transferability, and confirmability); and findings with discussions; as well as conclusion.

 

LITERATURE REVIEW ON YOUTUBE APPROACHES IN LEARNING ENGLISH LANGUAGE

When YouTube videos are content-driven in higher education institutions (HEI), they are mostly undergirded by prescribed learning management systems (LMS) that specify authentic English language content, objectives, instructional time, YouTube video types, and summative assessment to mention a few concepts (Khoza and Mpungose 2022; Novawan et al. 2021). According to a study conducted by Watkins and Wilkins (2011) on the usage of YouTube in an English First Language classroom, English language content was divided into authentic (formal original English for native speakers) and sanitised (communication English for non-native speakers) categories. The combination of these two categories produces World Englishes (variety of Englishes that have developed) (Saiful 2019; Wang and Chen 2020; Anggrarini and Faturokhman 2021).

However, in a content-driven YouTube video, learning emphasis is on the authentic English content that addresses learning professional needs (Kristiani and Pradnyadewi 2021; Kim and Kim 2021). Authentic English refers to all the varieties of English as they are spoken in the real world. Therefore, in the context of this study, authentic English would refer to such content that was not specifically contrived for intentional use in the teaching of English.

Thus, YouTube videos are produced according to course - prescribed authentic English language content, objectives, instructional time, and summative assessment so that students can master the content and reproduce it when they are assessed. While this content-driven approach seems to assist students with quicker and higher marks during summative assessment because students reproduce their mastered prescribed content, it mostly denies them the opportunity for self-driven learning (Khoza and Biyela 2020; Zuma and Mthembu 2023).

Although most students seem to have positive perceptions towards the usage of YouTube, the usage of YouTube videos through HEI LMSs has its own shortcomings. For example, it becomes expensive if the students do not have Wi-Fi and must watch long videos (Sakkir, Dollah, and Ahmad 2020; Qomariyah, Permana, and Hidayatullah 2021; Makumane 2021; Mpungose and Khoza 2022). What also discourages students from learning authentic English language through YouTube videos is when their teachers are unable to use native accents dominating English language such as UK or USA English.

Research has proven that students are more interested in learning when they use YouTube videos through social media sites (SMS) such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and others because they have easier access to SMSs almost every day (Atmojo 2022; Rachmawati and Cahyani 2020; Tahmina 2023). This social media-based learning process becomes outcomes-driven because the main outcome of using YouTube videos is to assist students to learn English to communicate as a way of addressing societal needs (Hasan et al. 2018; Saiful 2019; Syafiq et al. 2021; Novawan et al. 2021). Thus, sanitised English language is promoted based on processes such as facilitation of students' achievement of learning outcomes, activities, and peer assessment among others (Shoba and Khoza 2022; Ndlovu 2023). However, students may not achieve high marks despite the promotion of sanitised English. Nonetheless, they become active in terms of societal activities (Makumane 2021; Branch 2020; Sokhulu 2023; Mashinini 2020).

One's personal unique needs are addressed through understanding one's ideological-ware resources or technologies of self that drive human mind to choose relevant hardware and/or software technologies/resources (Zuma et al. 2022; Almurashi 2016; Freire 1993). Ideological-ware resources are cognitive processes that manage the self in selecting and using relevant hardware/software resources through formative assessment, reflection, critique, researcher role and aims among others (Waghid 2019; Khoza 2021). Students use reflective formative questions to establish and critique their experiences of being ready for the usage of YouTube videos (Tahmina 2023; Listiani et al. 2021; Sirait, Harahap, and Handayani 2021). In turn, students' roles in the process of searching and selecting learning YouTube videos become those of researchers (Khoza and Biyela 2020; Makafane and Chere-Masopha 2021). These concepts of ideological-ware resources promote a personal unique culture of a self-driven learning process. A self-driven learning process on the usage of YouTube supports students to be good with English language speech cadence, tonal shifts, grammatical nuances, pronunciation, conversation, listening, and writing skills (Watkins and Wilkins 2011; Ayu 2016; Binmahboob 2020; Chien, Huang, and Huang 2020). Even though a self-driven approach seems to be an alternative of the two dominating approaches that have not always supported students to achieve one hundred per cent (100%) or objective realities in their courses, it also has not always assisted studies with objective realities (Prakash et al. 2021). In addressing this gap in the literature, Khoza (2021) suggests the use of a natural identity framework (NIF).

 

NATURAL IDENTITY FRAMEWORK (NIF)

The NIF consists of professional (content-driven to address the "what questions" of learning from course prescribed resources), societal (outcomes-driven to address the "how questions" of learning with people), and personal (self-driven to address the "who questions" of learning about unique individuals) identities as the underpinning principles of a natural identity. These identities seem to affect students from always achieving a 100 per cent or objective realities in their courses (Khoza 2021; 2023). Each of the underpinning principles is undergirded by its own notion that represents its strengths. Professional identity consists of concepts such as prescribed course content, LMS, objectives, instructor role, and drilling methods to mention a few (Galane and Khoza 2023). Societal identity consists of concepts such as learning outcomes, activities, and facilitation role to mention a few (Khumalo, Shoba, and Khoza 2023). Personal identity consists of self-reflection, critique, aims, and researcher role among others (Zuma et al. 2022). The other connecting concepts of the NIF are formative, summative, and peer assessment. When students reflect on their YouTube videos in learning English language, they may use all these concepts as their frameworks of understanding how their learning, outcomes, and experiences with beliefs are influenced by a natural identity (natural forces/laws) that addresses the "why questions" of learning (Khoza 2023). The combination of these principles and the connecting concepts produces a natural identity. In other words, in any activity one has to focus and act on the activity's natural source (originality) more than on the activity's symptoms created or constructed by personal identity with professional and/or societal identities. The NIF supports the usage of a pragmatic paradigm in research (Khoza 2021).

 

PRAGMATIC RESEARCH PARADIGM

This study is positioned within a pragmatic paradigm in order to understand students' usage of YouTube videos in learning English language. Pragmatism as a worldview arises out of ideological-ware resources or personal identity (reasoning) behind actions (professional), situations (natural), and consequences (societal) that underpin them (Morgan 2014a). Creswell and Creswell (2018) argue that pragmatism is a philosophical position that can liberally draw from qualitative or quantitative assumptions or both. A pragmatic paradigm works well with this study because it allows us to explore multiple approaches of learning English language using YouTube videos in order to improve students' performance.

Although this study is dominated by qualitative data, it also has a small portion of quantitative data that qualify the study to use a mixed-method approach which combines various elements of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to research. The approaches together with the nature of the inferences made from the research the purposes of which are to give a richer and more reliable understanding of a phenomenon than a single approach would yield, are able to generate best practical actions (Morgan 2014b; Creswell and Creswell 2018). The practicality of a mixed-method approach is mostly facilitated by a Participatory Action Research (PAR) design which is capable of transforming both researchers and participants to solve their real-life challenges and improve their lives (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2018). PAR consists of four stages that are capable of improving learning situations (Creswell 2014).

The stages are planning, action, observation, and reflection. The first two stages address the first descriptive research question that starts with "what" through the use of document and YouTube review or observation. The second two stages address the second philosophical question that starts with "why" through the use of one-on-one semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. PAR has two cycles in this study according to which data collection methods were conducted twice.

In addressing the first research question, documents and YouTube videos used by the participants were formally reviewed/observed two times. These two data collection methods produced quantitative data based on the frequency of the principles of the NIF. Document and YouTube video reviews are important because they present recorded and published facts about what participants use in their real-life situation. Furthermore, focus group discussions and one-on-one semi-structured interviews were each conducted two times for approximately one hour per session. The two were used in order to accommodate those who were shy when they were with other participants (semi-structured interviews) and those who were shy when there were no other participants (focus group discussions). These data collection methods were used with twenty purposively and snowball selected participants (students).

Purposive and snowball sampling strategies were used in this study to select five students from four universities in South Africa. Two were from a research-intensive/lead university (R-L Univ 1 and 2), two were from two comprehensive universities (Compr Univ 1 and 2), and one was from a university of technology (Univ. Tech). The five students were asked to refer the researchers to other students with whom they were learning English language online from other universities in Africa. Three (3) were from Eswatini (Esw 1, 2, and 3), 3 from Kenya (Kny 1, 2, and 3), 3 from Lesotho (Lst 1, 2, and 3), 3 from Zimbabwe (Zmb 1, 2, and 3), 1 from Namibia (Nmb), 1 from Nigeria (Ngr), and 1 from Uganda (Ugd)) as shown in Table 1. The students (participants) were studying towards the Bachelor of Education degree in English Education.

 

 

The autonomy and confidentiality of the 20 participants were protected through the use of an informed consent letter, which specified the following points (adopted from the University of KwaZulu-Natal ethics guidelines):

• The nature and purpose of the study;

• The identity and institutional association of the researchers and their contact details;

• The fact that participation was voluntary;

• The confidentiality with which participants' responses would be treated:

• Any limits on confidentiality which might apply;

• The use of pseudonyms to maintain anonymity where necessary;

• The fact that participants were free to withdraw from the study at any time without any negative or undesirable consequences to themselves;

• The nature of any limits and/or benefits that participants might receive as a result of their participation in the study.

 

GUIDED THEMATIC ANALYSIS

The guided thematic analysis is used for data analysis in this study to combine themes generated from the NIF with other themes generated from the data. According to Cohen et al. (2018), guided analysis involves determining themes prior to the collection of data, modifying those pre-determined themes as per interaction with data. Pre-determined categories were framed using the NIF principles as themes; these themes were negotiated and refined to accommodate those emerging from the data. Graphs are used to present results for the quantitative data. Four principles of validity and trustworthiness are taken into consideration as follows:

Validity and trustworthiness

Validity and trustworthiness are addressed in terms of external validity and transferability. Applicability is ensured by providing sufficient details of the relevant context or the real-world context. Reliability and dependability have to deal with the question of consistency which in this study is established by the direct quotations from the research participants. The extent to which the collected data reflect the perspectives and experiences of the participants relates to the confirmability of the study. It is through this particular criterion that researcher biases are eschewed. The study also had to establish the truth value of its findings by ensuring its credibility (truth value - audit trail and tape recorder).

Findings/results and discussions

The findings/results of this study are divided into two parts. This first part starts by presenting graphs that display the answers to the first research question (from document and YouTube reviews/observations): What are the YouTube video approaches used by students in the learning of English language in higher education in Africa?

The results from the course outlines and YouTube videos reveal that the learning of English language was dominated by a content-driven approach (Figure 1). The participants' module/course outlines had their higher education institution (HEI) prescribed learning management systems (LMS), prescribed content, instructional time, and summative assessment. Documents and YouTube videos of eighteen, sixteen, and fifteen participants also had objectives, drilling methods, and instructor role respectively.

 

 

The popular LMSs used by the participants were Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (Moodle), Blackboard, and Sakai. These LMSs had uploaded YouTube videos produced by academics based on the United Kingdom (UK) formal English language with HEI prescribed content. However, Compr Univ 1 and 2 were allowed to use the United States of America (USA) English language as well. The participants learned English language speaking and pronunciation by reproducing and uploading their own YouTube videos in their YouTube channels. The participants were encouraged by their lecturers to create their YouTube channels or accounts to be used for presentation where lecturers conducted oral assessments that supported the participants to improve their pronunciation and public speaking skills. These processes had specified times.

The instructional times were allocated in terms of hours or days in which the participants should watch YouTube videos based on specific topics to prepare for summative assessment tasks. The main summative assessment YouTube video task was conducted through quizzes. The online YouTube video quizzes were produced through the Kaltura video resource. The Kaltura video resource is freely downloadable to produce video quizzes among other online summative assessment tools (Govender and Khoza 2022).

Eighteen of the twenty participants were guided by objectives that divided the prescribed content into small manageable chunks. This suggests that while the learning process was dominated by a content-driven approach, it had some characteristic of academic-driven approach because objectives are short-term goals for teaching (Mabuza and Khoza 2021; Galane and Khoza 2023). When fifteen of them learnt by playing a role of being instructors by imitating their academics and the sixteen of them drilled themselves with prescribed content, they revealed other qualities of an academic-driven approach (Makumane 2021; Sokhulu 2023). However, other parts of the learning process that were using YouTube videos indicate an outcomes-driven approach.

Outcomes-driven approach

The results from the documents and YouTube videos reveal that the learning of English language had lower qualities of an outcomes-driven approach (Figure 2). The participants' module/course outlines had social media sites (SMS) (8 participants), learning outcomes (9 participants), discussion forum (8 participants), learning activities (9 participants), facilitation (10 participants), and peer assessment (7). The types of SMS mostly used by the 8 participants were WhatsApp and Facebook. They shared YouTube videos with other people through WhatsApp and Facebook for easier access and achievement of learning outcomes even through their mobile phones.

 

 

Learning outcomes are student goals (Dlamini 2023) which appeared in the module outlines of the 9 participants that were engaged through discussion forums (LMS, WhatsApp, and Facebook). The 10 participants assumed the role of being facilitators on their YouTube videos where they were peer assessed by other students online who also commented on their videos. However, only a few of them were self-driven.

There were few concepts that represented qualities of a self-driven approach (Figure 3). The few concepts were aims (8 participants), reflection (5 participants), critique (5 participants), formative assessment (8 participants), and researcher role (6 participants). This was the lowest represented approach in the learning of English language using YouTube videos according to the results of this study. The participants seemed to be heavily influenced by a content-driven approach. There are reasons for this as discussed in the next section.

 

 

REASONS FOR THE APPROACHES USED BY THE PARTICIPANTS

This second part of the findings presents qualitative data for the second research question: Why do students use YouTube approaches in learning English language in particular ways? The reasons are presented in four themes (evidence-driven, belief-driven, lived experience-driven, and naturally-driven approaches. Direct quotations from the participants are written in italics.

Evidence-driven approach

YouTube videos have produced online lessons from various English teachers that support students in "learning English as an evidence of a good approach" of learning English where one may use these videos as examples: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_TUKYWPuW4g or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ld7RqdoRAM0 (10 October 2023)" (R-L Univ 2 and others supported). YouTube videos have various aims or obj ectives according to what they were developed for. For example, the first example of the YouTube video was developed to support students "with English content on tenses, listening and pronunciation. The second YouTube video example is useful in terms of supporting the learning of English content on tenses, listening, writing or spelling, pronunciation, and gesture among other actions promoted" (Ngr and others supported).

The participants were able to "identify YouTube videos that were relevant to topics to be covered for summative assessment ..." (Zmb 1 and others supported). The participants were convinced that the records from their HEIs gave them "enough evidence that indicated that YouTube videos are one of the most powerful resources that support students to achieve high marks in English ..." (R-L Univ 1 and others agreed). The participants were convinced that whatever was in their "HEI records represented the unquestionable truths to be followed by all students in order to pass and do well in English language" (Kny 3 and others agreed). "However, other videos from academics were sometimes very long and poorly recorded especially those that were recorded through Microsoft Teams or Zoom with dark backgrounds or without university virtual backgrounds which are always bright ... this exposed our poor internet connectivity or data bundles ..." (Esw 2 and others agreed).

These accounts suggest that the participants were cognitively shaped to define or explain the truth for learning English language according to their HEI recorded or prescribed instructions because they needed to pass their English courses. What they defined as evidence was what was helping them with replicative and applicative actions that are only capable of helping students to pass their courses (Fennell and Simpson 2021). Although they were able to pass their English courses, they were unable to explain what they would do in the learning of English in order to achieve one hundred per cent (100%) in their summative assessment tasks. Students are graded through the marks that are out of one hundred that are translated to 100 per cent (highest performance).

Consequently, 100 per cent becomes the main aim or objective reality of learning of a content-driven approach that privileges an evidence-driven approach in learning (Prakash et al. 2021). This suggests that whatever evidence the participants had, represented a resource for their survival in their English courses. However, they indicated that other YouTube videos produced by their academics were poorly recorded and sometimes too long in such a way that their internet connectivity was affected. This evidence of their dissatisfaction was based on specific resources (Microsoft Teams and Zoom) only when they were not formatted properly in order to be user friendly according to their internet connectivity. But this evidence was not used as a reason that hindered the participants from achieving the objective reality (100%) of learning by performing beyond their resources for survival. In turn these forms of evidence promoted beliefs (Jervis 2006) when the participants believed in what they defined as the objective reality or aim of learning English language.

Belief-driven approach

Beliefs are related to what students define as learning strategies (learning actions) and academic performance (learning outcomes) (Ryan 1984). According to Buehl and Alexander (2001), students' beliefs about knowledge have important contributions on whether the students perform well or poorly in their academic work. Beliefs in learning tend to be qualified by evidence of learning actions or outcomes or both. For example, the participants in this study believed the knowledge they had to be evidence at their "disposal on how YouTube videos are used as learning resources and evidence of other students who successfully passed English language supported by YouTube videos" (Univ Tech and others agreed). But they were not strong in believing Microsoft Teams and Zoom when these were designed without relevant virtual backgrounds. That seemed to be one of their evaluative resources for interpreting evidence that needed to be believed or rejected. This suggests that beliefs may inform evidence as much as evidence may inform beliefs.

However, if students on the one hand are too hard in their beliefs that result in rejecting all evidence from certain sources (e.g., Microsoft Teams and Zoom produced videos in this case), they may lose the only available resource for learning for their situation. On the other hand, if they are gullible to accept any presented evidence, they may miss relevant learning evidence (sources of knowledge) as a result of being overwhelmed by knowledge that may not be relevant to their courses. Although the participants needed to learn and achieve high marks, they insisted that they wished to learn English language knowledge which is "transferable to other real situations even if high marks are not achievable" (Nmb and others agreed). This may be achievable because students may learn to use English language content associatively, and interpretively, even while forgetting much of the content studied and assessed through replicative and applicative processes or systems based on their lived experiences (Fennell and Simpson 2021; Khoza 2023).

Lived experience-driven approach

Lived experiences are individual's unique natural first-hand experiences mostly supported by pragmatists (Gegenfurtner, Schwab, and Ebner 2018). "A major contention of pragmatist philosophy is that meaning of human actions and beliefs is found in their consequences. External forces do not determine humans; they are themselves capable of shaping their experience through their actions and intelligence" (Kaushik and Walsh 2019, 3). Prior to joining their HEIs, the participants had their unique beliefs about learning English language based on their lived experiences. Eight participants indicated that when they started learning they had to use formative assessment questions to establish their aims of learning (Figure 3). Five out of the eight participants further indicated that they were doing their best in reflecting and critiquing their beliefs and actions based on their "lived experiences in order to learn to unconditionally accept learning outcomes or consequences as they are ..." (R-L Univ 1 and R-L Univ 1, Esw 1; Kny 2; and Lst 1 concurred). Six out of the eight believed that "super students work as researchers who are able to identify and apply most relevant unique learning approaches" based on what they experienced in their real-life situations (Ngr and the previous 5 participants agreed).

The accounts from the participants seem to suggest the notion of personal identity defined by the NIF (Khoza 2021 ; 2023). Starting learning through self-reflection, formative assessment, critique, and researching based on students' individual unique needs, may increase the students' opportunities of being closer to their learning objective reality (Fields et al. 2018). In other words, the students become fitter than other students if they have this opportunity of a self-driven learning approach that addresses their individual unique needs without external learning approaches being imposed on the students (Prakash et al. 2021; Morgan 2014a). Students find it very difficult if not impossible if external truths (objective realities) are externally imposed on them without any consideration of their levels of readiness for the truths (Morgan 2014b; Fields et al. 2018; Kaushik and Walsh 2019). This suggests that learning approaches should naturally emerge through students' internal unique intelligence when their lived experiences are ready for such in order to be joyful in their learning (Khoza and Biyela 2020).

Naturally-driven approach

It would seem that even the application of a self-driven or pragmatic approach as an alternative to content-driven and outcomes-driven approaches has been exaggerated because it also only produces learning resources for student survival and not always for objective reality (100%) (Zuma et al. 2022; Prakash et al. 2021). It is for this reason that the NIF suggests the awareness of natural forces/laws as part of interpreting learning actions and outcomes. In other words, students should do their best in generating evidence of the best approaches that help them to perfect their learning actions in order to naturally accept the learning outcomes.

 

CONCLUDING WITH IMPLICATIONS

The findings reveal that the formal learning of English language using YouTube videos is dominated by a content-driven approach with some elements of outcomes-driven and self-driven approaches. Although none of the approaches has produced a conclusive truth or objective reality about the use of YouTube videos to produce 100 per cent as the expectation of most of the students, a self-driven or pragmatic learning approach seems to produce independent students. Independent students are self-driven by principles such as self-refection, critique, formative evaluation, and research ethic that assist them to understand their unique personal identities and address their unique personal, professional, and societal needs.

The findings further reveal that exploring the reasons for students to use learning approaches in particular ways in the learning of English language through YouTube videos involves important sub-approaches that need to be considered. The sub-approaches are belief-driven, evidence-driven, lived experience-driven, and naturally-driven approaches. This study therefore recommends the application of a self-driven approach and awareness of natural forces/laws that promote natural actions, thus addressing personal, professional, societal and natural needs.

 

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