ARTICLES

Prosecuting sexual violence in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Obstacles for survivors on the road to justice

Joanna Mansfield

Pro Bono Lawyer, DLA Phillips Fox, Sydney, Australia

SUMMARY

Sexual violence in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Eastern DRC) has been described as the worst in the world. Despite the introduction of forceful legislative amendments to reduce the violence, the scourge of sexual violence still plagues Eastern DRC. Given that the Congolese state prosecutes very few cases, the paper identifies and explains the obstacles victims face when seeking the prosecution of sexual violence perpetrators in Eastern DRC. Based on interviews conducted in Eastern DRC with various vocational and demographic groups from May to August 2008, the paper reveals the magnitude of sociological, institutional, financial and legal factors hindering the prosecution of sexual offenders. The paper argues that the successful prosecution of sexual offenders in Eastern DRC faces a myriad of obstacles and requires an exceptionally lucky combination of a number of unlikely conditions. To overcome these obstacles, strategists must concentrate on what underlies the sexual violence, namely, insecurity in Eastern DRC, as well as strengthening the capacity of the judicial sector.

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* LLB (Hons) (Technology, Sydney); Joanna.obbink@gmail.com. This paper is based on the personal observations and interviews that Joanna Mansfield (née Obbink) conducted as a field researcher in North Kivu and South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The views expressed here are my own and in no way represent the views of DLA Phillips Fox.
1 Prosecutor v Akayesu Case ICTR 96-4-T, judgment 732 (2 September 1998).
2 'Rape as a weapon of war: Accountability for sexual violence in conflict: Hearing before the S Comm on the Judiciary' 110th Cong (2008) (statement of Dr Denis Mukwege, Director, Panzi General Referral Hospital, Bukavu, South Kivu, DRC).
3 'DR Congo doctor is ''top African''' BBC News 14 January 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7828027.stm (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
4 'War against women: The use of rape as a weapon in Congo's civil war' CBS 60 Minute 17 August 2008).         [ Links ]
5 Human Rights Watch 'Renewed crisis in North Kivu' 25 (Human Rights Watch 2007), stating that sexual violence is a regular crime found in situations of armed conflicts in Eastern DRC).
6 MONUC Twenty-eighth report on the United Nations Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, S/2009/335 30 June 2009; IRIN (UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs) 'DRC: MONUC sticks to its guns' Analysis 22 June 2009 http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=84943 (accessed 20 September 2009);         [ Links ] 'Congo: Fighting Erupts in the East' New York Times 19 June 2009 http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/20/world/africa/20briefs-Congobrf.html?_r=3&partner=rss&emc=rss (accessed 20 September 2009);         [ Links ] 'In pictures: Congo civilians easy prey' BBC News 15 June 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8100850.stm (accessed 20 September 2009);         [ Links ]MONUC 'Security In Eastern DR Congo Province "rapidly deteriorating"' 9 March 2009 http://www.monuc.org/news.aspx?newsID=20200 (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
7 'Bunia: 66 hommes ont été violés de décembre 2007 à mai 2008', Radio Okapi 14 August 2008 http://www.radiookapi.net/index.php?i=53&l=19&c=0&a=19949&da=&hi= 0&of=8&s=&m=2&k=0&r=all&sc=19&id_a=0&ar=0&br=qst (accessed 20 September 2009),         [ Links ] reporting that female government soldiers had raped 66 men between December 2007 and May 2008 in Bunia, the capital city of the Ituri province in Eastern DRC.
8 Figures indicate that around 99% of victims of recorded rapes are women: United Nations Population Fund 'Données VAS Compilées du Volet Judiciaire Premier Semestre 2008'; United Nations Population Fund 'Fiche de Rapportage SGBV: Volet Medico-Sanitaire Premier Trimestre 2008'.
9 See GE Dix & MM Sharlot Criminal law: Cases and materials (2002) 48;         [ Links ] International Parliamentary Expert Mission Addressing Impunity for Sexual Crimes in the Democratic Republic of Congo (26 April-3 May 2008), organised by the Swedish Foundation for Human Rights in collaboration with the All-Party Parliamentary Group on the Great Lakes Region of Africa 18.
10 Final report submitted by Ms Gay J McDougall, Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 'Systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict', E/CN 4/Sub 2/1998/13, 21-22.
11 n 3 above.
12 International Crisis Group 'Congo: Five priorities for a peacebuilding strategy' (Africa Report 150) 2009 5.         [ Links ]
13 Mahmoud Kassem Rapport du Croupe dExperts sur l'Exploitation Illégale des Ressources Naturelles et Autres Richesses de la République Démocratique du Congo, delivered to the Security Council, UNDoc S/2003/1027 (23 October 2003).
14 See H Ngbanda Crimes Organisés en Afrique Centrale: Révélations sur les Réseaux Rwandais et Occidentaux (2004),         [ Links ] explaining how complex networks of multinational corporations, heads of state and individuals exploited mineral resources and destabilised Eastern DRC.
15 M Tran 'Angolan troops "reinforcing Congo army against rebels"' Guardian 7 November 2008 http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/nov/07/congo-angola-support (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
16 E Pasha Minerals are the problem, but can they be the solution? (2009).         [ Links ]
17 International Crisis Group Security reform in the Congo (2006) 1.         [ Links ]
18 See R Crilly 'UN peacekeepers "traded gold, ivory and guns with Congo rebels"' Times Online, 28 April 2008 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article3834034.ece (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
19 Chairperson of the Group of Experts, Report of the Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1533 (2004) Concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, delivered to the Security Council, UN Doc S/2008/773 (12 December 2008) 73.
20 C Sourt 'The Congo's blood metals' Guardian (UK) 25 December 2008 http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/dec/25/congo-coltan (noting,         [ Links ] however, that estimations suggest that only 1% of the coltan sold on the open market is from DRC).
21 S Sackur 'Mining a mint in Eastern Congo' BBC Africa (UK) 2 May 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/8027367.stm (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
22 Enough Project A comprehensive approach to Congos conflict minerals (2009) 2.         [ Links ]
23 'Global witness: Under-mining peace' A Report by Global Witness, June 2005 3.         [ Links ]
24 JM Weinstein Inside rebellion: The politics of insurgent violence (2007) 7.         [ Links ]
25 See International Rescue Committee Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo:
An ongoing crisis (2007).         [ Links ]
26 Enough Project John Prendergast Can you hear Congo now? Cell phones, conflict minerals, and the worst sexual violence in the world (2009) 8.         [ Links ]
27 SC Res 1258, UN Doc S/RES/1258 (6 August 1999).
28 See United Nations Security Council Resolution 1856 (2008) of 22 December 2008.         [ Links ]
29 United Nations Missions in DR Congo (MONUC), Budget, http://www.monuc.org/News.aspx?newsID=11533&menuOpened=About%20MONUC (accessed 9 September 2008).         [ Links ] The budget for the period from 1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006 was 1 133 672 200. Donor countries, such as the US, Japan and Germany, primarily finance MONUC’s budget.
30 Human Rights Watch 'DR Congo: 100 000 civilians at risk of attack' 29 April 2009 http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/04/29/dr-congo-100000-civilians-risk-attack (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
31 'Rwandan forces complete pull-out after joint operation' 26 February 2009 http://www.france24.com/en/20090226-rwanda-begins-dr-congo-pull-out-after-joint-operation-hutu-rebels-retaliation (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
32 Human Rights Watch 'DR Congo: Hold army to account for war crimes' (HRW Press Release) 19 May 2009 http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/05/19/dr-congo-hold-army-account-war-crimes (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
33 As above.
34 IRIN (UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs) 'DRC: Waiting for militias to leave the Kivus' 12 March 2009 http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=83418 (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
35 M Doyle 'DR Congo outsources its military' BBC News 27 February 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7910081.stm (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
36 BBC News (n 6 above); IRIN (n 6 above).
37 MONUC (n 6 above) 1.
38 See '"Dozens killed'' in DR Congo raids' BBC News 13 May 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8049105.stm (accessed 20 September 2009);         [ Links ] MONUC (n 6 above).
39 Human Rights Watch reported that in early May, around 60 civilians were killed and many others wounded in Walikale territory. Human Rights Watch (n 32 above).
40 As above; IRIN (n 6 above); MONUC (n 6 above) 3.
41 International Parliamentary-Expert Mission (n 9 above); Guardian.co.uk 'Congo army rapes, robs and kills civilians, UN told' Associated Press 18 May 2009 http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/may/18/congo-army-rape-civilians-monuc (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
42 'Mutinous Congo troops fire at UN' BBC News 17 June 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8104984.stm (accessed 20 September 2009);         [ Links ] Guardian.co.uk (n 41 above).
43 As above.
44 Human Rights Watch (n 32 above).
45 BBC News (n 6 above).
46 IRIN (UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs) 'DRC: Attacks against civilians and aid workers increase in the east' 22 May 2009 http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=84506 (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
47'Les pouvoirs publics veillent à l'élimination de toute forme de discrimination à légard de la femme et d'assurer la protection et la promotion de ses droits. Ils prennent dans tous les domaines, notamment dans les domaines civil, politique, économique, social et culturel, toutes les mesures appropriées pour assurer le total épanouissement et la pleine participation de la femme au développement de la nation. Ils prennent des mesures pour lutter contre toute forme de violences faites à la femme dans la vie publique et dans la vie privée. '
48 'Les pouvoirs publics veillent à lélimination des violences sexuelles utilises comme arme de déstabilisation ou de dislocation de la famille. Sans préjudice des traités et accords internationaux, toute violence sexuelle faite sur toute personne, dans l'intention de déstabiliser, de disloquer une famille et de faire disparaître tout un people est érigée en crime contre l'humanité puni par la loi.'
49 'La personne humaine est sacrée. LEtat a lobligation de la respecter et de la protéger. Toute personne a droit à la vie, à l'intégrité physique ainsi qu'au libre développement de sa personnalité dans le respect de la loi, de l'ordre public, du droit d'autrui et des bonnes mœurs ... Nul ne peut être soumis à un traitement cruel, inhumain ou dégradant.'
50 Loi 06/018 of 20 July 2006, supplemented by Loi 06/019 of 20 July 2006, modifying and amplifying the Décret of 6 August 1959 concerning the code of penal procedure (2006 Amendments).
51 2006 Amendments, 'exposé des motifs'. Author's own translation. The original French version reads: 'une nouvelle forme de criminalité à grande échelle justifiée le plus souvent par des intérêts d'ordre économique, social et politique'.
52 1940 Code Pénal; 2006 Amendments para 2 2.
53 2006 Amendments para 3 1-14, namely the sexual exploitation of minors, acting as a pimp, forced prostitution, sexual harassment, sexual slavery, forced marriage, sexual mutilation, zoophilia, the deliberate transmission of incurable sexually transmitted diseases, child trafficking, forced pregnancy, forced sterilisation, child pornography and child prostitution.
54 Loi 023/2002 of 18 November 2002 Portant code judiciaire militaire (Military Code) and Loi 024/2002 of 18 November 2002 Portant Code Penal Militaire (Military Penal Code).
55 Family Code, arts 448 & 450.
56 Statement by United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping, Jean-Marie Guéhenno (2006).
57 MONUC Twenty-seventh report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo S/2009/160 27 March 2009 14.
58 International Crisis Group (n 12 above) 4.
59 Congo Advocacy Coalition Update on protection of civilians in Eastern Congos peace process (2008) 2.         [ Links ] North Kivu contains an estimated 40% of the total sexual offence cases of the entire Congo: Initiative conjointe de prévention des violences sexuelles et de réponses aux droits et besoins des victimes/survivant(e)s, Situation des violences sexuelles au Nord Kivu. Période : Premier semestre 2008 (Rapport préliminaire) (2008) 4.
60 Heal Africa Guéris Mon Peuple Deuxième Rapport (janvier-décembre 2007) Assistance Médicale, Psychosociale et Economique pour les Survivants des Violences Sexuelles au Nord Kivu, RD Congo (2007) 4.
61 Y Ertürk Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its causes and consequences, Addendum: Mission to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2008) 17.         [ Links ]
62 IRIN (UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs) 'DRC: Rape cases soar in South Kivu' 3 June 2009 http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=84685 (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
63 International Crisis Group (n 12 above) 5.
64 n 9 above.
65 MONUC (n 57 above) 14.
66 United Nations Population Fund, Fiche de Rapportage SGBV: Volet Medico-Sanitaire Premier Trimestre 2008.
67 Heal Africa (n 60 above).
68 n 9 above, 14.
69 Initiative conjointe de prévention des violences sexuelles et de réponses aux droits et besoins des victimes/survivant(e)s, Initiative conjointe de prévention des violences sexuelles et de réponses aux droits et besoins des victimes/survivant(e)s, Situation des violences sexuelles au Nord Kivu. Période: Premier semestre 2008 (Rapport préliminaire) (2008) 12. Likewise, of the 2 672 victims identified by Heal Africa (a local NGO focusing on ending gender-based violence and providing health care to victims), only 165 prosecutions were initiated, being 6% of total rapes. Heal Africa had no details to show how many, if any, resulted in successful prosecutions; Heal Africa (n 60 above) 12.
70 These statistics exclude the city of Bukavu. United Nations Population Fund, Fiche de Rapportage SGBV: Volet Medico-Sanitaire Premier Trimestre 2008. Interview with Ligongo, UNFPA officer.
71 The Goma Tribunal de Grande Instance had reached 38 (interview with Registrar of Goma Tribunal de Grande Instance; the Goma military court only two (interview with Registrar of Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison. The Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance had delivered 11 judgments in 2008 (interview with Mr Samuel, Prosecutor of Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance). The Uvira Military Prosecution (Auditeur Militarie près le Tribunal Militaire de Garnison) stated that around 24 judgments are delivered each semester (interview with Prosecutor Francis of the Uvira Auditeur Militaire du Tribunal Militaire de Garnison).
72 Interview with Judge Lunanga, President of the Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance.
73 Interview with Mr Samuel, Prosecutor of Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance; interview with Judge Solomon, judge of the Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison.
74 International Crisis Group (n 12 above) 5.
75 United Nations Population Fund, Données VAS Compilées du Volet Judiciaire Premier Semestre 2008.
76 Interview with Mr Aimé, Lawyer with Arche d'Alliance.
77 As above; interview with Colonel Pascale, President of the Military Court of Goma.
78 Interview with Mr Samuel, Prosecutor of Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance.
79 As above. Similar comments were made by Mathieu Ngongo. Interview with Mr Mathieu Ngongo, Director of the American Bar Association.
80 Military Code, arts 76, 88 & 111; Code d'Organisation et de Compétence Judiciaires art 91.
81 n 12 above, 19.
82 Solidarité des Femmes Activistes pour la Défense des Droits Humains (Solidarity of Activist Women for Human Rights).
83 Interview with Gégé Katana, Director of SOFAD.
84 Interview with Ms Masika, Lawyer with AJUSK (Association of Jurists of South Kivu).
85 BM Kampetenga Lusengu Droit Coutumier Congolais: Notes de Cours à l'Attention des Étudiants de 2e Graduat en Droit (2006).         [ Links ]
86 See M Pieterse 'Traditional African jurisprudence' in C Roederer & D Moellendorf (eds) Jurisprudence (2004),         [ Links ] stating that traditional modes of dispute resolution are often directed at facilitating peaceful solutions to problems which are regarded as possibly having a negative impact on the harmonious co-existence of the community as a whole.
87 Interview with Helène, survivor. See also interview with Furaha, survivor. 'I can prosecute ... But this will not bring any result for my health state.'
88 n 12 above, 19.
89 Interview with Vivianne, survivor; interview with Rachelle, survivor.
90 The urban population of the DRC is only about 32,7%: United Nations Population Fund and Population Reference Bureau Country profiles for population and reproductive health, policy developments and indicators 2005, Overview: Democratic Republic of Congo (2005) 38.         [ Links ]
91 United Nations (n 90 above) 39. The Minister of Justice in 2007 put the figure of female literacy as just 45,9%: Ministere de la Justice Plan d'Actions Pour la Reforme de la Justice (2007) 13.         [ Links ]
92 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 55.
93 Interview with Nbitse, survivor. See also interview with Ndaina, survivor: ’Would I win the case? I am sure of it. The act is condemnable, I was taken by force.’ One exception was 40 year-old Rosetta, who, when asked whether she would win her case before the judges, acknowledged: ’I don’t know because I don’t know the law, it’s up to those who know the law.’ Interview with Rosetta, survivor
94 Interview with Professor Kahindo, Professor of Law at the Université Libre des Pays de Grand Lacs.
95 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 30. The original French reads: 'Les entraves à l'accessibilité à la justice restent en effet très grandes en raison de ... l'ignorance par la population de la loi et du droit en général, plus encore les droits et libertés des individus tels qu'exprimés par les textes.'
96 n 95 above.
97Code de la Famille art 448: 'La femme doit obtenir lautorisation de son mari pour tous les actes juridiques dans lesquels elle s'oblige à une prestation qu'elle doit effectuer en personne. ' Code de la Famille art 450:'Sauf les exceptions ci-après et celles prévues par le régime matrimonial, la femme ne peut ester en justice en matière civile, acquérir, aliéner ou s'obliger sans l'autorisation de son mari.'
98 Interview with Mr Muhindo, Lawyer for SOFAD.
99 Interview with Bibige, survivor.
100 Interview with Rosetta, survivor.
101 Interview with Feza, survivor; interview with Rachelle, survivor.
102 Interview with Agues, survivor.
103 Interview with Rosetta, survivor.
104 Survey response of Noella, resident of Goma.
105 Interview with Judge Solomon, judge of the Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison.
106 Military Tribunal, Mbandaka, 12 April 2006 (DRC). Author's own translation. The original French version reads: l'atteinte sexuelle est l'une des choses les plus difficiles à signaller à cause du contexte socio-culturel. Dans presque toutes les sociétés, une femme, un homme ou un enfant qui porte des allégations des viols, de violence ou d'humiliation sexuelle a beaucoup à perdre et risqué de faire l'objet d'énormes pressions ou d'ostracisme de la part des membres de sa famille immédiate et de la société en general.'
107 Interview with Nbitse, survivor; interview with Pastor Antoine, pastor of Heal Africa; interview with Ms Masika, lawyer with the Association of Jurists of South Kivu (AJUSK).
108 Interview with Gégé Katana, Director of SOFAD.
109 Interview with Mr Aimé, Lawyer with Arche d'Alliance; interview with Vénancie, resident of Goma.
110 Interview with Mupenda, resident of Katana.
111 Interview with Sidonie, psychologist with Panzi Hospital.
112 Interview with Eglesia, survivor.
113 Interview with Agues, survivor.
114 n 9 above, 20.
115 n 9 above, 21.
116 US Department of State, 2008 Report on International Religious Freedom (19 September 2008) http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,DOM,4562d94e2,48d5cc022,0.html (accessed 16 March 2009).         [ Links ]
117 AMB Mangu 'Law, religion and human rights in the Democratic Republic of Congo' (2008) 8 African Human Rights Law Journal 523.         [ Links ]
118 Interview with Pastor Antoine, Pastor of Heal Africa.
119 Interview with Shalukomba, resident of Katana. See similar comments in Interview with Pastor Antoine, Pastor of Heal Africa.
120 Interview with Feza, survivor.
121 Interview with Rosetta, survivor.
122 Interview with Hélène, survivor.
123 R Feeley & C Thomas-Jensen 'Getting serious about ending conflict and sexual violence in Congo' Enough Strategy Paper (2008).         [ Links ]
124 Human Rights Watch DR Congo: Peace accord fails to end killing of civilians (2008) http://hrw.org/english/docs/2008/07/18/congo19396.htm (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ] While military operations in February 2009 caused the CNDP to be integrated into the Congolese army, the security situation in Eastern DRC remains instable due to the many other armed groups currently active, particularly the FDLR and LRA.
125 Interview with Feza, survivor.
126 Interview with Rosetta, survivor.
127 Interview with Dr Faustin, doctor at Panzi Hospital.
128 n 9 above, 21.
129 n 12 above, 5.
130 n 9 above, 27.
131 Interview with Mr Samuel, prosecutor of Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance.
132 Interview with Shalukomba, resident of Katana.
133 The two bases of Congolese law are Belgian law and Congolese customary law. See D Zongwe et al The legal system and research of the Democratic Republic of Congo (2008) http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/democratic_republic_congo1.htm (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
134 Interview with Furaha, survivor.
135 Interview with Bibige, survivor.
136 MONUC (n 6 above) 10.
137 Interview with Mr Jean-Paul, Lawyer for Heal Africa. Similar comments were made in Focus group discussion with five survivors.
138 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 30.
139 n 9 above, 19.
140 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 10. The original French version reads: 'Outre les frais de justice officiels (consignation, frais d'actes, droits proportionnels, etc.) qui sont lourds à supporter par un grand nombre de justiciables à cause du faible niveau des revenus, il y a lieu de relever que le justiciable congolais est soumis à d'autres frais plus ou moins officieux (frais de notification d'actes par les huissiers, frais de dépôt de la plainte, achat d'imprimés pour les procès - verbaux, etc.) qui achèvent de rendre la justice inaccessible pour les plus démunis qui constituent la majorité de la population.'
141 2006 Amendments, art 1: l'Officier du Ministère Public ou le juge requiert d'office un médecin et un psychologue, afin d'apprécier l'état de la victime des violences sexuelles et de déterminer les soins appropriés ainsi que d'évaluer l'importance du préjudice subi par celle-ci et son aggravation ultérieure.'
142 Interview with Mr Samuel, prosecutor of Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance.
143 Interview with Mr Muhindo, lawyer for SOFAD.
144 Interview with Ms Masika, lawyer with AJUSK (Association of Jurists of South Kivu).
145 Interview with Rosetta, survivor.
146 Interview with Pastor Antoine, pastor of Heal Africa.
147 Interview with Ms Masika (n 144 above).
148 As above.
149 DRC is the third largest country by land area size in Africa after Sudan and Algeria.
150Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 9.
151 P Simo et al Ending Congos nightmare - What the US can do to promote peace in Central Africa (2003) 29.         [ Links ]
152 The Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance is, however, assisted by two sub-tribunals at Kavumu and Kamituga.
153 C Mampasu 'Shabunda: The "forgotten Kosovo"' (2002) Humanitarian Exchange Magazine.         [ Links ]
154 Interview with Mr Samuel, prosecutor of Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance.
155 Interview with Mr Jean-Paul and Ms Cristina, lawyers for Heal Africa; interview with Judge Solomon, judge of the Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison; interview with Mr Alexis, prosecutor of the Goma Auditeur du Tribunal Militaire de Garnison.
156 Interview with Mr Alexis (n 155 above).
157 As above.
158 Interview with Richard, member of ASJPD (Association de Secours aux Jumeaux et Leurs Parents en Détresse/Association of Assistance to Twins and their Parents).
159 Particularly for those, such as Eglesia, who were ordered by the perpetrators after the rape not to tell anyone what they had done to them. Interview with Eglesia, survivor.
160 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 30; MONUC Combating Impunity for Cases of Sexual Violence: Concept Note 5.
161 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 35.
162 Interview with Mr Aimé, lawyer with Arche d'Alliance.
163 Interview with Ndaina, survivor.
164 Interview with Pastor Antoine, pastor of Heal Africa.
165 Interview with Judge Lunanga, President of the Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance.
166 Interview with Sidonie, psychologist with Panzi Hospital.
167 Interview with Gégé Katana, Director of SOFAD.
168 Interview with Colonel Pascale, President of the Military Court of Goma.
169 Although there are sufficient health centres, they are not qualified to provide the necessary reports.
170 Interview with Mr Alexis, prosecutor of the Goma Auditeur du Tribunal Militaire de Garnison.
171 Interview with Gégé Katana, Director of SOFAD.
172 Interview with Mr Aimé, lawyer with Arche d'Alliance.
173 Interview with D Noella, doctor of Heal Africa; interview with Rosetta, survivor.
174 Interview with Judge Richard, President of the Goma Tribunal de Grande Instance.
175 Ministère de la Justice (n 91 above) 30.
176 The Goma Tribunal de Grande Instance had made 38 (interview with Registrar of Goma Tribunal de Grande Instance. The Goma military court only two: interview with Registrar of Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison. The Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance had made 11 judgments in 2008: interview with Mr Samuel, prosecutor of Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance. The Uvira Military Prosecution (Auditeur Militaire près le Tribunal Militaire de Garnison) stated that around 24 judgments are made each semester. Interview with prosecutor Francis of the Uvira Auditeur Militaire du Tribunal Militaire de Garnison.
177 United Nations Population Fund, Données VAS Compilées du Volet Judiciaire Premier Semestre 2008.
178 This is a conservative percentage, given that it does not take into account the likely scenario that some cases did not arrive at the courts through the prosecution, which would result in more initial complaints.
179 n 9 above, 15.
180 Interview with Registrar of Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison.
181 Art 7 bis of the 2006 Amendments.
182 n 180 above.
183 n 9 above, 15.
184 Interview with Judge Solomon, judge of the Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison; interview with Colonel Wilfred, President of the Goma Tribunal Militaire de Garnison; interview with Dr Anyesi, doctor of Heal Africa.
185 n 9 above, 21.
186 Interview with Dr Noella, doctor of Heal Africa. Similar comments by Gégé Katana. Also iInterview with Dr Anyesi, doctor of Heal Africa.: 'The numbers of lawyers are limited. It takes lots of time - when a victim sees that it takes lots of time, they decide not to lodge a criminal complaint.'
187 Interview with Bibige, survivor. Similar comments in iInterview with Pastor Antoine, pastor of Heal Africa, 30.
188 Eighty-four of 141 complaints recorded that the defendant was imprisoned. Prosecution of the Goma Tribunal de Grande Instance, Case Records.
189 While 'preventative detention' is said to be an exceptional measure, there are no additional requirements to be met in order to place someone in detention other than that the defendant is accused of a crime to which a penalty of at least six months' imprisonment attaches: Arts 205 & 209 of the Military Code. Similar figures of non-convicted prisoners have been observed elsewhere: n 9 above, 17.
190 Interview with Richard, member of ASJPD (Association de Secours aux Jumeaux et Leurs Parents en Détresse/Association of Assistance to Twins and their Parents).
191 Interview with Judge Lunanga, President of the Uvira Tribunal de Grande Instance.
192 TF Pacéré Report submitted by the independent expert to the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2006 130.         [ Links ]
193 The report also notes that, in theory, substantial monthly bonuses ranging from US 0 to US 0 are paid to all judges and magistrates. However, it notes that a distinction must be drawn between impoverished rural magistrates working in extremely difficult conditions and judges in urban areas who have guaranteed salaries.
194 n 192 above, 132-135.
195 Interview with Rachelle, survivor.
196 Interview with Mr Muhindo, lawyer for SOFAD.
197 Interview with Ms Masika, lawyer with AJUSK (Association of Jurists of South Kivu).
198 Interview with Celeste, gender-based violence officer with UNFPA.
199 Interview with Shalukomba, resident of Katana. Similar comments in interview with Vénancie, resident of Goma.
200 Interview with Francine, resident of Goma.
201 Interview with Munyerenkana, survivor. Similar comments in interview with Pastor Antoine, pastor of Heal Africa.
202 Arts 77 & 226 of Military Code; art 15 of the Code Penal.
203 This figure is obtained from a review of judgments of the Goma Military Tribunal and the Goma General Tribunal.
204 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 30.
205 Eg Interview with Pastor Antoine, pastor of Heal Africa; interview with Sidonie, psychologist with Panzi Hospital.
206 Interview with Vivianne, survivor.
207 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 49; MONUC, Twenty-eighth report on the United Nations Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, S/2009/335 30 June 2009 14.         [ Links ]
208 MONUC (n 207 above) 7 10.
209 Interview with Feza, survivor. See also comments in Interview with Eglesia, survivor: 'If you don't have money, he is arrested, then gives money, and he is liberated.' Similar comments by Interview with Mr Aimé, lawyer with Arche d'Alliance.
210 Interview with Celeste, gender-based violence officer with UNFPA.
211 n 9 above, 16; Interview with Mr Aimé, lawyer with Arche d'Alliance; interview with Celeste, gender-based violence officer with UNFPA.
212 n 9 above, 16.
213 Interview with Mr Aimé, lawyer with Arche dAlliance.
214 Interview with Francine, resident of Goma.
215 See Velasquez Rodriguez v Honduras, 4 Inter Am Ct HR Ser C 4 1988.
216 n 9 above11.
217 Notes from briefing with SRSG DRC Alan Doss, United for Women of All Nations 6 April 2008, http://www.uwan.info/a/Doss.html (accessed 20 September 2009).
218 MONUC 'DRC: Waiting for militias to leave the Kivus' 12 March 2009, http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=83418 (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
219 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 22.
220 n 9 above, 29.
221 Enough Project John Prendergast 'Confronting rape and other forms of violence against women in conflict zones - Spotlight: DRC and Sudan' 13 May 2009 http://www.enoughproject.org/publications/confronting-rape-and-other-forms-violence-against-women-conflict-zones%E2%80%94spotlight-drc-an (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
222 n 6 above.
223 DP Zongwe 'The legal justifications for a people-based approach to the control of mineral resources in the Democratic Republic of the Congo' 26 April 2008 Cornell Law School LLM Papers Series Paper 12 http://lsr.nellco.org/cornell/lps/clacp/12 (accessed 20 September 2009) 66.         [ Links ]
224 MONUC Comprehensive Strategy on Combating Sexual Violence in DRC, Executive Summary, 18 March 2009 5.         [ Links ]
225 See D Renton et al The Congo: Plunder and resistance (2007) 210,         [ Links ] stating that private and speculative capital and multinationals have frequently provided a reason for the armed groups in the DRC.
226 See Press Release Global Witness 'Resource plunder still driving Eastern Congo conflict' 1 November 2008 http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/678/en/resource _plunder_still_driving_eastern_congo_conflict (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
227 n 192 above,148.
228 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820 (2008) of 19 June 2008.
229 n 9 above, 32.
230 n 227 above.
231 n 9 above, 34.
232 n 9 above, 35.
233 n 192 above, 151.
234Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 7.
235 MONUC (n 160 above) 4.
236 n 9 above, 17.
237 n 9 above, 42.
238 Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 10.
239 MONUC (n 160 above) 2.
240 n 9 above, 18.
241Ministere de la Justice (n 91 above) 17.
242 n 9 above, 41.
243 The 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW) also recognises the role of NGOs in combating sexual violence against women: Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women GA Res 48/104 (20 December 1993) art 4.
244 See, eg, the case of Gédéon, Mai Mai militia leader, handed down 5 March 2009, with the assistance of submissions of Human Rights Watch: Human Rights Watch 'DR Congo: Militia leader guilty in landmark trial' 10 March 2009 http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/03/10/dr-congo-militia-leader-guilty-landmark-trial (accessed 20 September 2009).         [ Links ]
245Ministere de la justice (n 91 above) 22.
246 African Women's Protocol, Preamble.
247 n 12 above, 5.