RESEARCH ARTICLES

 

The moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation. Evidence from a Zimbabwean parastatal

 

 

FP Tsvangirai^I; WT Chinyamurindi^II,*

^IUniversity of Fort Hare. fptsvangirai@yahoo.com
^IIUniversity of Fort Hare. chinyaz@gmail.com

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The study examines the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation amongst a sample of employees at the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority. In a context of hyper-inflation, organisations need to find ways to survive. Needed are ways to reduce turnover and keep employees satisfied with their jobs. One organisational intervention theorised as assisting in this is workplace surveillance. Currently, there is no research which explores the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation in developing countries. This study adopted the positivist research philosophy relying on a quantitative research approach using the survey technique. A total of 327 respondents filled in a self-administered questionnaire using established measures for employee engagement, workplace surveillance and employee motivation. For the purpose of analysis, regression analysis was utilised. The findings of the study shows that employee engagement and workplace surveillance have a moderating effect on employee motivation. Further, it was found that employee engagement and workplace surveillance have a significant positive relationship with employee motivation with no interaction effects assumed. Implications for theory and practice based on the findings of this study are made.

Key phrases: Employee motivation; engagement and workplace surveillance

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1. INTRODUCTION

The study examines the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation amongst a sample of employees at the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority. In this context, workplace surveillance shall refer to cameras used at the workplace to monitor work activities and employees. Within the context of work, employees are being monitored due to the advent of technology giving rise to workplace surveillance measures (Steinfeld 2017). This comes about due to the view that some workplace challenges faced by organisations like pilferage, sabotage, poor service quality and slow turnaround times due to employee actions (Zameer, Ali, Nisar & Amir 2014). Organisations thus implement electronic surveillance measures to keep track of such challenges.

Other important variables in workforce management are employee engagement and motivation. According to Shaheen and Farooqi (2014) employee engagement can be measured using three dimensions, namely cognitive, physical and emotional. An employee who exhibits high levels in all three measures is deemed to be highly engaged in their work (Allen 2014). According to Shoko and Zinyemba (2014) employee engagement is an old and widely researched concept but its conception and experience as viewed by Kahn (1990) is one that needs to be explored.

Motivation can be understood as the predisposition and desire to attain the inside driving force to accomplish individual and organisational goals (Chang & Teng 2017). If an employee is highly motivated, chances are high that they are engaged in their jobs and will strive to make success of these jobs. In addition, Sarwar and Abugre (2013) opined that employee motivation is an important concept in which managers must properly manage for organisational success. Rosenblat, Kneese and Danah (2014) are of the view that if employee motivation is not properly managed, employees may end up sabotaging the organisation for personal satisfaction. This may then be a possible rationale for workplace surveillance.

Further, employers must always keep their employees engaged in their work, motivated and satisfied for the success of the organisation while observing how the employees work (Mafini, Surujlal & Dhurup 2013). Sarwar and Abugre (2013) also advanced the idea that employers should employ workplace surveillance in a bid to increase production while reducing pilferage. However, Moussa (2015) noted that workplace surveillance can also negatively impact employee engagement if not properly implemented and managed.

The purpose of this article is to examine the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation amongst employees at the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority. This will add value to human resource management conceptualisation and debate.

 

2. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Zimbabwe Revenue Authority is a parastatal formed and mandated to operate in terms of Chapter 23:11 of the Revenue Authority Act in 2001. ZIMRA (2018) reiterates that the organisation is mandated by this act to: a) collect revenue for and on behalf of the state, b) to enable smooth trading of goods and travelling of people, c) to give advice to government on economic and fiscal issue and finally, d) to protect the civil society. Workers in public service organisations tend to be lowly engaged and this is detrimental to service delivery which is of critical importance to the general public (Yamoah 2014).

Sibanda (2016) noted that the effectiveness and efficiency of an organisation hinge on its employees. This is the main problem at the Zimbabwe revenue Authority considering the negative publicity it is currently receiving due to slow turnaround time especially at the main border posts across the country. Mafini and Dlodlo (2014) conducted a study on poor service delivery by government departments in South Africa. The study concluded that the challenge which derails quick service delivery in public organisations is lack of engagement by the public service employees. In the same vein, Mafini (2015) bemoans the continued poor performance by public organisations in Southern Africa as an area worth researching.

According to Muleya (2014) the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority's moto denotes that the organisation is there to serve the public but it is regrettable that such a moto is far from being realised. Yamoah (2014) is of the view that many reasons can be pointed at as causes of poor service delivery by most public organisations with employee engagement and workplace surveillance being among them.

Vinga (2017) noted that the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority conducted a staff lifestyle audit in the first quarter of 2017 to ascertain employees who might have unscrupulously acquired their assets. The main problem is that Zimbabwe Revenue Authority employees felt that this exercise had a negative impact on their motivation levels as they felt that management wanted to use this exercise to harass, bully and unfairly dismiss them (Vinga 2017). The Zimbabwe Revenue Authority leadership engaged management to express how such lifestyle audits are demotivating the employees (Ncube 2016). Saltson and Nsiah (2015) had previously reiterated on the need to synchronise the relationship between business decisions and employees lest employees sabotage the organisation due to low levels of motivation.

Mundia (2014) found that employee motivation among Zimbabwe Revenue Authority employees at border posts is low due to low remuneration, resulting in them being prone to corruption. Also bemoaning the low levels of motivation among Zimbabwe Revenue Authority employees at border posts was Muleya (2014) who added that in order to curb corruption in the organisation, Zimbabwe Revenue Authority put in place Automated System for Customs Duty (ASYCUDA) software for easy clearance of goods and stamping out corruption. Mundia (2014) noted that this software could be effective when used by highly motivated employees who can easily shrug off any corrupt tendencies from travellers, which currently is not the case with the lowly motivated employees at Zimbabwe Revenue Authority border posts. Huni (2016) added that tightening workplace surveillance and engaging police in patrols might fail if the current poor employee motivation is unattended. Muleya (2017) concluded that if Zimbabwe Revenue Authority employees are to be motivated, their salaries and conditions of service need an upward review.

Studies conducted show that workplace surveillance has a negative effect on organisational behaviour (Moussa 2015; Samaranayake & Gamage 2012; Townsm & Cobb 2012; Yerby 2013; Zachary 2013). ZIMRA (2016) noted that the authority installed surveillance cameras worth US$600 000 at Beitbridge border post in 2016 and the investment seems to be yielding the intended results as Zimbabwe Revenue Authority officials and fraudsters are being caught in illegal acts. Ncube (2016) added that the main problem with such workplace surveillance is that it has the potential of succeeding in curbing corruption and improve turnaround time but at the expense of employee engagement and motivation.

 

3. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

The three main theories are considered by the study and first is Kahn's (1990) theory of employee engagement. The theory assists in offering understanding on how organisational leaders perceive and interpret employee behaviours at work (Roberts & David 2017; Shin & Biocca 2017). This theoretical framework assists in understanding how employee engagement fares in organisations that use a lot of workplace surveillance moderated by employee motivation (Nakamura 2015; Shellenbarger 2013).

The second theory considered is the Foucault's (1977) Panoptic Theory of Surveillance. This theory assists the research in understanding how workplace surveillance affects employee engagement in organisations (Fuchs 2013; Hu, Liao & Peng 2017). The most important view of the panoptic view is that it regards surveillance as a negative and punitive tool since people are under observation all the time and need to discipline themselves.

Third are the McGregor's (1960) Theory X and Theory Y. This theory assists the research in the application and understanding of employee motivation in modern organisation management (Asiedu-Appiah 2013; Shaheen & Farooqi 2014). Juxta positioning of these two opposing theories is critical in understanding the contemporary management of a diverse workforce.

 

4. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

4.1 Employee motivation and employee engagement

Ryan (2017) concluded that there is no universal definition for employee engagement mainly because the definition of this concept covers behavioural, emotional, and cognitive components. Their view was seconded by Ruck, Welch and Menara (2017) who expressed that employee engagement can be at three levels, namely physical, emotional and cognitive. DeVaroa, Nan Maxwell and Morita (2017) also conducted research with the Office of Research, Planning and Effectiveness (ORPE) at Northwest Michigan College (NMC). The study focused on employee motivation, employee engagement and employee trust. The study revealed that highly motivated and engaged employees had more trust in management compared to those that were demotivated and disengaged. Khan and Iqbal (2013) carried out case study research at the Allied Bank of Pakistan to investigate the relationship between employee absenteeism, employee motivation and employee engagement. The findings showed that there is a positive relationship between employee engagement and employee motivation.

Mafini and Dlodlo (2014) noted that when employees are demotivated and dissatisfied, they tend to have low engagement levels towards their work and this can negatively affect the overall organisational performance. According to Vilnai-Yavetz and Levina (2018), if employees are given all the resources and support they need to do their work, chances are high that they will positively respond (be engaged) and work hard to achieve more rewards (motivation). Mafini and Dlodlo (2014) added that there is a lack of empirical evidence in developing countries on how workplace surveillance moderates the relationship between employee engagement and employee motivation. This research seeks to close this gap in knowledge. Based on all this, the following hypothesis is made:

H1: There is no relationship between employee engagement and employee motivation moderated by workplace surveillance

4.2 Employee motivation and workplace surveillance

The use of workplace surveillance has been on the rise in the last two decades due to advancement in technology. In the earlier times, such surveillance used to be the supervisor's sole observation and recording on paper of events at work (Mayer, Viviers & Tonelli 2017). The coming into being of technology made it easy for workplace surveillance to be done every minute throughout the day. When employees are motivated in their work, such surveillance rarely impacts negatively on employees (Gawke, Marjan, Gorgievski & Bakker 2017).

Shahzadi, Javed, Pirzada, Nasreen, and Khanam (2014) carried out a study to find out the factors that impact highly on employee motivation with a noticeable effect of workplace surveillance on the performance of organisations in Pakistan. The results show that there is a negative relationship between employee motivation and workplace surveillance while a positive relationship was found between employee motivation and employee engagement. However, a rare finding by Desprochers and Roussos (2001) noted that workplace surveillance positively relates to employee motivation. The authors added that this is mainly because employees appreciate the use of such surveillance in reward management as opposed to subjective comments put by the supervisor for the same.

Fuchs (2013) described workplace surveillance as a concept that is a characteristic of a capitalist economy where employers want to make sure that employees are not using work time to do their own business except to put their efforts towards the success of the organisation. The study found that workplace surveillance is one of the strongest tools used by capitalists to exploit the employees leaving employees dejected and frustrated (Fuchs 2013). The study further highlighted that such a capitalist tool negatively affect employees resulting in high labour turnover, low morale, demotivation, disengagement and high absenteeism. Steinfeld (2017) added that workplace surveillance, if not properly managed can negatively affect employee motivation but an investment by management on employee engagement yields positive results.

According to Tomczak, Lanzo and Aguinis (2018) a lot of literature (e.g. Patsakis, Charemis, Papageorgiou, Mermigas & Pirounias 2018; Ryan 2017; Tsakanikas & Dagiuklas 2017) show the negative impacts of workplace surveillance on employee privacy and employees tend to invent ways to circumvent the surveillance mechanisms. Yerby (2013) noted that some of the terms that are associated with workplace electronic surveillance are spying, espionage, sneaking, big brother and snooping. Employees use such words to express their dissatisfaction with workplace surveillance and if not corrected employees will be disengaged and demotivated to the detriment of the organisation. Mayer et al. (2017) added that management needs to be concerned with the impact of such surveillance on industrial relations and employee morale since they can be affected negatively. Based on all this, the following hypothesis is made:

H2: There is no relationship between employee motivation and workplace surveillance

4.3 Employee engagement and workplace surveillance

Cordella and Cordella (2017) noted that if employers are to have an efficient and safe working environment, they must keep an eye on the activities of their employees. Rosenblat et al. (2014) added that such surveillance negatively affects employee engagement since in most cases it is put in place with little or no consultations done with the employees. Mohamed and Maimunah (2015) carried out a survey in Sri Lanka amongst organisations that develop software. The general conclusion of their study was that many software organisations use electronic surveillance to monitor their employees at work and that employees do not like such surveillance. A study by Bakar (2013) on the need to unearth the factors that influence employee engagement levels in the Malaysian financial sector found that employees are not engaged when continuously being monitored.

Moussa (2015) concluded that employees dislike workplace surveillance claiming that it violates their right to privacy and their engagement levels. Rosenblat et al. (2014) had noted that the presence of workplace surveillance has a negative impact on the confidence that employees have in their employer. When there is no confidence between employees and employer, disengagement will be the result to the detriment of the organisation's success. There is no research that was done to examine the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation in Zimbabwe to date. To close a gap in the literature on this construct, Tomczak et al. (2018) encouraged a study that focuses on how much surveillance can management employ on their employees without affecting their engagement levels while improving on workplace trust. Basing on all this the following hypothesis is made:

H3: Workplace surveillance and employee engagement have a moderating effect on employee motivation

 

Figure 1

 

5. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

5.1 Research approach

The study was guided by the positivist research paradigm and utilised a survey research design which is quantitative and descriptive in nature. The paradigm was also useful in analysis and validating the constructed theories while it produces data that can be replicated over a long time.

5.2 Research respondents

The study population comprised managers and staff based at ten major border posts in Zimbabwe managed by Zimbabwe Revenue Authority with a total population size of 4 000. In a bid to attain a higher level of accuracy, the sample size was calculated using Yamanis' (1964) formula giving a total sample size of 364.

5.3 Sampling approach

The selection of the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority was purposive for this study because it is Zimbabwe's entry and exit point. There are ten main border posts countrywide and the study employed a census approach by including all the provinces that house all the border posts in the research to avoid bias and ensure representativeness. In coming up with respondents per each border post, the study employed stratified random sampling in a bid to ensure that the sample size is proportionate to the overall population size as well as to the population size of each border post.

5.4 Pilot study, reliability and validity of the study instrument

Attention was taken in this study in complying with construct, face and content validity. The Cronbach alpha coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the research instrument. The questionnaire was subjected to a pilot study and the sampling technique for the pilot study was also stratified random sampling. The pilot sample size was 10% of 364, as recommended by research (Hertzog 2008; Lackey & Wingate 1998; Nieswiadomy 2002), giving 36 respondents.

5.5 Measuring instrument

A structured questionnaire was used as the research instrument in collecting data. Table 1 shows the measuring instruments that were adopted for this study. Such a questionnaire is mostly used in a quantitative research approach and a positivism paradigm (Bhattacherjee 2012). The instrument was designed guided by the previous researches and literature. The instrument comprised of 82 closed questions for the three research constructs on a 7-point Likert scale.

5.6 Data collection and analysis procedure

The research objectives and study participation were detailed in a letter that was emailed to the respondents together with the questionnaire via SurveyMonkey. The questionnaire was subjected to a pilot study in order to check whether respondents would be able to answer the questions without any difficulties. The sample size for the pilot study was 36 distributed across all border posts and a total of 364 respondents were targeted for the main research. In the main research, SurveyMonkey was also used to collect data while regression was used to analyse the conceptual framework.

5.7 Ethical Considerations

The researcher applied for ethical clearance through the University of Fort Hare Research Ethics Committee. The researcher sought permission from the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority management to carry out the study. In enforcing anonymity, the respondents were directed not to write their personal details on the questionnaire.

 

6. STUDY RESULTS

The section presents the study results in descriptive statistics.

6.1 Reliability tests

Cronbach's alpha was used to measure internal consistencies of reliability for all constructs in this study. Cronbach's alpha values above 0.7 (Cronbach 1951) are considered acceptable, and values above 0.8 are preferable. Table 2 shows the reliability tests for the variables.

The research constructs had the following Cronbach alpha values: workplace surveillance had 0.765, employee engagement had 0.768 and employee motivation had 0.913. The Cronbach's alpha value for the three constructs was 0.778, which suggests good internal consistency of the questionnaire items for the three constructs. Thus, out of the 80 statements for the three constructs, none was deleted.

6.2 Descriptive statistics

Table 3 shows the demographic descriptive statistics for the respondent in terms of gender, age, education level, work experience and respondent's position.

6.3 Descriptive statistics of variables

The key variables for this study are employee motivation, employee engagement and workplace surveillance. The measures of central tendency and dispersion were used to describe the variables. Employee motivation and workplace surveillance have mean that are above 4 whereas for the employee engagement is below 2.5. The variation for the three variables as measured by the standard deviation is less than 1 depicting that what was answered by the respondents did not differ much from the average responses. Table 4 below shows the descriptive statistics for the variables.

 

 

6.4 Regression analysis full model with moderating effects

The regression model which comprised of employee motivation as the dependent variable and the moderating effects of employee engagement and workplace surveillance as independent variables. The diagnostic tests of the regression model revealed that the variance inflation factors (VIF) which measure collinearity were higher than the recommended threshold of 10. Therefore, despite the independent variables being significant (p-values < 0.05), it was not possible to model the independent variables together. The regression results are illustrated in Table 5:

6.5 Regression analysis with no moderating effects

A regression model with no moderating effects of employee engagement and workplace surveillance was run. The results are presented in table 6. Firstly, it is noted that the VIF are less than 10 showing that multicollinearity is not a problem and secondly the Breusch-Pagan test for heteroscedasticity was not significant the p-value is 0.163, revealing that the errors or residuals in the regression model are constant. The R² is 0.361 which implies that employee engagement and workplace surveillance account for 36.1% of the variation in employee motivation. Employee engagement and workplace surveillance have a significant positive impact on employee motivation. Table 6 below indicates the regression results for the three variables.

6.6 Regression analysis with moderating effects

To measure the moderating effects of employee engagement and workplace surveillance on employee motivation, a regression model was run with employee motivation as the dependent variable and the cross product of employee engagement and workplace surveillance as the independent variable. Results in table 7 show that heteroscedasticity was found to have no problem in the regression since the p-value of the Breusch-Pagan test was greater the 0.05 level of significance. The cross product of employee engagement and workplace surveillance explained 26.7% of overall variation in employee motivation. Furthermore, employee engagement and workplace surveillance have a positive moderating effect on employee motivation at the 5% level of significance. Findings from the regression modelling are indicated in table 7 below.

 

7. DISCUSSION

The study aimed to examine the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation. A discussion on the various constructs relating to this relationship is done in relation to the literature reviewed.

The study results show that workplace surveillance and employee engagement have a moderating effect on employee motivation. There is a similarity between the findings of this study and previous research literature reviewed (Gawke et al. 2017; Rosenblat et al. 2014; Steinfeld 2017). This literature notes that workplace surveillance and employee engagement need proper management for them to continue having a positive relationship with employee motivation. Such proper management of workplace surveillance includes but not limited to employee consultation on the surveillance method to use, where and how it can be installed and usage. This literature also noted that when employees are highly engaged through various initiatives, workplace surveillance will not negatively affect employee motivation. The similarity in the study findings and that from previous research can be premised on the view that an engaged employee is a motivated employee who pursue maximum performance even in the presence of workplace surveillance.

The study also found that a positive relationship exists between workplace surveillance and employee motivation. Scarce literature supports this finding and available literature opines that employee knowledge of workplace monitoring may increase motivation in the workplace (Desprochers & Roussos 2001). Vast literature found a negative relationship between these two variables (Bakar 2013; Cordella & Cordella 2017; Manzoor 2012; Mohamed & Maimunah 2015; Moussa 2015; Potoski & Calley 2018). It can be concluded that if management invests more in employee motivation, an employee can be productive despite the presence of workplace surveillance.

 

8. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

The study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by showing the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation. The results also denote that employee engagement and motivation management can be done simultaneously as change on another variable positively affects the other. The results support the view that an engaged employee is a motivated employee implying that Zimbabwe Revenue Authority management can invest much in one variable and the other variable will be positively affected. There is a need for harmonisation of the workplace surveillance and employee interests at work so that industrial harmony is maintained.

 

9. LIMITATIONS

Caution in applying these findings to the entire population needs to be taken since the research had its limitations. The first limitation is that the units of analysis were the permanent employees for Zimbabwe Revenue Authority comprised of both managers and workers at the border posts only. This excludes all employees in various Zimbabwe Revenue Authority offices in urban areas and towns even though they work hand in hand with Zimbabwe Revenue Authority border posts. Due to this limitation, caution must be taken in applying these findings to the entire population.

 

10. RECOMMENDATIONS

Guided by the findings of this study, a recommendation that other studies in Zimbabwean parastatals can be done is made to assist in explaining employee engagement challenges faced by Zimbabwean public employees.

Second, a recommendation of a qualitative study is made. This will enable generation of subjective interpretations to the causes and solutions of high and low employee engagement levels in public organisations. These views can encompass how employees interpret and view management interest and efforts in attaining an engaged workforce.

Third, the paper would argue for research that generates measuring instruments to measure the same research constructs that this paper looked especially in the Zimbabwean context.

Development of such research scales may assist in the analysis and interpretation of phenomenon without bias.

 

11. FUTURE RESEARCH

A longitudinal study can be adopted by future research. This will assist in exploring the impact of the changes on the research construct and how such changes manifest in organisations and employee behaviour. This can lead to the proposition of ways to intervene and mitigate the impact of such changes on employee engagement in the long run. Also, there are other variables that affect how employee engagement and workplace surveillance moderate on employee motivation which was ignored by this paper. These variables include personality, organisational culture, and remuneration which future research can look at.

 

12. CONCLUSION

The study contributes to the existing body of knowledge on the moderating effect of workplace surveillance on employee engagement and employee motivation. The results show that employee engagement and workplace surveillance positively moderates employee motivation. Addressing employee motivation and engagement issues in the wake of workplace surveillance, Zimbabwe Revenue Authority needs to invest more in employees through involving them in most decisions that affect their work and rights.

 

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* corresponding author