ARTICLES

 

A New English-Serbian Dictionary of Sports Terms in the Light of Contemporary Challenges

 

A New English-Serbian Dictionary of Sports Terms in die lig van kontemporêre uitdagings

 

 

Mira Milić^I; Olga Panić Kavgić^II; Aleksandra Kardoš Stojanović^III

^IFaculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia (miramilicns@gmail.com)
^IIFaculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Serbia (olgapk@ff.uns.ac.rs)
^IIIFaculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Serbia (sandra.kardosh@gmail.com)

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This paper deals with theoretical and practical aspects of the recently published Novi englesko-srpski rečnik sportskih termina [Eng. A New English-Serbian Dictionary of Sports Terms] (Milić et al. 2021). The aim is to shed light on solutions that have given rise to innovations in Serbian lexicography. Following the theoretical underpinnings of the lexicographic model and its description, the discussion centers on resolving macrostructural and microstructural issues that could not be brought into accordance with the existing lexicographic and lexicological norms. The problematic issues dealt with include the morphosyntax of headwords, the adaptation of Japanese-based and gymnastics terms from English into Serbian, and the Dictionary's medium in the digital era. The current research builds on previous works from 2017 to 2021, the main result of which was the publication of the Dictionary.

Keywords: dictionary, english, serbian, lexicography, lexicology, sport, standardization, term, terminology

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OPSOMMING

In hierdie artikel word aandag geskenk aan teoretiese en praktiese aspekte van die onlangs gepubliseerde Novi englesko-srpski rečnik sportskih termina [Afr. 'n Nuwe Engels-Serwiese Woordeboek van Sportterme] (Milić et al. 2021). Die doel daarmee is om lig te werp op oplossings wat gelei het tot vernuwings in die Serwiese leksikografie. Ná die teoretiese onderbou van die leksikografiese model en die beskrywing daarvan word daar in die bespreking op die oplos van die makro- en mikrostrukturele kwessies wat nie met die bestaande leksikografiese en leksikologiese norme in ooreenstemming gebring kon word nie, gefokus. Die problematiese kwessies wat hanteer word, sluit die morfosintaksis van trefwoorde, die aanpas van Japannees-gebaseerde en gimnastiekterme uit Engels in Serwies, en die medium van die Woordeboek in die digitale era in. Die huidige navorsing bou voort op voorafgaande werk vanaf 2017 tot 2021, waarvan die belangrikste resultaat die publikasie van die Woordeboek was.

Sleutelwoorde: woordeboek, engels, serwies, leksikografie, leksikologie, sport, standaardisering, term, terminologie

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1. Introduction

Under the circumstances of the ever-increasing global importance of English, non-native speakers of English, be it students, researchers, or professionals getting in direct or indirect contact with a specific domain, face an increasing need for achieving a good command of English for specific purposes (ESP), especially the register used in a particular field. To achieve this goal, ESP learners use bilingual specialized dictionaries more extensively than other learning resources. In light of this, specialized dictionaries, in general, are a means to preserve the convention, i.e., the linguistic standard, owing to which they help in the preservation of a national language. Thus, they are not only reference sources for translators, but also teaching/learning resources.

Narrowing down the scope of research to bilingual terminological dictionaries, English-Serbian in particular, it can be said that they have recently gained in importance as pedagogical resources, provided that they are conceived in such a way as to supply multifaceted information (linguistic, contact-linguistic, and professional), which is needed for a controlled influx of borrowed lexical material from English into Serbian, knowledge transfer, and active and uninterrupted communication in a particular subject field. That subsumes a scientifically based and user-oriented lexicographic product amenable to further improvements in accordance with users' feedback. The scientific basis of an English-Serbian terminological dictionary implies the application of the latest knowledge in linguistics, English-Serbian contact linguistics, as well as the latest developments in lexicographic theory (cf. Milić 2015b). The user-oriented quality of such a dictionary includes a multitude of ever-changing user needs and preferences, which might be considered from three aspects: firstly, among the most recent ones, it is the inclusion of lexical headwords other than nouns, as well as those extending beyond the lexical level, because they pose communication challenges in a particular field; secondly, it is the impact of the digital revolution on users' expectations in lexicography that requires full attention to the digital environment, which entails innovations in terms of form and content of future dictionaries (Knežević et al. 2021); thirdly, it is the functional profile of the Dictionary which is no longer communicative only (productive and receptive), but also cognitive and increasingly pedagogical, especially in teaching academic ESP (cf. Milić et al. 2018). In a nutshell, it turns out that the most salient issue is to ensure a principle-governed and high-quality lexicographic work (Milić 2015b: 184), as well as to devote more attention to the development of dictionary culture (Nkomo 2015; Prćić 2018).

Motivated by such aims, the project of a new English-Serbian dictionary of sports terms has been implemented, under the title Novi englesko-srpski rečnik sportskih termina, henceforth NESRST. The exposition is organized as follows: after the introduction, Section 2 provides a brief account of NESRST from theoretical and practical viewpoints; Section 3 deals with elicited lexicographic problems and their solutions; finally, Section 4 draws conclusions and highlights the imported innovations in Serbian lexicography.

 

2. Theoretical underpinnings of NESRST

Since the subject of this paper is a lexicographic resource whose entries are sports terms, it is deemed necessary to point out that the analysis is based on a linguistically based approach to terminology (cf. Cabré 1999; L'Homme 2005; Milić 2004). The fact that professional knowledge and linguistics account for an approximately equal share in terminology is an argument in favor of the conclusion that "terminological analysis must incorporate aspects of both knowledge-driven and lexicon-driven approaches to linguistic content" (L'Homme 2020: 27), i.e., that a dictionary is both a cognitive and linguistic tool (Łukasik 2018: 201). Shifting the focus from the term to the dictionary, it is necessary to point out that a dictionary is not only a reference book consisting of a systematically arranged list of lexical units (cf. Zgusta 1971: 197), but it is also an act of communication between the lexicographer and the user (Milić 2015b: 182), which means that the process of dictionary-making is expected to fulfill the needs and expectations of the user, as particularly emphasized by the communicative theory (Cabré 1999; Yong and Peng 2007) and the more recent theory of lexicographic functions (Bergenholtz 2012; Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp 2014).

Therefore, in terms of the underlying lexicographic theory, NESRST is based on the foundations of the communicative theory that also guided the theoretical and practical elaboration of the first edition of the dictionary (Milić 2006). Accordingly, the lexicographic model is only concerned with synchronic aspects of Serbian terms that have been standardized using the first author's model of standardization, theoretically elaborated in Milić (2004), and upgraded on several occasions (Milić 2015a; Milić and Kardoš 2018; 2019). The fact that Serbian terms are regularly created by adaptation of sports terms from English is an argument in favor of the conclusion that the angloglobalized world (cf. Furiassi et al. 2012) leaves its imprint on lexicography, since the limits of language planning are being increasingly extended from the intralingual level to the interlingual one (Bergenholtz and Gouws 2006). Thus, the English-based model of standardization of sports terms in Serbian subsumes that, out of the existing ones, a lexicographer should impose the best fitting term, borrowed or translated from English, or prescribe a new one in accordance with the linguistic standard of Serbian. In other words, NESRST is descriptive with elements of prescriptivism. Concerning the attitude towards two opposite approaches, i.e., descriptivism and prescriptivism, NESRST slightly deviates from the theory of lexicographic functions, which advocates a more relaxed form of prescriptivism, i.e., a proscriptive approach in which a lexicographer recommends a term out of the existing variants found in the corpus.

Seen within the functional framework, NESRST is profiled not only for the communicative function (productive and receptive) but also pedagogical (Béjoint 2010; Hartmann 2001; Łukasik 2016) and cognitive ones (cf. Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp 2011; 2014). The first two are provided by offering standardized terminological units in Serbian created by adaptation of English terms at the level of form and content. The solutions are founded on a corpus-based analysis of the sports register, as well as the latest knowledge in the field of English-Serbian language contacts (Prćić 2019). The fact that English-based terms are brought into accordance with the linguistic standard of Serbian makes the Dictionary fit for teaching and learning ESP, especially at the tertiary level, which was corroborated by the results of a survey in 2017 (cf. Milić et al. 2018). Concerning the cognitive function, which ranks high among lexicographers (cf. Cabré 1999; Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp 2014; Łukasik 2012; 2018; Nielsen 2018), NESRST offers multifaceted information accessible from the levels of microstructure and macrostructure alike, by means of which the user acquires knowledge in the specialized field of sport, be it for academic studies, research and professional advancement in sports, translation or merely facilitating communication in this field. The multifunctional character of NESRST further entails a full-sentence definition that offers sufficient information for experts, semi-experts, and laypeople, as well as users with different levels of foreign language competence. In this sense, this lexicographic approach differs further from the theory of lexicographic functions, according to which a user/situation-focused dictionary is expected to fit into one of the ten available types of definitions, ranging from full sentences (providing extra information, e.g., active/ passive voice, collocates, etc.), to substitutable ones (meaning only) (cf. Kwary 2011: 62).

The following strongly emphasized issue concerns user requirements and expectations. The first step in designing a dictionary is deciding on the potential users (Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp 2014; Yong and Peng 2007: 123-126). According to Cabré (1999: 11), there are two main groups of users - direct users or professionals and intermediaries who indirectly get in contact with a certain register. If applied to NESRST, the answer is that it is intended not only for university students of sports and professionals but also non-professionals who directly or indirectly get in contact with the register of sports. All this entails that dictionary entries should contain sufficient and accurate information needed for a full understanding of a term's meaning and its lexical features, which could be accessed fast and easily, regardless of whether the user is a professional or not. Besides, seen within the context of the ever-more demanding digital challenges in the 21st century (cf. Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp 2014; Gouws 2017; Knežević et al. 2021; Lew 2013; Lew and De Schryver 2014; Łukasik 2018: 196), the electronic medium is the strongly preferable option. Thus, lexicography is sometimes placed within the realm of information science rather than linguistics (Bergenholtz and Bothma 2011: 74).

Finally, it goes without saying that dictionary-making cannot be reduced to its final product. Rather, it is a process-oriented activity based on validation (Granger and Paquot 2015: 17), i.e., on studying, nurturing, and monitoring the effects of its use (Prćić 2019: 247). Complying with this requirement, the first edition of the dictionary (Milić 2006) was subjected to revision aimed at publishing a new expanded edition, bearing in mind the following: the users' feedback requirement for including more sports registers (cf. Milić 2015b); the fact that the life span of the dictionary was longer than ten years after which, by default, a dictionary is liable to revision and reprint (cf. Yong and Peng 2007: 118); encouraging reviews of the dictionary model in linguistic circles (cf. Ćirić-Duvnjak 2013: 64; Vasić 2018: 209), as well as the fact that the first edition was sold out. In addition to updating the content and design of the first edition (cf. Milić et al. 2017), the past three years have been devoted to corpus-based studies and standardization of additional English-based sports registers in Serbian (Milić and Kardoš 2018; Panić Kavgić 2021). The main result of these activities is the publication of NESRST, which is briefly described in the following subsections.

2.1 Practical aspects of NESRST

NESRST represents the result of a teamwork project, involving three linguists - university lecturers with lexicographic experience, as well as twenty-two sports professionals - professors, distinguished athletes, and coaches at the national and international level. As already pointed out, NESRST is based on the model of the first edition of An English-Serbian Dictionary of Sports Terms (Milić 2006), which was published as a printed edition with approximately 1300 entries of standardized English-based terms in Serbian from the registers of the five most popular ball games in this part of Europe: basketball, football, handball, volleyball, and water polo. Owing to important innovations at the levels of macrostructure and microstructure, as well as the fact that the number of entries in NESRST is significantly higher, the title of the new edition has been modified by adding the adjective 'New' (Serb. Novi).

2.1.1 Macrostructure of NESRST

Seen within the typological framework, NESRST is: (i) synchronic, since it contains currently used sports terms; descriptive with elements of prescriptivism, as it includes standardized English-based terms in Serbian; (ii) bilingual - English-Serbian; (iii) printed, in terms of its medium; and medium-sized, when it comes to its volume. In addition to the central alphabetically ordered word list, NESRST includes the following secondary front-matter components, whose function is to provide an insight into its aims, theory of the lexicographic model, and user-focused lexicographic information: Table of Contents (Serb. Sadržaj), Symbols and Abbreviations (Serb. Oznake i skraćenice), Authors' Foreword (Serb. Reč unapred), User's Guide (Serb. Vodič kroz Rečnik), and References (Serb. Literatura). At the end of NESRST, there is an Appendix (Serb. Dodatak) with a short description of the included sports.

The central part, i.e., the word list, comprises 5262 entries, one-fourth of which make up the inventory of the already existing dictionary. The entries belong to thirteen registers: four martial arts (boxing, judo, karate, wrestling), three individual sports (athletics, gymnastics, skiing with snowboarding), five ball games (basketball, football, handball, volleyball, water polo) and one racket game (tennis). From the morphosyntactic point of view, the headwords in NESRST are English terms that are either single-worded or polylexical, and predominantly nouns and verbs.

2.1.2 Microstructure of NESRST

A typical NESRST entry consists of six elements, which are described and exemplified in the User's Guide: English term (1), grammatical information (2), cross references (3), Serbian term(s) (4), gloss (5), and diatechnical label (6). The numbered elements are shown in Figure 1 below (NESRST, 160). To distinguish between English and Serbian terms used for exemplification in the text, the former is written in italics and the latter in small capitals, with the symbol > in between, to mark the direction of adaptation from English into Serbian.

 

 

More details about the elements of a NESRST entry are given in the following text.

(1) Alphabetically ordered English terms as headwords are set in Arial bold typeface, in order to be distinguished from the rest of the text in Times New Roman. Headwords sharing the same form but different grammatical functions, meaning, and/or translation equivalents are re-entered and labeled with subscript codes _a through _H, placed immediately after the headword, as illustrated by Figure 2.

 

 

(2) Grammatical information for lexical units is given in the form of an abbreviation of a word class for single-worded and phrasal units¹ alike, as follows: gl (verb), im (noun), prid (adjective), pril (adverb), and uzv (interjection). A smaller number of multi-word syntactic units are marked as predl. sint (prepositional phrase) or isk (statement). Listed in descending order, NESRST includes: 4854 nouns, 330 verbs, 30 statements, 22 adjectives, 18 prepositional phrases, eight adverbs, and one interjection.

(3) Cross references for synonyms, antonyms, and variants are set in Times New Roman bold. A NESRST synonym is a term that has the same but not necessarily identical meaning as another term (predominantly an Anglicism, as opposed to its translation equivalent), while an antonym is a term with a meaning opposite to that of another term. Language variants for British and American English are coded using subscript symbols _£ and _$, respectively. Some cross references are additionally coded with a preceding subscript arrow, as a sign that a particular cross reference is also a headword. By doing so, the authors followed the lexicographic convention applied by Vasić et al. (2018) and Prćić et al. (2021).

(4) Numbered standard Serbian terms and their variants (if existing) are set in Times New Roman italic typeface, with the standard term labeled as 1. As stated above, Serbian terms have been standardized using the priority-ordered six-principle model² (preciseness, transparency, systematicity, productivity, concision, and frequency). In addition to being numbered, terms with a high frequency of use that are not fully in accordance with the principles of standardization are labeled with the sign L, following the lexicographic convention introduced in Vasić et al. (2018) and Prćić et al. (2021).

(5) Gloss is a single-sentence definition of meaning that explains the main characteristics of a concept. The definition type fits the traditional 'genus-and-differentia' model (Atkins and Rundell 2008: 436), according to which a term is defined using a hypernym which is followed by additional features that distinguish a particular meaning from those of other hyponyms. In the case of synonymous terms, the gloss is given only once for the first-entered unit, as illustrated by Figure 3.

 

 

(6) Diatechnical label is an introductory sentence adverbial that follows the pattern "In + name of the sport / a group of related sports / sport in general, …", which represents an integral part of the definition of a term's meaning. With this adverbial, the translation of the full definition of field_a (see Figure 1) reads as follows: "In football, a rectangular area, normally covered in natural or artificial grass, 90-120m long (100-110m for international matches) and 45-90m wide (64-75m for international matches), which is delimited by two side-lines and two goal-lines."

 

3. Problems addressed and solutions provided

Even though NESRST is based on the existing model, theoretically elaborated in Milić (2004) and practically realized in Milić (2006), it could not fit the substantially increased lexical inventory of the new dictionary. Thus, the inclusion of new sports registers has brought to light eight problems related to the morphosyntax of headwords, the adaptation of Japanese-based and gymnastics terms from English into Serbian, and the applied dictionary medium. In the following sections, the problems are elaborated on and exemplified by representative NESRST entries.

3.1 Morphosyntactic issues

The findings of previous research on word classes in the terminological system indicate the prevalence of nouns over verbs and other word classes (cf. Cabré 1999; Milić 2015a). As already stated in Section 2.1.2, the same holds for this research. It goes without saying that word lists in terminological dictionaries are a reflection of such findings. However, recent research advocates giving more room in terminological dictionaries to the previously neglected word classes such as verbs (cf. López Ferrero 2011; Williams and Millon 2010) and even prepositions (Nielsen and Fuertes-Olivera 2009). Since this is still a disputable issue, the authors of NESRST have not gone beyond the conceptual framework of the sports register in terms of giving more room to word classes other than nouns. However, three questions come to the foreground in regard to the morphosyntax of the dictionary: firstly, it seems that there is no generally accepted attitude concerning the treatment of proper nouns as lexical entries; secondly, there is the question of the lexicographic status of terms extending beyond lexical limits, albeit less prominent in specialized registers; lastly, there is a problem with the proper description of gender-sensitive terms which is especially typical of Serbian as an inflectional language. The elicited problems and their solutions are elaborated on in the following text.

Problem 1. Proper nouns as lexical entries. From the theoretical point of view, these units could not be lexical entries for two reasons. Firstly, they do not have sense (Lyons 1977: 223), and, secondly, most have not developed an appellative function (cf. Zgusta 1971: 246). However, they do have a status of lexical entries to a limited extent in sports dictionaries (cf. Bateman et al. 2006; Milić 2006; Room 2010; Tomlinson 2010), in which they appear as the names of international sports federations and competitions, as well as in some other English-Serbian (and -Croatian) terminological dictionaries (cf. Mihajlov et al. 2004; Pritchard 2013). The situation is similar with reasonably sized general English dictionaries (Atkins and Rundell 2008: 187), most of which include proper nouns. Some authors justify their status of dictionary entries by claiming that all that is exceptional about them is their sheer number (Mignot and Philippe 2022). To establish a standardized approach to the lexicographic treatment of proper nouns in general dictionaries, Bozkurt (2019: 19) concludes that the issue necessitates a detailed study of the attitudes of dictionary users towards proper names, the ways in which they search for them in dictionaries, and the kind of reference sources they use to look them up.

Solution. The way the problem has been solved in NESRST is exemplified and described below.

(1) Olympic Games > Olimpijske igre

(2) Tsukahara > 1. cukahara, 2. L Cukahara³

Amidst such conflicting attitudes, the authors of NESRST have decided not to include proper nouns, except when they have developed appellative functions. An additional argument in favor of such a solution is that sport does not generally include concepts named by proper nouns, which means that the lexicographic status of these entries is highly dependent on the register. For example, proper nouns would be necessary for dictionaries dealing with astronomy or mycology (cf. L'Homme 2020: 60). Thus, the word list of the previous dictionary was modified so that proper nouns were left out. An exception is the term Olympic Games (1), which refers to the biggest and oldest international sports competition and which includes, among others, all sports analyzed in this research. On grounds of this, the authors have decided that the term should be a lexical entry in NESRST for cultural and historical reasons. However, eponyms (2) are an exception since they have developed appellative functions. Complying with the orthographic standard of both languages, such an entry in English begins with a capitalized initial letter, as opposed to a small-case one in the Serbian equivalent. Accordingly, the correctly written Serbian term cukahara is the standard unit, whereas its variant Cukahara is labeled with the symbol L, to mark a case of unacceptable compliance with the English orthographic standard.

Problem 2. Syntactic units as dictionary entries. Unlike the lexicographic model applied in Milić (2006), which includes lexical units only, NESRST has a significant share of polylexical terms that are not only lexical units but also syntactic ones, and are, according to their structure, clauses, i.e., sentences⁴. Even though not uncommon in translation manuals (cf. Joksimović 2019) and even terminological dictionaries (cf. Mihajlov et al. 2004; Pritchard 2013; 2015) the introduction of such entries further entails the challenge of defining the meaning using the customary 'genus-and-differentia' model.

Solution. The problem has been resolved as exemplified and described below.

(3) out of bounds > 1. izguravanje, 2. izlazak iz borilišta (Eng. prepositional phrase - Serb. noun, phrasal noun⁵).

In wrestling, the situation when competitors are outside the competition area and the mat chairman stops the fight and then signals its continuation, whereupon the competitors return to the center of the mat.

(4) The ball was called in. > Dosuđena je dobra lopta. (clause in both languages).

In tennis, the announcement of the chair umpire that repeats the decision of the line judge, or, rarely, the decision of the umpire himself/herself, that the ball has landed within the court boundaries, which is uttered upon a player's request for a challenge and before applying the available electronic system for monitoring the ball's trajectory.

Concerning morphosyntax, dictionary entries (3) and (4) exceed lexical limits, the former being a prepositional phrase, and the latter a clause. Besides, the morphosyntax of the above terms is not necessarily correspondent in the two languages since a prepositional phrase in English (3) is realized as a lexical unit in Serbian (noun and phrasal noun).

The analysis of similar entries in NESRST indicates that they belong to the semantic field of judges' decisions and announcements, which account for a significant segment of a sports event. Encouraged by the finding that dictionaries can and should be much more phrasal than they currently are (Granger and Paquot 2008), the NESRST authors have decided to treat syntactic units as dictionary entries on the grounds that they ensure successful communication in certain sports. The practical realization of this innovation required the introduction of two new labels: (predl. sint) (Eng. prepositional phrase) and (isk) (Eng. statement). Additionally, adjusting a sentence-long entry to the orthographic standards of English and Serbian imposed the need to capitalize the initial letter and use a period at the end. Concerning the challenge of defining the meaning, both glosses above confirm that, despite expected difficulties, syntactic entries fit the customary 'genus-and-differentia' model.

Problem 3. Gender-sensitive terms. More specifically, this aspect included adding feminine forms of all nominal and adjectival equivalents in Serbian that have developed a corpus-based frequency since the publication of the previous dictionary (Milić 2006).

Solution. The problem and its solutions are exemplified below, where example (5) represents the entry in Milić (2006: 81) without a feminine form, while (5a) is its innovated gender-sensitive description in NESRST (171).

(5) football player > (1) fudbaler, (2) nogometaš

(5a) football player > 1. fudbaler, fudbalerka, 2. L nogometaš, nogometašica

Complying with research findings relevant to gender-sensitive lexis in Serbian (Savić 2009), the authors have included recently established feminine derivatives of masculine bases that have consolidated their position in the Serbian lexicon. Accordingly, where possible, both gender variants are provided, following the convention in Serbian lexicography, according to which the masculine form comes first, followed by the feminine one.

3.2 Adaptation of Japanese-based terms from English into Serbian

The adaptation of Japanese-based judo and karate terms from English into Serbian has been a challenge. The first difficulty the authors encountered was the insufficient number of translated documents in Serbian, which necessitated additional help from professional athletes and professors of sports and physical education at the University of Novi Sad. Another, and even more serious obstacle was that these originally Japanese terms had first been adapted in English at the level of content and form, whereas the corresponding Serbian terms were created by adapting the terms from English as an intermediary language. Since the semantic content of these units has remained intact in the process of lexical borrowing, it is not the subject of this analysis. Instead, the focus is shifted towards the phonological and morphosyntactic adaptation of some Japanese-based English terms that could not be carried out in full compliance with the existing linguistic standard of Serbian. The two problems are addressed in the following passages.

Problem 4. Phonological adaptation. The first attempt to standardize English-adapted Japanese terms consisted in bringing them into accordance with the valid orthographic rules in Serbian (Milić and Kardoš 2018). Accordingly, the English-written Japanese sounds ch, i, and y have the following orthographic and phonetic equivalents in Serbian: ch - č /t∫/; i - j /j/ (after a vowel at the end of a word) or dž /dʒ/ (in other positions), and y - j /j/. However, the existing phonological standard of Serbian proved inadequate for the adaptation of the sound /i/ preceded by a vowel at the end of a word.

Solution. Complying with the phonetic norms of Serbian, the following Japanese-based terms would be adapted as follows.

(6) chudan > čudan (Eng. middle level [karate])

(7) hajime > hadžime (Eng. start [judo/karate])

(8) seoi-nage > *seoj-nage (Eng. shoulder throw [judo])

(9) yame > jame (Eng. stop [karate])

Despite being in accordance with the valid standard of Serbian, example (8) turned out to be a problematic issue. Sports professionals were strongly in favor of the English-based form seoj-nage as unacceptable. According to them, the properly written and pronounced term should be seoi-nage, i.e., the letter 'i' matches the sound /i/ in Serbian irrespective of its position in a word. The problem remained open until recently, when an acceptable solution was found based on a recent study on the adaptation of Japanese names in Serbian and Russian (cf. Marković 2018: 205). Namely, this research highlighted the need to follow the Russian phonological standard, according to which the sound /i/ preceded by a vowel at the end of the word is pronounced /i/. Thus, the correctly adapted term in example (8) is seoi-nage, as exemplified by (8a).

(8a) seoi-nage > 1. seoi-nage, 2. ramensko bacanje (Eng. shoulder throw [judo])

Problem 5. Nominal category of number. The problem of the non-correspondent category of number across languages is not rare. Gardani (2020: 101) demonstrates this finding with the Japanese noun kimono, which has a constant invariant paradigm in Italian. Despite the fact that only one lexical unit confirms this finding in NESRST, its frequency of use in compound headwords has justified the special attention it receives in this analysis.

Solution. The number-category adaptation of Japanese nouns in English and Serbian is exemplified and described below.

(10) ashi-waza > aši-vaza (Eng. foot or leg techniques, Serb. nožna tehnika [judo])

(11) tatami > tatami (Eng. mat, Serb. strunjača [judo])

Focusing on example (10), the NESRST authors have decided to treat the term waza as singular in Serbian, even though it is plural in Japanese and English. An argument in favor of this solution is that it is a generic name for all judo and karate techniques performed by a certain part of the body. The argument draws on the analysis of the judo and karate register in English, which shows that the term waza (Eng. techniques) is always lexicalized as the plural-labeled second component of a semi-compound, to indicate that each technique may have several variants in performance. Even though the absence of formal correspondence in the nominal category of number is not rare across languages, the term waza is an exception, since most Japanese terms borrowed into English and from English into Serbian have variant number forms, e.g., tatami(s) (Serb. tatami(ji), kimono(s) (Serb. kimono/kimona), etc.

Problem 6. Semi-compounds. The following question concerns language-dependent orthographic rules for writing compounds and semi-compounds. Due to the low transparency of Japanese words in Serbian, it was not possible to apply the existing orthographic rule for such units borrowed from English into Serbian, according to which the two components of a compound unit are written hyphenated if the meaning of the second component, which is a noun by default, is superordinate to the meaning of the whole (Prćić et al. 2021: 18) - e.g., art-film vs. film. The matter was additionally challenging because some polylexical semi-compounds consisted of more than two components.

Solution. The problem has been resolved as exemplified and described below.

(12) moto-no-ichi > moto-no-iči (Eng. original position, Serb. prvobitna pozicija [karate])

(13) ude-hishigi-ashi-gatame > ude-hišigi-aši-gatame (Eng. leg lock, Serb. poluga nogama [judo])

As shown in example (12), moto-no-iči (Eng. moto-no-ichi) is double-hyphenated in a semi-compound consisting of three words: moto (Eng. original), no (Eng. own), and ichi (Eng. position). The same is true of example (13), which consists of four words and three hyphens. Since the existing books of orthographic rules in Serbian (Pešikan et al. 2019; Prćić et al. 2021; Vasić et al. 2018) do not offer an acceptable solution for multi-hyphenated semi-compounds in Serbian, a Japanese language consultant was asked for help. Following her advice, such units are written single-hyphenated or multi-hyphenated due to a typological mismatch between the three languages, as well as the fact that this is the predominant orthographic practice in English as an intermediary language (cf. Iwasaki 2013).

3.3 Adaptation of gymnastics terms from English into Serbian

Despite the global domination of English, this language has not left a significant imprint on Serbian gymnastics since its register has undergone multi-language influences (cf. Milić and Kardoš 2019). Namely, the influence of Czech and German in the early, pre-WWII period of Serbian gymnastics was subsequently followed by that of Croatian and Slovenian. The influence of English might be traced to a more recent period when English established its sociolinguistic status as the global language of communication, which is predominantly reflected in the introduction of eponyms (e.g., Shushuniva > šušunova⁶) and metaphoric terms (e.g., ring jump > prsten-skok⁷). Such multilingual imprint on the Serbian register has resulted in the importation of rather non-transparent lexical borrowings and neologisms. On the one hand, this might be due to the fact that the first gymnastics glossary, which is still used in official documents, was created in the former Serbo-Croatian language (cf. Sedlaček 1966). On the other hand, this may also be the result of the need to imitate the source language word-formation pattern rather than its content, which has given rise to unusual calques.

Problem 7. Lexical borrowings and neologisms. The multilingual imprint has put the NESRST authors in a difficult situation during the stage of terminological standardization. On the one hand, some terms could not be brought into accordance with the Serbian standard, and on the other, these terms have established consistency of use in official sports circles.

Solution. The problem addressed and the solutions provided are exemplified and described below.

(14) free hip handstand > 1. dotik, 2. kovrtljaj bez dodira telom

(15) front uprise > naupor usklopno

(16) illusion > 1. ilužn, 2. L ilužon, 3. sunce, 4. veliki točak

(17) trampoline > 1. trambulina, 2. L trampolina

In example (14), the standard term is the Czech-based dotik, on grounds of its consistent use by sports professionals, even though the English-based translation equivalent (kovrtljaj bez dodira telom) is more transparent in wider sports circles. Similarly, the translation equivalent in example (15), which contains uncustomary compounds (na+upor, u+sklopno), probably created following the Czech compounding pattern, is given the status of the standard Serbian term due to its frequency of use and the domestic origin of the constituent lexical units. The influence of English is illustrated by example (16), where the standard term is an Anglicism ilužn and not any of its translated equivalents (sunce and veliki točak), owing to its consistent use by professionals. The same example also shows a prescriptive intervention in giving preference to the correctly adapted term ilužn over its non-standard but more frequent variant ilužon preceded by the symbol L. The same holds for the English-based form trampolina (17), labeled as a variant term of trambulina, an earlier established lexical borrowing from Italian.

3.4 NESRST and the digital revolution

Looking at lexicography from a general perspective, new technologies have left a notable imprint on dictionary compilation, which makes the question of medium an issue belonging to the theory of lexicography rather than the practical aspect of dictionary-making. As already mentioned, some authors even claim that current lexicography is a part of information science rather than linguistics (Bergenholtz and Bothma 2011: 74). Along similar lines, Nielsen (2013: 370) predicts that dictionaries of the future will be 'digital assistants', which they already are. A digital turnover in lexicography foreshadows multiple challenges for lexicographers such as metalexicography, dictionary design, publishing, marketing, etc. (cf. Bothma 2017; De Schryver et al. 2019; Fuertes-Olivera 2022; Gouws and Tarp 2017). The drift towards information science is due to, among others, abundant information presentation tools on the internet, as most recently exemplified by ChatGPT (De Schryver and Joffe 2023) and the newly compiled ParCoLab parallel online searchable corpus for linguistic research, containing original sports rulebook texts and their translations into Serbian and three other European languages (cf. http://parcolab.univ-tlse2.fr/en/). Besides, the digital format also commends itself to publishers and users in terms of production costs, as the market would hardly allow the full range of necessary dictionaries. This is especially true when it comes to the theory of lexicographic functions advocating the monofunctionality of lexicographic sources (cf. Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp 2014), which seems to be beyond the reach of small languages and many specialized ones, especially if they are in the printed medium. Within the context of abundant pros for digital dictionaries (Bothma 2017; De Schryver 2022; Gouws 2013; 2017; Nkomo 2015; Roche et al. 2019), some earlier claims in favor of the survival of printed dictionaries in the digital era (cf. Nielsen 2013) become outdated.

Problem 8. Dictionary medium. In light of the above-mentioned, the authors were in two minds concerning the dictionary medium. The once foreseen digital future of lexicography has already become the present - however, regrettably, without adequate backup and support from information specialists in Serbia. As a result, the question of the NESRST medium remained open almost until the submission of the manuscript to the publisher.

Solution. Having given the matter careful consideration, the authors decided to publish a print dictionary based on the following arguments: firstly, the current circumstances in the region of South-East Europe and the Balkans encourage neither the engagement of information specialists in lexicography nor their cooperation with lexicographers; secondly, NESRST is designed as a polyfunctional dictionary (receptive, productive, pedagogical, and cognitive); thirdly, in light of the possibility of using NESRST as a teaching resource for building English-Serbian contact linguistic competence⁸ (cf. Milić, Glušac and Kardoš 2018) in the conditions of technologically and technically underequipped Serbian educational institutions, giving priority to print medium was the only option. However, as the digital medium has been paving the way for becoming the must-do of lexicography, the authors hope that, at some point in the near future, the time will be ripe for publishing a digital, improved and amended, edition of NESRST.

 

4. Conclusions

This article aimed to shed light on the theoretical and practical aspects of a recently published English-Serbian dictionary of sports terms. Theoretical issues have elicited eight problems related to the morphosyntax of headwords, the adaptation of Japanese-based terms and gymnastics terms from English into Serbian, and the dictionary medium in the digital era. The problems are solved as follows: firstly, in addition to customary lexical entries that have been adapted according to the current linguistic standards of Serbian, NESRST also includes syntactic units - however, it does not include proper names; secondly, the adaptation of Japanese-based terms from English into Serbian involves communication-driven solutions that do not necessarily match the adaptation pattern in English and the orthographic standard of Serbian; thirdly, the existing gymnastics terms in Serbian are given the status of standard units regardless of their opacity outside the professional circles, provided that they comply with the linguistic standard of Serbian and English-based terminological standards; lastly, despite the present-day strong preference for the digital medium, NESRST was published as a printed dictionary due to insufficient involvement of Serbian language software specialists in the field of lexicography.

In most general terms, the inclusion of uncustomary entries, not necessarily English in origin, makes NESRST substantially different from other specialized bilingual dictionaries, both in terms of its corpus and lexicographic description. Namely, headwords exceeding the lexical level raise questions related to the dictionary entry, the corresponding lexicographic description, and the definition of meaning in the target language. From a broader lexicological perspective, it is significant to note that calquing and other means of creating neologisms for non-English lexical borrowings are missing in the dominant language of global communication and, consequently, in languages importing these units via English.

 

Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions relative to this article and future issues of NESRST.

 

Endnotes

1. According to the term 'phrasal lexeme', used by Lipka (1992: 74) and Lyons (1977: 23).
2. For more information on the standardization model see Milić (2015a).
3. In artistic gymnastics, a type of male or female vault that consists of one-fourth or a half-turn in the first fly stage, i.e., before the support on the vault table, followed by a salto in tuck, pike or layout position - named after the Japanese gymnast Mitsuo Tsukahara (English translation, NESRST: 459).
4. In strictly grammatical terms, a clause implies a syntactic structure, i.e., a unit in which the relation of predication has been realized. In other words, it contains a subject-predicate relationship. A sentence and a clause are often functionally congruent, in the case of a simple sentence, i.e., independent clause. When included in the structure of a complex sentence, a clause, either dependent or independent, is treated as a syntactically lower-ranked structure than the sentence. For the sake of clarification, in this article the term 'clause' will predominantly be used with the meaning corresponding to that of a 'simple sentence', which implies a syntactically independent structure containing the relation of predication.
5. According to the term 'phrasal lexeme', used by Lipka (1992: 74) and Lyons (1977: 23).
6. In artistic gymnastics, an element on the floor or the beam, which is performed by jumping up in the straddle position followed by body rotation forward to become parallel to the mat or beam with or without a half-twist, followed by a fall to a face-down position - named after the Soviet gymnast Yelena Shushunova (English translation, NESRST: 389).
7. In rhythmic and artistic gymnastics, a kind of jump and a dance element in exercises on the balance beam or the floor, which is performed by jumping off both feet, tossing the head backwards, and arching the body while lifting the feet to the head height (English translation, NESRST: 359).
8. According to Prćić (2014: 147), contact linguistic competence is "a type of linguistic knowledge related to the use of elements, i.e., words and names, from English as the nativized foreign language in a non-English language that regularly comes into contact with it."

 

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