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Correspondence:
Alfred Brunsdon
Alfred.Brunsdon@nwu.ac.za

Received: 17 Mar. 2023
Accepted: 16 Sept. 2023
Published: 15 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. The Brookings Institution is a non-profit public policy organisation based in Washington, DC. 'Our mission is to conduct in-depth research that leads to new ideas for solving problems facing society at the local, national and global level.' (see https://www.brookings.edu/about-us/)
2. See Botha's (2007) discussion on the theology of Bonhoeffer in honour of the work of Dirkie Smit.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

An interdisciplinary approach to theological studies in a public university

 

 

Mookgo S. Kgatle

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology, School of Humanities, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Theological curriculum in South African universities is comprised of disciplines such as church history, the Old Testament, the New Testament, systematic theology, missiology and practical theology. Theology has been approached through these disciplines and their interaction with each other in an intradisciplinary way. This article argues that theology needs to be done beyond theological disciplines through an interdisciplinary approach to increase its influence in a public university such as the University of South Africa (UNISA). The limitations and drawbacks of this approach are discussed. A brief history of theological studies at UNISA is also discussed to understand how the curriculum of theology has been approached in the past. An interdisciplinary approach is proposed to maximising the research profile of theology through research outputs and postgraduate supervision. In addition, this approach can attract graduates from other fields such as law, medicine, commerce and so forth. An interdisciplinary approach is relevant in designing and developing short learning programmes to attract students to study theology. The development of interdisciplinary niche areas is also important in attracting postgraduate students. Lastly, the approach is pivotal in avoiding theology's possible dearth and death in a public university.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: an interdisciplinary approach to theological studies is proposed as an interaction between the field of theology and other fields such as law, medicine, commerce, and others for the maximisation of student numbers in undergraduate and postgraduate studies and research outputs

Keywords: theology; curriculum; pedagogy; theological studies; interdisciplinary approach; public university; modality; University of South Africa.

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Introduction

Theology is one of the fields that has been part of the sciences in public universities not only in South Africa but the rest of the world (Du Toit & Du Toit 1995:46). Questioning the place of theology in a public university is an unnecessary debate. This is not a big question. The challenge that other scholars have been addressing in the past is whether confessional theology has a place in a public university (Du Toit & Du Toit 1995). This article is not interested in debating the place for a confessional theology in a public university except to say that in a public university, there should be an endeavour to accommodate different Christian denominations in an ecumenical way. Instead of insisting on a confessional theology of a specific denomination, there should be a quest to bring more theologies to public universities. Theology in a public university is also expected to go beyond Christian theology to include Islamic studies, Jewish studies, African spirituality, and so forth. What then is the focus of this article? The article seeks to address the challenge of the sustainability of theology in a public university. In other words, how can theology position itself to remain relevant in public universities? That's the big question. When theology becomes irrelevant in a public university, it will die a natural death or continue to exist without influence. Therefore, the important debate is about the sustainability of theology in a public university.

The theological curriculum has been approached from a disciplinary and intradisciplinary approach in various public universities in South Africa such as the University of South Africa, University of Pretoria, University of Free State, University of KwaZulu-Natal, University of Fort Hare, University of North-West, Stellenbosch University and the University of the Western Cape. The theological curriculum in these universities involves various theological disciplines such as church history, the Old Testament, the New Testament, systematic theology, missiology, and practical theology. To a certain extent, the theological curriculum in these institutions also involves the interaction between one theological discipline and the other in an intradisciplinary way. Hence, the integration of some of these disciplines into one discipline in many universities in South Africa is an important step in enhancing theological studies. The discipline of practical theology, for example, is integrated with the discipline of missiology given the close relationship between the two. To go beyond the theological disciplines, this article proposes an interdisciplinary approach to the study of theology in a public university with a focus on the University of South Africa (UNISA). This is important, timely, and relevant as UNISA turns 150 years. Theology at UNISA must be studied beyond its discipline and its interaction with one another. In addition, theology at a public university should engage with other fields in the enhancement of its scholarship, institutional influence and impact.

To achieve its objectives, the article will provide a brief history of theological studies at UNISA. It will carry on framing an interdisciplinary approach to theology as the theoretical framework. An interdisciplinary approach to theology will be discussed as a tool to increase the number of students in undergraduate studies. The article will also discuss how the approach can be used to increase research outputs and the supervision of masters and doctoral students. A Postgraduate Diploma in Theology will be discussed as a strategic qualification that targets students from law, commerce, medicine, engineering and other fields. The discussion will also focus on adopting an interdisciplinary approach interaction of theology and other disciplines in the design and development of short learning programmes as a fishing strategy to attract students to study theology, as well as development of niche areas by the academics in a public university. Lastly, the article discusses how the interdisciplinary approach is relevant to deal with the possible dearth and death of theology in public universities.

The structure of the article is as follows:

• The brief history of theological studies in a public university.

• Framing an interdisciplinary approach to the theological curriculum.

• An interdisciplinary approach to increase the number of undergraduate studies.

• An interdisciplinary approach to maximising research and postgraduate studies.

• Postgraduate Diploma in Theology: Attracting students from other fields.

• Interdisciplinary Short learning programmes: A fishing strategy.

• The development of interdisciplinary niche areas.

• Quality of academic staff.

• An interdisciplinary approach: Avoiding the possible dearth and death of theology.

 

The brief history of theological studies in a public university

As outlined in the introduction, theology is offered at about eight public universities in South Africa with few other universities such as the University of Cape Town, the University of Johannesburg, and others offering religious studies. According to Botha (1990:14), Professor Johannes A. Lombard was appointed in 1960 by UNISA as a chair of theology with the task of establishing the faculty of theology at the institution. The aim, according to Botha (1990:14), was that 'The theology to be taught at Unisa cannot be contemplated behind the walls of confessional or ecclesiastical protection'. It is called to stand in the university amongst all the other sciences. It is for this reason that the faculty of theology grew and attracted numbers at that time. According to Botha (1990:23), 'In the Principal's 1967 report, he mentioned that the Faculty of Theology had 947 students'. In 1989, the faculty of theology had about 1268 students enrolled for the theological subjects at UNISA (Botha 1990:76). These numbers were not necessarily on par with the other faculties in the university, but were meeting the expectation of a faculty in a public university.

With the dawn of democracy in 1994, the faculty of theology at UNISA was changed to become the faculty of theology and religious studies (Kritzinger 1995:366). It was during this time that there were discussions that the faculty of theology and religious studies should become a school with other small faculties. According to the then dean of the faculty of theology and religious studies, Klippies Kritzinger and his deputy Louis Kretzsmar, 'discussion centred on whether the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies ought to dissolve as an independent faculty and become a sub-faculty within the Faculty of Arts or whether it should remain a small, but independent, faculty' (Kritzinger & Kretzschmar 1999:241). These discussions came to light because the university's authorities were looking at the numbers of the faculty of theology and religious studies in comparison with other faculties, and thought that it was not justifiable to continue to have this faculty (Kritzinger & Kretzschmar 1999:244). Therefore, it became more the game of numbers than looking at the impact that theology as a field was making in the university and society. It is also an unfair comparison to benchmark theology with other fields which can attract more students given the demands of such skills in the industries.

The debate on integrating the faculty of theology and religious studies with the faculty of arts continued until the merger of UNISA and other institutions as initiated by the then Minister of Education, Kader Asmal. In 2004, UNISA merged with the Technikon of South Africa (TSA) and the Vista University Distance Education Campus (VUDEC) to form one entity but retained the name UNISA. It was during this period that the different faculties that existed in the old UNISA were dissolved in the formation of new colleges. According to Kretzschmar and Bentley (2013):

During the period from 2003 to 2004, the Faculty of Theology was dissolved into the College of Human Sciences. As a result, Theology lost its faculty status. Despite recommendations to this effect - in light of the economic viability of the theological disciplines and the high research output of theologians - the management of the University declined to group the many theological disciplines within a School of the new College. This resulted in a marked degree of fragmentation and loss of academic and administrative coherence. Some degree of cooperation has been retained through personal relationships and the formation of ad hoc groups. (p. 3)

This means that theology at UNISA moved from being the faculty of theology and religious studies into different theological departments under the School of Humanities. The departments are: biblical and ancient studies; Christian spirituality, church history and missiology; philosophy, and practical and systematic theology. In this arrangement, theology exists as a cluster of various departments. But also runs the risk of becoming one single department if drastic decisions are not taken to change the status quo. One of the radical approaches to saving theology at a public university is an interdisciplinary approach. The next section discusses an interdisciplinary approach to theology as a theoretical framework and research paradigm.

 

Framing an interdisciplinary approach to theological curriculum

Both the disciplinary and intradisciplinary approaches to theological curriculum are inward-looking. It is for this reason that an interdisciplinary approach to theological curriculum is proposed as a modality of ensuring that theology is not just an interaction between its disciplines but interacts with other fields. Furthermore, an approach to theological curriculum in a public university should maintain its scientific rigour as opposed to becoming a confessional one. Theological curriculum in a public university cannot be designed to serve the interest of a particular denomination or Christian tradition but how different denominations interact with one another. Hence, a clarion call here for an interdisciplinary approach to theological curriculum. An interdisciplinary approach to theological curriculum is different from an intradisciplinary approach because it brings together different approaches from different fields of study in the understanding of a specific phenomenon. Ideally, an interdisciplinary approach is important in crossing faculties and disciplines. In the context of this article, it is important to cross the boundaries of the theological disciplines. According to Guo (2015):

An interdisciplinary approach involves drawing appropriately from several disciplines (or separate branches of learning or fields of expertise) to redefine problems outside of normal boundaries and reach solutions based on a new understanding of complex situations'. (p. 111)

It is different from the cross-disciplinary approach or even a multidisciplinary approach which is the use of two or more disciplines in a study. An interdisciplinary approach goes beyond the conventional disciplines of a specific field by engaging other disciplines. In this context, an interdisciplinary approach to theological curriculum means that theology is studied beyond its conventional disciplines such as church history, systematic theology, biblical studies, missiology, and practical theology.

The interdisciplinary approach to the theological curriculum will allow theology to address matters outside its precinct. However, this is possible without losing the theological basis of an argument to a specific study. This is possible because an interdisciplinary approach allows the interaction between disciplines without losing their focus or field of study. An interdisciplinary approach allows the theological curriculum to deal with complex problems in society by engaging other disciplines such as economics, politics, environment, justice and so forth (Repko, Szostak & Buchberger 2019). Manathunga, Lant and Mellick (2006) explain that interdisciplinary research can be partly characterised as:

Mode 2 knowledge production serves a vital role in the knowledge economy. Mode 2 knowledge is defined as research that is increasingly contextualized, applied, and transdisciplinary by contrast with Mode 1 knowledge which is described as pure, discipline-specific, accumulated knowledge. (p. 365)

Therefore, through the use of an interdisciplinary approach theology transcends its specific theological disciplines. In this way, the theological curriculum becomes enriched in both qualitative and quantitative ways through interaction with other fields in the context of a public university. It is for these reasons that in this article, an interdisciplinary approach is used to apply it quantitatively in the maximisation of student numbers in undergraduate studies. It is also used in the maximisation of research outputs and the postgraduate students. Ultimately, this approach is important in avoiding theology's possible dearth and death in a public university. However, before addressing these aspects of an interdisciplinary approach, it is important to highlight some challenges.

Some challenges to an interdisciplinary approach in the field of theology

An interdisciplinary approach has some challenges that need to be addressed if this approach is to be adopted within the theological curriculum. One of the challenges of an interdisciplinary approach is how adding disciplines from other faculties to theology can be done in such a way that retains theology's unique character (Van Deusen Hunsinger 1995). Therefore, for the successful implementation of the interdisciplinary approach, we have to ensure that theology does not stand the risk of losing its character, integrity, and uniqueness. Kritzinger (1995) suggests that we should identify the unique characteristics of theology and retain them in our quest for an interdisciplinary approach to theological curriculum. Another challenge of this approach is that theology might also stand the risk of losing its influence in the process of being studied with other disciplines (Cameron 2013). To deal with this challenge, there is a need for theology to remain the focus when studied with other disciplines. Theologians are expected to retain theology as the core discipline in the intersectionality of theology and other disciplines. Therefore, an interdisciplinary study should be done without compromising the theological discourse. The last challenge is that an interdisciplinary approach might not serve the purpose of equipping students for ministry or pastoral roles. In this case, the discipline-specific modules should be retained in addition to the interdisciplinary approach. In the next sections, the article highlights the advantages of adopting an interdisciplinary approach to theological curriculum.

An interdisciplinary approach: Increasing the numbers in undergraduate studies

Manathunga et al. (2006:366) show that an interdisciplinary approach can increase the number of student enrolments. Although writing from the United Kingdom context, the same can apply in an African context too. Therefore, an interdisciplinary approach is a relevant one for the attraction of numbers in undergraduate studies. The problem of numbers is not a UNISA one but a theology cluster one because the university has about 400 000 students. A study conducted by Letseka and Karel (2015) showed that:

'UNISA is the biggest ODL institution on the African continent with an estimated total headcount enrolment of 400 000. Given that the rest of the twenty-four universities in South Africa share just around 1 million student headcounts, it follows that UNISA alone accommodates an estimated 40% of South Africa's entire university student headcount enrolments.' (p. 4)

These students according to Lombaard (2015) come from different 130 countries most of them located in Africa. Therefore, UNISA itself as an Open Distance Learning (ODL) institution can attract students from different parts of the world. The only challenge is that these students are not necessarily interested in enrolling in theological qualification. However, the theology cluster can design specific modules that can attract these students.

Theology can do its best to attract at least 1% of these students which will be about 4000, shared between its different departments. This is possible by designing modules that can be relevant to law, commerce, education and other qualifications. This is already happening because one of the modules that attracts numbers within the theology cluster is a module in philosophy within the Department of Philosophy, Systematic and Practical Theology at UNISA. Modules such as educators in pastoral roles have been able to attract students doing Postgraduate Certificate in Education (Schoeman 2015). This is a module that places a teacher in a pastoral care role in addition to his or her responsibilities in educating the learners. This module is important as it can prepare the teacher to deal with other social aspects of the learner other than their educational needs (Schoeman 2012; cf. Hadebe 2023). And since the students in the education college are many, the theology cluster can have many students in their departments. If other departments can design similar modules, this will make the theology cluster attract more students for the sustainability of the field of theology. Potential collaborations exist in working with other fields such as the School of Business Leadership at UNISA in designing modules on the juxtaposition between ethics and business leadership or management.

An interdisciplinary approach: Maximising research and postgraduate studies

An interdisciplinary approach is relevant for the maximisation of the research outputs in the theology cluster at UNISA. In addition, research findings from an interdisciplinary approach are more likely to produce high-quality research outputs given the robust and rigorous interaction between disciplines (eds. Awasthi & Grzybowska 2019:193). In other words, when academics can do research beyond the disciplines of theology, they will become more prolific and produce high-quality research output. Put differently, theologians who think outside the box of their theological disciplines are more likely to become extra prolific in terms of knowledge production and research outputs. However, this does not mean that discipline-specific research is not quality research but points out that an interdisciplinary approach can enhance such quality. One of the strengths of theology is the research component of the field. This can be explored further by ensuring that more research outputs are produced for the sustainability of the field of theology at a public university. The theology cluster can maximise this strength by creating more space for interaction between theology and other disciplines with the hope of producing more research outputs.

Another potential exists in the supervision or promotion of masters and doctoral students, particularly if students are allowed to research the interaction between theology and other disciplines. This means that the theology cluster will be able to attract students who are not interested in confessional theology in undergraduate studies but in an interdisciplinary approach to theology at a postgraduate level. An interdisciplinary approach opens up opportunities for theology students to receive various grants through their focus on the interaction between theology and other sciences such as environmental sciences, health studies, and so forth (Lattuca 2001). In other words, a theology student doing research between theology and sustainable development goals, for example, is more likely to attract more funding than a theology-specific thesis or dissertation. In addition, other funding organisations such as the National Research Foundation (NRF) require the researchers to adopt an interdisciplinary approach to their niche areas. In addition, the NRF encourages research that demonstrates an interaction between disciplines for a better rating of researchers. Therefore, theologians who can juxtapose their niche areas with other disciplines outside the field of theology are more likely to receive higher ratings from the NRF.

Postgraduate diploma in theology: Attracting non-theological graduates

There is a market of non-theological graduates who might be interested in theological studies. Therefore, there is a need to create a qualification that will be able to attract these students who do not have to enrol for theology from the first year of study but at a National Qualification Framework (NQF) level 8. This kind of qualification admits students in possession of NQF level 7 qualifications other than theological qualifications. The qualification is formally known as the postgraduate diploma in theology (Duncan 2018). This qualification is different from the honours degree because the latter will require a theological undergraduate degree as a requisite for the enrolment. In addition, this is different from a National Diploma in Theology as such a diploma will take 3 years to complete the qualification. The postgraduate diploma in theology at the NQF level 8 normally takes a year to complete the qualification (Jackson 2005). The qualification normally has 120 credits made up of about 10 modules of the theological disciplines. Students who are already pastors and church leaders in their own right and desire to qualify as theologians will be attracted to such a qualification. Therefore, a postgraduate qualification will be a good strategy for ensuring that such students obtain the necessary knowledge for ministry. Such programmes already exist at other institutions and UNISA will have to compete for a market share.

The qualification will be suitable for many neo-Pentecostal pastors who do not have theological training. Many of these pastors have been buying qualifications from overseas institutions that are not accredited by a proper body. And therefore they will have a problem in terms of gaining accreditation with the South African Qualification Authority (SAQUA) (Duncan 2018). Although the government has been able to close some of them with the help of media exposure to such institutions, many of them still exist in communities. The non-accredited institutions still take from pastors who are very unsuspecting of these institutions. Some of the pastors are willing to pay money to gain doctoral degrees and be ordained as bishops (Resane 2017). Therefore, an introduction to the Postgraduate Diploma in Theology might help to deal with some of these challenges. And since some of the pastors already have qualifications in other fields, they can easily gain knowledge in theology through this kind of diploma. Thus, as much as the enrolment for fake degrees is discouraged among these pastors, there is equally a need to provide an alternative to the same. In this article, a Postgraduate Diploma in Theology is one of the alternatives for attracting graduates from other fields of study other than theology.

Interdisciplinary short learning programmes: A fishing strategy

More than 20 years ago, the researcher used to go fishing at a Mokwababa dam, in Ga-Mamaila, Limpopo province. The researcher remembers that to attract the fish to the fishing area, there was a need to use berley as bait. Berley itself does not catch fish but attracts the fish to move from deep waters to a nearby fishing area. This is pivotal to fisher humans who do not have long fishing lines. When the fish is at the proximity of three to five metres then catching them becomes an easy task. The interdisciplinary Short Learning Programmes within the theological curriculum can be used to attract students who are not interested in pursuing a theology diploma or degree but a certificate (Todd & Verbick 2005). However, once they are closer by enrolling in one or two short learning programmes chances are high that they may register for the diploma or theology in the long term (Materu 2007). The advantage of the short learning programme is that it can be completed within a short period as many of them are designed for a year or less. The short learning programme is important for granting an individual a specific skill or even for reskilling and upskill an individual (Fung 2020).

However, for this to happen the curriculum of these short learning programmes should involve additional disciplines other than theology. These should be disciplines from health studies, political sciences, educational sciences, environmental sciences and so forth. Therefore, short learning programmes need to be designed on theology and politics, theology and health, theology and the environment, theology and education, theology and entrepreneurship, theology and safety, theology and leadership, and so forth. When the students from these disciplines see their fields integrated with theology, they will be attracted to register for the short learning programme and ultimately for the diploma or degree in theology. However, this is not a given since there are other challenges such as the high cost of studies which may deter students from studying further. Therefore, short learning programmes will be a good start for many pastors and leaders who cannot enrol for a formal qualification. In addition, short learning programmes can be recognised as prior learning for the enrolment in formal qualifications. According to Haddad (2016:4), short learning programmes can be designed and developed to meet the needs of society in different aspects of social life. In addition, these programmes can be developed into proper learning areas that will be able to attract students from different communities. Furthermore, the programmes can be developed into master's and doctoral coursework that will also be able to attract postgraduate students as per the discussions in the preceding sections.

Developing interdisciplinary niche areas

Another way in which students can be attracted to study theology at a public university is when the academics can develop interdisciplinary niche areas. At UNISA, this could be done through the interaction with existing catalytic niche areas such as marine studies, aviation and aeronautical studies, automotive, energy, space study and square kilometre array, fourth industrial revolution and digitalisation, natural sciences (biotechnological studies), health studies and/or medicine (UNISA 2023). Postgraduate students are also attracted to academic supervisors who can supervise them in a niche area. Therefore, developing interdisciplinary niche areas will attract postgraduate students interested in such areas of study. This means that even if a subject is not taught at an undergraduate level, students might still be interested in pursuing such at the masters and doctoral levels. This means that academics at a public university such as UNISA must work hard in the development of interdisciplinary niche areas to attract a variety of students. Furthermore, academics in a public university should avoid duplicating niche areas within the field of theology. The more theology has a variety of topics, the more students it will be able to attract for the enrolment in the field of study. Niche areas are also important in the development of research projects in the long term and attraction of external funding which are important in sustaining theological studies in the public university.

The quality of academic staff

The development of interdisciplinary niche areas also helps in ensuring that we have more influential theologians in public universities such as UNISA who can attract more students. One of the reasons that kept theology alive at UNISA over the years is the quality of its academic staff. The generation of David Bosch, William Saayman, Simon Maimela, Takatso Mofokeng, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Christinah Landman, Louis Kretzmar, Klippies Kritzinger and others were able to maintain the influence of theology at UNISA because of the quality of their work. But also because of their active participation in Christian communities and engagement in public discourses. In addition, the above-mentioned scholars were prolific in the field of theology. It is a challenge in the 21st century to develop theologians of the same calibre. This can be done by ensuring that the academic staff have the doctoral qualification, produce quality research outputs, and develop teaching and learning materials. When this is done, it could be an important factor to maintaining the influence of theology in a public university.

 

Avoiding the possible dearth and death of theology in a public university

First, the move from a faculty of theology and religious studies to various departments under the school of humanities indicates that there is a possibility of theology losing its influence in the university. This downward spiral means that theology has lost the privileges of marketing itself and running proper administration for the sustainability of the discipline. This marks the dearth of theology, meaning theology continues to exist in a public university such as UNISA but with less institutional influence and impact. This means that the more theology loses its organisational structure such as faculty and so forth, the more it loses its influence. Secondly, the discussion around integrating the current three departments into one department indicates that theology might be kicked out of the system in the long term. If theology becomes one department at UNISA, the main question is what will be the next step? This might mean the death of theology, meaning theology will cease to exist in a public university such as UNISA. This is a possibility given the size of UNISA which can lead to such a decision that cannot be taken elsewhere. To avoid any of the two scenarios highlighted above, there is a need to take an interdisciplinary approach very seriously in increasing student numbers, research outputs, postgraduate studies, and the use of short learning programmes. In this article, these are the modalities and pedagogies of survival in a public university.

 

Conclusion

This article looked at the previous approaches to the study of the field of theology such as the disciplinal approach and the intradisciplinary approach. The article argued that for the survival of the field, there is a need to study theology beyond its disciplines and their interaction with one another. The article proposed an interdisciplinary approach as a modality that goes beyond the theological disciplines in the study of theology. This approach can be used to increase student enrolment in public universities because theologians will be recruiting beyond theological students. The approach was discussed as a tool that can maximise research because theologians will be engaging in discourses beyond theology. And will be able to supervise students with interests beyond theological studies but willing to approach their study from theological perspectives. The approach is relevant for the implementation of a Postgraduate Diploma in Theology as a qualification aimed at attracting students from other fields. An interdisciplinary approach was also discussed in the design and development of short learning programmes as a fishing strategy to attract students to study theology. Theologians are expected to develop interdisciplinary niche areas which could also lead to the quality of academic staff in the public university such as UNISA. Lastly, the approach was discussed as a relevant tool in avoiding the possible dearth and the death of theology in public universities. Thus, an interdisciplinary approach challenges previous approaches to the study of theology and promises to secure the future of theological studies in public universities such as UNISA and others. The approach proposed a theological curriculum that goes beyond conventional disciplines of theology. The approach suggested that theology should be studied beyond disciplinary and intradisciplinary approaches.

 

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology for the support provided in conducting this research.

Competing interests

The authors declares that no financial or personal relationships exist that may have inappropriately influenced the writing this article.

Author's contributions

M.S.K. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the University of South Africa, College of Human Sciences Research Ethics Review Committee and ethics consent was received on 1 July 2019. The ethics approval number is 2019-CHS-90343018-Dept.

Funding information

The author disclosed receipt of financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article from: University of South Africa.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Mookgo Kgatle
kgatls@unisa.ac.za

Received: 03 May 2023
Accepted: 13 Sept. 2023
Published: 15 Jan. 2024

^rND^sDuncan^nG.A.^rND^sDu Toit^nC.W.^rND^sDu Toit^nC.^rND^sFung^nM.^rND^sHaddad^nB.^rND^sHadebe^nL.^rND^sKretzschmar^nL.^rND^sBentley^nW.^rND^sKritzinger^nJ.N.^rND^sKritzinger^nJ.N.^rND^sKretzschmar^nL.^rND^sJackson^nF.^rND^sLetseka^nM.^rND^sKarel^nK.^rND^sLombaard^nC.^rND^sManathunga^nC.^rND^sLant^nP.^rND^sMellick^nG.^rND^sResane^nK.T.^rND^sSchoeman^nS.^rND^sSchoeman^nS.^rND^sTodd^nK.^rND^sVerbick^nT.^rND^1A01^nCharel D.^sdu Toit^rND^1A01^nCharel D.^sdu Toit^rND^1A01^nCharel D^sdu Toit

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Unhiding the voices of women in the Parable of the Good Samaritan: A call for academic inclusion

 

 

Charel D. du Toit

Department of New Testament and Related Literature, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The parables of Jesus are often susceptible to patriarchal, androcentric interpretations. By using a realistic reading and social-scientific criticism, this article will investigate the voices, roles, and presence of women in the parable of the Good Samaritan, and how the 1st-century audience of the parable would most likely have understood women to be present, even if not mentioned in the parable. Women played critical roles in terms of hospitality, travel, innkeeping, and healing. These roles and voices of women are often ignored by modern interpreters and exegetes. This article not only emphasises the valuable roles that women fulfilled in the time of Jesus but also critiques the lack, or absence, of women as a point of discussion, acknowledgement, and study in most biblical commentaries and books concerning the parable of the Good Samaritan. The aim of this research is to contribute to the unhiding of women voices in patriarchal, androcentric texts thereby reconstructing and deconstructing gender paradigms within biblical scholarship.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The interdisciplinary nature of this article contributes to the debate on the roles and importance of women in the church by investigating the value that women had in the parables of Jesus. By reading women as present in the text, emphasis is given to the voices of women in the Bible and the importance of their representation today. This research is also in line with the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5: Gender equality and women empowerment

Keywords: historical Jesus; feminism; social-scientific criticism; equality; realistic reading; early Jesus movement; parables; The Good Samaritan; women; theological education; women's history.

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Introduction

The traditional interpretation of the parable of the Good Samaritan is one focussed on answering the question of who a person's neighbour is. The parable follows exclusively male characters, namely a Samaritan, a Levite, a Jew, a priest, and an innkeeper. Scholars and interpreters seldom focus on the inn where the Samaritan is left to recover, with even fewer mentioning women, or the roles of women, in the parable. Often women are only mentioned as prostitutes who might have been found within the inn. Academic books and commentaries, when discussing the complexities of the 1st-century inn¹ or tavern, often ignore women, or relegate women to the singular role of inn-prostitute. This article will attempt to unhide the voices of women in the parable of the Good Samaritan by using a realistic reading of the parable and proposes an alternative reading scenario based on the cultural scripts that the reading evokes. I will also briefly discuss the importance of an accurate representation of history, and its possible effect on academic education.

A realistic reading proposes a threefold approach when interpreting the parables of Jesus. Firstly, the distinction between the gospels and Jesus is to be taken seriously. Each gospel author provides their own interpretation of the parables; however, a realistic reading attempts to read the parable narratives as an everyday scene, free of allegorisation, playing out in 1st century Palestine. The aim is to understand how the original, rural audience of Jesus understood the parable. Secondly, a conscious attempt should be made to avoid anachronism and ethnocentrism. To date, a social-scientific approach remains the best method to attempt to accomplish this task by taking the 1st-century culture in which the parables play out seriously. Lastly, all available documents and papyri should be consulted to identify the possible social realities in which the parables play out. This process emphasises a thorough investigation of the socio-cultural setting of the parables in order to come as close as possible to what Jesus intended with his parables (Van Eck 2011:12; Waetjen 2001:716).

By using a realistic reading, the parables become stories about everyday events and are not dependent on the allegorical interpretations provided by the gospel authors. How the 1st-century audience of rural Palestine heard and understood the parables becomes the main focus (Dodd 1961:10; Van Eck 2016:19). In so doing, 'a vineyard or a shepherd in a parable of Jesus is just a vineyard or a shepherd' (Kloppenborg 2014:490). This places emphasis on the 1st-century societal context found in the parables.

By using a realistic reading of the parable of the Good Samaritan, this article aims to shed light on the fact that, although not discussed by many scholars and exegetes, women were present and active on 1st-century Palestinian roadways. Moreover, they played significant roles in the trade of innkeeping and the 1st-century audience of this parable most probably understood these roles and would, therefore, have other feminine images come to mind when thinking of an inn, not merely that of a female prostitute.

 

Women and travel

When reading and imagining the parable play out in front of a 1st century audience, either being told by Jesus, or read or recanted by a subsequent tradition, it is important to observe that women were not only present in inns but were also frequent travellers in ancient Palestine and Egypt, occupying the roads of the Roman Empire as part of families and convoys, slaves, craftswomen, and tradeswomen. Surprisingly, it would seem that women often travelled alone, or at least a companion is not mentioned when consulting the Oxyrhynchus papyri. When investigating 2341 of the entries in the Oxyrhynchus papyri dated between the 1st and 4th century CE, in the majority of instances concerning women travellers, no companion is mentioned. This excludes texts related to the slave trade. It would seem that it was not an uncommon sight to see women travelling alone. These accounts include a mother who travels alone to a funeral in another city (P. Oxy 9.1218, l. 6-7: ἡ μήτηρ μου Θαῆσις εἰς Ἀντινόου, δοκῶ, ἐπὶ κηδίαν ἀπῆλθεν.), an invitation sent to a woman to attend a birthday celebration of the god of the Serapis cult (P. Oxy 1.112l.3-6: πᾶν ποίησον, κυρία, ἐξελθεῖ[ν τῇ] κ τοῖς γενεθλείοις τοῦ θεο̣[ῦ, καὶ] δήλωσόν μοι ἠ πλοίῳ ἐξέρχ[ει] ἢ ὄνῳ, ἵνα πεμφθῇ σοι.), and two women who delivered letters to each other by hand (P. Oxy 63.4365) (Blumell 2011:245). It is, therefore, quite possible that women also occupied the road between Jerusalem and Jericho, and were part of the parable narrative.

 

Women as innkeepers

Women played significant roles in innkeeping² in the 1st century. Running an inn was commonly a family affair with wives assisting their husbands in the management of the establishment. In fact, women would often run inns on their own (Rosenfeld 1998:133, 136). It would, therefore, be easily conceivable that the innkeeper in the parable had a wife and that she, at the very least, assisted him in the chores and operations that the inn required, which would include caring for the injured traveller whom the Samaritan had left with them. Moreover, women would often occupy roles as servers and hostesses to guests (Pomeroy 1995:73, 88-92; Schaps 1981:61-62).

Women in these roles were familiar sights in 1st-century Palestine where inns were a common feature on the imperial Roman roads,³ and its occupants and owners well known to those who travelled the roads⁴ (Balsdon 1962:224-226; Evans 2015:133-144). However, it should be mentioned that women as innkeepers were generally not seen in a positive light. They were seen as uncontrollable and their position as innkeeper extended to them certain freedoms and conduct that was seen as vulgar, irresponsible, and unbecoming of a respectable woman. To this point Horatius Cocles, equates a woman who is an innkeeper to the same status of that of a prostitute (Dyson 2008:175-176; Evans 2015:135; Kleberg 1957:57-59, 120-121). Although this does reinforce a negative view and stereotype of women, it also establishes a basis for women as innkeepers in the 1st-century, allowing them certain freedoms, autonomy, and even a semblance of power, specifically in relation to hospitality rites and authority over finances of the inn.

Women and the roles they fulfilled at inns⁵ in the 1st-century receives no attention in the parable of the Good Samaritan. Many commentaries do not mention the roles of women innkeeping, and whenever women are mentioned they are limited to the roles of prostitutes. Prostitution, especially in the context of an inn, was not merely a frowned upon occupation in the ancient world, it was also considered dangerous as this career was devoid of male protectors (Pomeroy 1995:91). Many prostitutes were slaves, trained in artistic traits that would make them more desirable to those visiting inns. This afforded certain women the means to rise above their station and secure their freedom. A famous example of this is Aspasia, who started as a slave, became a madam (the person running the inn), and ultimately lived with Pericles, the ruler of Athens. She was even praised by Plutarch (2013 [Them. 24.3]):

Sources claim that Aspasia was highly valued by Pericles because she was clever and politically astute. After all, Socrates sometimes visited her, bringing along his pupils, and his close friends took their wives to listen to her-although she ran an establishment which was neither orderly nor respectable, seeing that she educated a group of young female companions to become courtesans. (p. 277)

This paints a vastly different picture of not only the inn as an establishment, but most importantly, the lives of women within the establishment. Although the inn was seen as a disreputable institution by most, the same establishment supplied women, who had little hope as slaves and outcasts, with a means to rise above their station and the odds they faced.

Admittedly, there can be little doubt that women did fulfil the role of prostitution within inns and taverns; however, they also had many other important, even critical, roles in inns, which is very seldom discussed. Women were very often innkeepers themselves and it was not uncommon to encounter women running the affairs of the establishment (Rosenfeld 1998:133). In fact, Casson (1994:208) notes that 'as far back as the earliest days of travel, innkeeping was often a women's job, and this continued right on into Roman times' (Casson 1994:208). Female innkeepers were addressed by the title of domina and treated with a certain modicum of respect, not only by slaves and other women but also by their husbands (Saller 1998:86). In a poem attributed to Virgil (Aen. Copa. 1-20) (1918:449), a female innkeeper is said to have stood outside her establishment advertising how delicious her food is and how cool her inn is inside. In another example, a relief in a town outside of Italy shows that female innkeepers were also responsible for adding up the accounts and determining what was owed by the guests (Casson 1994:206-208).

The tension between the occupation of inn-prostitute and innkeeper is excellently exemplified by Rahab, the person who hides the Israelite explorers in Joshua 2. Rahab is described by the Biblical text as a prostitute (πόρνης), however, Josephus (Ant. 5.1.6-8) refers to her on multiple occasions as an innkeeper. Given the cultural scripts supplied above it would seem that there is a link between disreputable occupations in the 1st century, such as innkeeper and prostitute. It could be understood that Rahab was labelled as a prostitute because she ran an inn.⁶ This draws attention to the close relationship between innkeeping and prostitution and, more notably, how present and important the roles of women were in the 1st century.

Prostitution and/or innkeeping were not the only important roles women occupied within 1st-century inns. Women also fulfilled roles as advertisers outside of the inn and treasurers determining accounts and collecting amounts that are due. Barmaids, cleaning girls, porters that would carry the luggage of guests and show them to their rooms, waitresses, musicians, and dancers providing entertainment to the patrons were all roles that women fulfilled and were found in inns. These women-centric roles were also found in restaurants and entertainment establishments found typically in close vicinity to inns (Casson 1994:206-218).

It would be easy to imagine women playing these important roles in the inn of the parable of the Good Samaritan. Surely women played an important role in caring for the injured traveller and his wounds. They would have entertained the traveller, kept him company, and cared for him for days, or even weeks, until he was fully healed.

 

Women innkeepers in Josephus and rabbinic literature

Throughout the writings of Josephus it is clear that women quite commonly took the occupation of innkeepers. These women were also described as belonging to the lower class, as Josephus (Ant. 12.2.276) mentions when reflecting on purity laws for priests, and even going so far as to add female innkeeping (not present in the Lv 21:7 version) to the list of forbidden spouses for a priest (Josephus 1987):

From the priests he exacted a double degree of purity. For not only did he debar them, in common with all others, from the aforesaid practices, but he further forbade them to wed a harlot, he forbids them to wed a slave or a prisoner of war, aye or such women as gain their livelihood by hawking or innkeeping or who have for whatsoever reasons been separated from their husbands. (p. 142; [author's own emphasis]).

Josephus was also aware of inns as institutions that were often ran by women. Similarly, the author of the Testament of Judah (T. Jud. 23.2) also acknowledges female innkeepers (Charles 1907:201).

Further evidence of female innkeepers are found in the Mishnah (Git. 8.9) and the Tosefta (Yebam. 1.10) with two very interesting accounts shedding light on the importance and scope of the roles of female innkeepers. Rabbinic literature attributed to the schools of Hillel and Shammai, as well as literature attributed to later generations, portray accounts of the rapid increase of inns. This included female innkeeping (Mishnah 2011:218, 318-319; Rosenfeld 1998:143).

Two interesting and important cases of female innkeepers can be found in the Mishnah, especially in relation to the parable of the Good Samaritan. Firstly, in tractate Yebamot 16:7, a case is discussed of a woman whose husband disappeared and is then declared to be dead. In the case, as recorded in the Mishnah (2011), Rabbi Akiva and the sages debate and refer to a previous case concerning the testimony of a female innkeeper:

R. Akiva says, 'Not on the evidence of a woman, nor on the evidence of a slave, nor on the evidence of a slave girl, or on the evidence of relatives'. They said to him, 'The story is told that certain Levites went to Zoar, the date town, and one of them took sick on the way, and they left him at an inn. Upon their return they said to the [female] innkeeper, "Where is our friend?" She said to them, "He died, and I buried him." And they permitted his wife to remarry [on the strength of her evidence]'. They said to him, 'And should not a well-bred woman [lit.: woman of priestly decent] be equivalent to an innkeeper'? He said to them, 'Were that women the innkeeper, she would be believed. The innkeeper had produced for them his staff, his pouch, and the Torah scroll which he had in his hand'. (p. 245)

Although this case reflects the debate between upper and lower classes in Jewish society, it also gives us critical insights concerning the role and understanding of women as innkeepers in the late 1st, and early 2nd century, the years when Rabbi Akiva was active. According to what we are told, the Levites made a stop at an inn on their journey to Zoar. One of their companions became ill, and they had no choice but to leave him there. This suggests that inns could sometimes serve as a place of refuge in times of distress when no other options were available. The innkeeper in this instance was a woman, and there was no mention of a husband. The Levites spoke with her and she provided lodging for the sick person, likely caring for him until he passed away. She then took care of his belongings until his companions returned (Rosenfeld 1998:144-145).

Secondly, the Mishnah (Demai. 3.5) reports of a female innkeeper welcoming a traveller at her inn and cooking the food that he had brought with him on this journey. In this document again no man or husband is mentioned.

These two accounts not only attests to the well-known roles of women as inn keepers, but also sheds light on their roles in caring for their guests, taking an active role in their healing, recovery, and food preparations. With all these hospitality roles in mind, it is very clear that some similarities exist between these accounts and the parable of the Good Samaritan. In the parable of the New Testament, the innkeeper is depicted as a male, but it is likely that his whole family lived on the premises since the inn was situated on the main road. It can be assumed that his wife also helped him in running the inn (Rosenfeld 1998:147). Both the parable of the Good Samaritan and the Mishnah accounts portray the innkeepers, male or female, in a positive light. They do not hesitate to help the travellers in need.

There seems to be precedent for the roles and importance of women, not only in innkeeping in the Parable of the Good Samaritan, but quite possibly also the attitude towards women who worked at, and ran, these establishments. It is possible that the 1st-century audience of this parable understood that the Samaritan left the traveller at the inn knowing full well that women will take care of his needs, perhaps even performing burial rites if needed. Whatever the case may be, it is evident that women were a crucial and important part of 1st-century innkeeping.

 

Call for academic inclusion

A large number of popular books, articles, and commentaries on the parable of the Good Samaritan only focuses on men and the roles that they portray in the narrative, mentioning women only as prostitutes at inns. But in the innkeeping sector, women held a number of significant roles. Some examples of services offered include marketing and entertainment, bookkeeping, and performing the burial rituals for deceased guests. Moreover, women were also frequent travellers in the 1st century and would often be found travelling alone on the roads (Bailey 1983:146-147, 2008:256; Blomberg 2012:296; Forbes 2000:65; Foubert 2016:296; Hendrickx 1986:88; Kendall 2006:188; Levine 2014:97-98; Pentecost 1982:67; Rosenfeld 1998; Scott 1989:200; Snodgrass 2008:271; Webster 2021:50; Zimmermann 2015:311).

Women were active members of this narrative; however, they were excluded from written textual tradition. Nonetheless, the 1st-century audience of the parables and the first hearers of Jesus would most probably have understood women to be present in this narrative, as well as other parables that Jesus told (Du Toit 2022a, 2022b, 2022c). There is sufficient evidence to ask: Why do we, in our academic literature, still primarily refer to the most notable role of women in this parable as being prostitutes? Is this also taught in our universities and seminaries, and preached from our pulpits? This perpetual image and overemphasis on the singular role of women as prostitutes may have a great effect on theological education, which inevitably influence the ecclesial sphere. The unhiding of women's voices and the important roles that they portray not only help to create a more inclusive view of history but may also aid in opposing social injustices, such as the increase of gender-based violence (GBV) in South Africa, and complacency in local faith communities when aiming to responsibly address this crisis (Banda 2020:1; Mulder 2013:200). Unhiding of the voices of women is one way in which not only a more accurate, and more inclusive, history is represented but is also a more responsible portrayal of women in theological, educational and academic spheres that inevitably influences faith communities and society.

 

Conclusion

This article provides an alternative reading scenario for the parable of the Good Samaritan. A reading where, given all the cultural scripts and research presented, women are not merely prostitutes in the narrative, but rather perform critical and important roles and functions. Without the women in this parable, the narrative would not be possible and the assaulted victim who the Samaritan rescued would not have been cared for. Although women do not take centre stage, they are the crucial background actors allowing the narrative to function and the parable to reach its intended conclusion.

This inclusive reading presents a more complete and accurate account of history. The further benefit of this reading is that, by unhiding the voices of women, current readings of this parable can include the importance and varied roles of women without an overemphasis on singular, androcentric, and patriarchal roles such as prostitution. This could have important implications for theological, academic education and ecclesial spheres when women are represented more accurately and completely.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

C.D.d.T. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Charel Du Toit
u11291852@tuks.co.za

Received: 23 July 2023
Accepted: 07 Sept. 2023
Published: 16 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. The inn as an institution entered Jewish Palestine society around 63 BCE as a result of the Roman occupation and became a familiar sight in the 1st century under the rule of Herod, who expanded the Palestinian infrastructure and economy. Because the inn entered Jewish society from Roman and Greek spheres, it was often seen as an immoral place of debauchery and dishonest behaviour with many Jews associating the institution with a place where pagan worshipers would sojourn. However, the negative ideas surrounding inns slowly changed in Jewish society and by the 2nd century Rabbi Nehemiah (Gn Rab. 54.6), a well-known Palestinian sage, even described inns as a vital public institution of much benefit to travellers. Inns became so popular that the Greek word for inn, Πανδοχεῖον, even entered the Jewish language as a loanword: pundaq (Freedman & Simon 1983:480-481; Rosenfeld 1998:149-152).
2. Some scholars identify 'beer houses' and 'drinking parlours' as inns. However, these were spaces that would host public festivals and would often be associated with loose and immoral behaviour. Prostitution was also often practised inside these institutions in addition to the sale and consumption of alcohol (Burkert 1991:12-13; Oller 1995:1467-1468). These institutions fail to adhere to all the functions and requirements of an inn, therefore, classifying them as inns would be unsatisfactory to what is defined as an inn in the 1st century (Rosenfeld 1998:134).
3. The road between Jerusalem and Jericho was most probably a Roman Imperial road. Roman sentry posts were erected along the road with a Roman military post where Roman couriers would change horses. Sentry posts were already built on this road by the 1st century, thereby making it very likely that it was common knowledge that the road was dangerous to travel. This would make the road between Jerusalem and Jericho an understandable choice for Jesus to use as a setting for a man to be assaulted in his parable (Wilkinson 1975:17, 21).
4. The inn in the parable was most likely in or very close to the town of Jericho and not found on the open road where it would be, not only more dangerous but also far from the cities that supplied the inn with the needed operational produce and animals (Wilkinson 1975:19).
5. The innkeeper in the parable is identified to be male in the text (τῷ πανδοχεῖ); however, the term 'πανδοκεῖον' can be used to refer to female innkeepers and in the case of Josephus composing a list of unacceptable wives for priests to marry (Ant. 12.2.276) (transl. Whiston 1987:142).
6. It should also be noted that Josephus might be trying to redeem Rahab in the light of her important role in the genealogy of Jesus, thereby changing her occupation from prostitute to innkeeper. However, innkeeper would hardly be considered a redeeming occupation in the 1st century and the reinterpretation of Rahab as an innkeeper still draws attention to the link between prostitution and innkeeping, especially for women.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Prokhanov's missiology: A forerunner to Bosch's Emerging Paradigm

 

 

Johannes J. Knoetze; Dzmitry Lazuta

Department Practical Theology and Mission Studies, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article examines the hypothesis proposed by missiologist Johannes Reimer that Ivan Prokhanov, the founder of the missionary movement in Russia in the early 20th century, anticipated and, to some extent, embodied the emerging missional paradigm articulated by David Bosch in 1991, approximately 60-70 years later. The article argues that Reimer's intuition was largely correct, as Prokhanov significantly aligned with at least 9 of the 13 elements identified by Bosch. Furthermore, it suggests that the correlation between the views of Prokhanov and Bosch can be explained by their shared epistemological orientation towards the New Testament missional paradigm, particularly the paradigm of Matthew, Luke and Paul, as described by Bosch.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: According to this hypothesis, Bosch's analysis of the historical development of missional theology traces the deviation from the apostolic paradigm established by these New Testament authors, with the emerging missional paradigm representing a partial return to that original framework. For Prokhanov, New Testament missiology was the foundational basis of his mission theology

Keywords: Prokhanov; David Bosch; Holistic Mission; New Testament; Mission Paradigm; Emerging Mission Paradigm; Russian Evangelical Movement.

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Introduction

Ivan Stepanovich Prokhanov (1869-1935) was a prominent figure in the Russian missional movement of the early 20th century, playing a crucial role in its initiation and development (Ellis & Jones 1996:173; Popov 1996:54; Savinskiy 1995:74, 77-78; Vsesoyuzny Sovet Yevangel'skikh Khristian Baptistov [VSEKhB] 1989:147-157). Despite his significant influence, the reasons behind his success remain largely unexplored. Russian historian V. Stepanov posits that Prokhanov's reformist theological approach was a key factor contributing to his accomplishments (Stepanov 2023:486-490). Indeed, Prokhanov's progressive and innovative missional paradigm for his time likely played a critical role in his success.

This article seeks to evaluate Johannes Reimer's hypothesis (2013:145) that Ivan S. Prokhanov anticipated many elements of David Bosch's missional paradigm by several decades. Prokhanov began his active ministry in 1906, and by 1910, he had developed a comprehensive doctrinal framework reflecting his missiological perspectives (Prokhanov 1910a:1-19). His missional thinking was likely fully developed and clearly articulated by 1925-1926, as evidenced by key documents such as 'New or Evangelical Life' (Prokhanov 1925a:4-23) and his address 'To All Ordinary Members and Leaders of Communities and Departments' (Prokhanov 2009a:125-130). Moreover, his 1926 work, 'The Gospel Standard of Life in Russia', further exemplified his missional vision (Prokhanoff 1933:237-238).

In contrast, Bosch presented his seminal study, Transforming Mission, in 1991, where he introduced his Emerging Missional Paradigm, consisting of 13 elements. According to Reimer's hypothesis, Prokhanov anticipated the majority of these elements by 60-70 years.

Bosch categorised three New Testament missional paradigms - Matthew's, Luke's and Paul's - and conducted a historical analysis of six paradigms using classifications established by Hans Küng (1995), rooted in Thomas Kuhn's theory of paradigm shifts (1996). Reimer contends that Prokhanov foresaw, to varying extents, at least 11 of Bosch's 13 elements (Reimer 2013:145). These include Mission as the Church with Others, missio Dei, Mediating Salvation, Quest for Justice, Evangelism, Contextualisation, Inculturation, Common Witness, Ministry by the Whole People of God and Action in Hope. Reimer's examination of the writings of Prokhanov and other Slavic evangelical leaders underscores their commitment to an ecumenical and inclusive mission.

Reimer also observes that these leaders seldom addressed theology and inter-religious dialogue within their specific historical and cultural contexts (2013:145).

This article will integrate discussions of Mission as Liberation and Mission as Inculturation into related topics: Mission as Quest for Justice and Mission as Contextualisation, respectively. While there are similarities between Justice and Liberation, as well as between Contextualisation and Inculturation, they are distinct concepts. However, because of space limitations, this article will not delve deeply into the specific nuances between these interconnected concepts.

 

Mission as the church-with-others

The concept of 'Mission as the Church-with-Others' encompasses several fundamental principles. Firstly, it underscores the inseparable connection between mission and the church, a notion that evolved over time (Bosch 2011:loc. 8660-8682; Brunner 1965:108; Newbigin 1958: 26-27). Secondly, it emphasises the holistic nature of the church's mission. Acts of mercy are not merely tools for evangelisation but are ends in themselves, encompassing the pursuit of justice and peace (Bosch 2011:loc. 8749; Newbigin 1958:22).

Central to this concept is the idea that the church engages collaboratively with others. Bonhoeffer (1997:4) argues that the church truly embodies its essence when it lives for others, echoing humanistic liberal thought (Bosch 2011:loc. 8800). However, it is preferable for the church to live and serve alongside others, inviting them to follow Christ (Bosch 2011:loc. 8823).

Initially, Ivan Prokhanov did not fully recognise the pivotal role of the church in mission. When he founded the Russian Evangelical Union between 1906 and 1909, it was envisioned more as an association of individual believers than a union of churches (ed. Prokhanov 1908e:8). However, this approach faced challenges, lacking support from both Baptists and Orthodox Christians (Puzyinin 2010:249-250).

By 1908, Prokhanov began to shift his focus towards the church, aiming to foster a renewed community that integrated evangelistic efforts with charitable activities (ed. Prokhanov 1908b:9-12). His 1910 'Confession of Faith' explicitly stated that the mission of the local church was to establish and spread the kingdom of Christ (Prokhanov 1910a:11-12). He dedicated a chapter to the importance of acts of mercy, citing Micah 6:8.

In a 1925 report, Karev highlighted the active engagement of the St. Petersburg community in both evangelism and social welfare, inspired by Christ's example (Karev 1925:51). Concurrently, Prokhanov organised a union of churches to unite them into a cohesive movement, envisioning the spiritual renewal of Russia through churches restored to an apostolic model (Prokhanoff 1933:149-151, 265, 267).

Prokhanov firmly advocated that societal reform could only be achieved through the church's collaboration with other institutions. He urged church leaders and members to participate in societal transformation, advocating for the pursuit of higher education in science alongside spiritual development (Prokhanov 1925a, 1933:237-239). He also endorsed the adoption of modern technologies and agricultural practices (Prokhanov 1925a:20).

In his influential work, 'The Gospel Standard of Life in Russia', Prokhanov called for comprehensive societal transformation, emphasising the necessity of collaboration with others to achieve this goal (Prokhanoff 1933:237-239).

Both David Bosch and Ivan Prokhanov emphasise the integral relationship between the church and mission, advocating for a holistic approach that encompasses acts of mercy, promotion of justice and collaboration with broader society.

 

Mission as missio Dei

In the latter half of the 20th century, the missional community began to understand that mission is not merely a function of the church confined to ecclesiology or soteriology, but rather participation in God's mission (missio Dei). This concept is rooted in Trinitarian theology, where the Triune God - Father, Son and Holy Spirit - motivated by love, engages in the historical process of redeeming the world (Aagaard 1973:11; Bosch 2011:loc. 9131). The church is called to participate in this divine mission (Moltmann 1977:64), avoiding both quietism and apocalyptic extremism (Davies 1967:106-107) by sharing in the suffering and pain of the world (Von Thadden 1953:53-59).

As a universal and holistic endeavour, this mission transcends traditional boundaries, compelling the church to address global injustices, environmental concerns and societal healing - reflecting the expansive scope of God's redemptive plan (Bosch 2011:loc. 9183-9184).

Although Ivan Prokhanov did not explicitly use the term missio Dei, his ministry embodied its principles. His vision for the renewal of all of Russia through spiritual transformation aligns with the broader scope of missio Dei (Kuznezova 2009:241; Mitrokhin 1997:262; Prokhanoff 1933:119-120). Prokhanov interpreted Ezekiel 37:1-14, where God breathes life into dry bones, as a metaphor for the spiritual revitalisation of Russia through the church's prophetic mission (Prokhanoff 1933:119).

A significant aspect of Prokhanov's theology is his pneumatological orientation. As Reimer (2013) argues, Prokhanov's concept of a spiritual revolution was groundbreaking, especially within the context of Western classical mission thought. Prokhanov emphasised the Holy Spirit's role in this mission, advocating for prayer and the Spirit's empowerment (ed. Prokhanov 1906a:3). He saw the Holy Spirit as essential not only for individual transformation, as exemplified in the conversion of Saul (Prokhanov 1906c:24), but also for societal renewal and liberation (Prokhanov 1906a:22-23). This focus on the Spirit's role in creation and societal transformation extended the mission beyond individual salvation.

Christ also held a central place in Prokhanov's theology, particularly in the context of atonement through Christ's sacrifice. His sermon 'Christ Crucified' and the motto 'We preach Christ Crucified' on the title pages of Christian magazines emphasised this focus (Prokhanov 2009b:63-71). For Prokhanov, evangelism was an expression of God's love, driven by solidarity with those who suffer, shaping his vision for a transformative mission (Prokhanoff 1933:40-41, 2009c:39; Trosnov 1912:4).

Thus, Prokhanov's theological reflections significantly align with the contemporary concept of missio Dei, emphasising both individual and societal transformation through the church's participation in God's mission.

 

Mission as the mediation of salvation

Significant shifts in the church's approach to mission are closely linked to evolving understandings of salvation (Bosch 2011:loc. 9229). The emerging paradigm offers a more holistic view, extending beyond traditional concerns of the afterlife to address the full spectrum of human needs on earth (Bosch 2011:ch. 12).

The ministry of Jesus Christ, as depicted by Luke, sought to alleviate suffering in all dimensions of human existence - political, social, physical, psychological and spiritual (Scheffler 1993:60-69). This comprehensive approach characterised the early Christian church.

The divergence in soteriological approaches between the Eastern and Western churches can be traced to their differing Christological emphases. The Eastern church focussed on theosis - the deification of humanity through Christ's incarnation - while the Western church emphasised Christ's death and its transformative impact, particularly through Anselm's theory of vicarious satisfaction (Bosch 2011:loc. 9243, 5191).

Modern cultural influences and liberal discourse have further shaped soteriological perspectives, redefining salvation as liberation from superstition, improvement of general well-being and moral progress. In this view, the instruments of salvation are seen as scientific, technological, social and political advancements (Bosch 2011:loc. 9274-9288).

In response, Bosch proposed a new approach to soteriology, grounded in totus Christus - encompassing Christ's incarnation, earthly life, death, resurrection and second coming (Bosch 2011:loc. 9371). This paradigm sees salvation as both reconciliation with God through Christ's crucifixion and transformation into the image of God (theosis). It also includes discipleship and active participation in alleviating human suffering, with eschatological expectations integral to this view.

An analysis of Ivan Prokhanov's understanding of salvation reveals a similarly holistic approach in his ministry. The epigraph on the cover of his journal Christian - 'We preach Christ crucified' - underscores the centrality of Christ's crucifixion in Prokhanov's theology. For Prokhanov, this event is the sole means of redemption and forgiveness of sins, without which salvation is unattainable (Prokhanov 1910a:6). A reconciled person becomes a 'new creation', a child of God (Prokhanov 1925a:7), with this transformation initiated through personal rebirth (Prokhanov 2007a:196-197). However, this initial transformation is only the beginning; the ultimate goal of a Christian's life is to restore the image of God within themselves through rebirth and sanctification, aiming for likeness to Christ (Prokhanov 2007b:232).

Prokhanov critically assessed tendencies towards quietism and the detachment from human needs that can arise from mere religiosity. He emphasised that believers must remain sensitive to the needs of others (Prokhanov 2009d:257, 2009e:139). He proposed a Christian model of social transformation, advocating for the renewal of various aspects of society ('New or Gospel Life' 1925a:4-23). Christians, driven by love for others, should strive to improve life in all its manifestations (Prokhanov 2009a:125-130).

Eschatological expectations also played a significant role in Prokhanov's theological outlook. While familiar with the debates between fundamentalists and liberals, Prokhanov maintained optimism about transforming the world through both the gospel and social progress (Prokhanov 2009a:125-127). However, he cautioned against excessive optimism in believing that humans could independently establish an ideal life on earth. For Prokhanov, this ideal life would only be realised through God's eschatological intervention in the 'millennial Kingdom of Christ', when Satan will be bound (Prokhanov 2009a:127).

Thus, several decades before Bosch's paradigm emerged, Prokhanov articulated and implemented many elements of a holistic soteriology.

 

Mission as the quest for justice

The integration of evangelism and social justice is a complex endeavour that requires careful balance (Bosch 2011:loc. 9404). While the Old Testament prophets addressed social justice issues, the New Testament church historically shifted its focus to spirituality, a change often attributed to the lack of a common foundation between church and state (Bosch 2011:loc. 9404-9414). During the Constantinian era, the church's compromise with the state sometimes led to overlooking social injustices (Bosch 2011:loc. 9414).

Niebuhr critiqued the division between earthly and divine realities, a legacy of Augustine, which frequently resulted in indifference towards social issues (Augustine 2023:674; Niebuhr 2015:pt. 3). In modern times, the marginalisation of religion has confined it to the private sphere (Bosch 2011:loc. 9423). Niebuhr distinguished between rational ethics of justice, focussing on fairness, and religious ethics of love, centred on selfless assistance and rooted in Christ's example (Niebuhr 2015:pt. 3).

The mystical ideal advocates withdrawal from worldly concerns, while the prophetic ideal urges active engagement in social justice through Christian love (Bosch 2011:loc. 9443; Haight 1976:623). Early 20th-century conservatives critiqued the Social Gospel movement for potentially overshadowing concerns about eternal salvation (Marsden 2006:92). The Lausanne Movement (2010) calls for a balanced approach to evangelism and socio-political engagement, although this perspective is not universally accepted (Frierson 2018:65-66).

Prokhanov's commitment to social justice stemmed from personal experiences with religious persecution and exposure to literature on suffering and injustice (Prokhanoff 1933:35-36). His time at the politically active Technological Institute in Saint Petersburg further shaped his dedication to social reform through the gospel (Prokhanoff 1933:37, 73-75).

He viewed freedom as crucial for addressing social injustices, envisioning a future Russia free from oppression, aligning this vision with his religious convictions (Prokhanov 1906d:2). Criticising mystical and dualistic tendencies among evangelicals that led to withdrawal from social issues, Prokhanov instead viewed mystical experiences as sources of renewed strength for service and societal transformation (Prokhanov 1925a:10, 1906d:2).

Prokhanov envisioned a societal structure where all 'legitimate needs of each member' would be met (Prokhanov 1925a:15), emphasising the principle of justice. The ethics of love played a pivotal role in constructing such a society, with Prokhanov asserting that in the new society of the righteous, terms such as 'beggar', 'poor person', and 'needy' would vanish completely (Prokhanov 1925a:15). Furthermore, he argued that such a society could only thrive if individuals were willing to sacrifice their own interests for the common good, an attitude rooted in faith in God (Prokhanov 1925a:15).

Prokhanov actively defended believers' rights, influenced legislative processes and educated them about their rights (Kushnerov 1910; ed. Prokhanov 1910b, 1910c, 1912). He founded political parties and agricultural communes aimed at promoting justice and freedom, drawing inspiration from the early apostolic church (Mitrokhin 1997:252; Prokhanov 1917:7, 1928a:12).

His mission emphasised both individual transformation through evangelism and the broader goal of societal reform, as will be explored further in the next section.

 

Mission as evangelism

David Bosch outlines the paradigm of evangelism through 18 propositions that represent the emerging concept of evangelism. While a detailed examination of each proposition is beyond the scope of this article, a brief overview of key elements reveals a striking similarity between the evangelistic approaches of David Bosch and Ivan Prokhanov.

For Bosch, evangelism is an 'indispensable ministry' and a 'sacred duty' (Bosch 2011:loc. 9705). He emphasises that the gospel must be proclaimed with renewed enthusiasm and relevance (Watson 1983:69). This proclamation should occur within a healthy church context, one that exhibits an attractive lifestyle reminiscent of the early apostolic church (Bosch 2011:loc. 9713).

Bosch defines the goal of evangelism as eliciting a response from individuals (Bosch 2011:loc. 9682). Jesus called for repentance and faith, or metanoia, which Bosch describes as a 'total transformation of our attitudes and styles of life' (Bosch 2011, WCC 1982:Affirmation 12). This response is to be a positive invitation, as evangelism is fundamentally a message of joy (Gutiérrez 1988:Intr.). Manipulation through guilt or fear is deemed unacceptable; instead, people should be drawn to God by his love (Bosch 2011:loc. 9697).

While the message of God promises personal salvation, Bosch stresses that personal enjoyment was never the Bible's primary motive (Bosch 2011:loc. 9716-9727). Christ cannot be reduced to a mere distributor of blessings; the Christian calling is not only to receive life, but also to give it.

Moreover, Bosch argues that evangelism cannot be separated from social justice (Bosch 2011:loc. 9804). The blessedness of Christian life, including eternal bliss, should align with believers' calling to serve and advance God's kingdom principles on earth, thereby transforming the existing reality (Bosch 2011:loc. 9828). Evangelism as proclamation is thus inseparable from deeds (Bosch 2011:loc. 9849). As Newbigin (1982:146) asserts, the gospel is that 'the Word became flesh'.

Similar to David Bosch, evangelism was central to Ivan Prokhanov's ministry. His vision for transforming Russia was closely tied to the spiritual renewal of its people through the preaching of the gospel (Prokhanov 1928a). Prokhanov believed that authentic preaching required the preacher to be transformed by the gospel, thus validating their message through a changed life (Trosnov 1912:4).

In his sermon 'The Bible in the Life of a Believer', Prokhanov (2009f:212-222) introduced the concept of the 'living Bible', emphasising that the Bible must be written on believers' hearts. He argued that a transformed life serves as a crucial evangelistic tool because 'the world doesn't read the printed Bible, but it carefully reads our lives' (Prokhanov 2009f:222).

Prokhanov's sermons, much like Bosch's analysis, were designed to provoke a response. In 'For What and For Whom Do You Live?' he invited individuals to turn to Jesus, who offers to lighten their burdens (Mt 11:28; Prokhanov 2009g:19). In 'Are You a Christian?' he called for repentance, the acceptance of forgiveness, and actions consistent with that repentance (Prokhanov 2009c:41).

For Prokhanov, the core of the evangelical message was God's love. He discouraged polemical disputes, advocating instead for a focus on God's love (Trosnov 1912:4). In a poem dedicated to the Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) congregation, Prokhanov defined the gospel as a divine revelation, emphasising that God is, above all, love rather than judgement (Prokhanov 1925c:49).

Prokhanov promised numerous benefits to those who followed Jesus Christ, including inner peace, freedom from the fear of death, assurance of salvation and a life filled with optimism and joy (Prokhanoff 1933:42-47; Prokhanov 2009h:267-268). However, he was acutely aware of the risk of reducing Christianity to a pursuit of spiritual benefits. In his sermon 'What and For Whom Do You Live?' (2009g:16-26), Prokhanov stressed that the Christian life is not one of self-service but of self-sacrifice (2009g:23-24).

Like Bosch, Prokhanov did not separate evangelism from good deeds. He believed that believers are created to perform good deeds, which bear witness to God's love (Prokhanov 1910a:9). Under his leadership, the Leningrad congregation actively engaged in preaching the gospel and addressing physical needs, emulating Christ's example (Karev 1925:51). For instance, during the 1920 famine in Petrograd, Prokhanov and other believers established soup kitchens to aid the starving (Prokhanoff 1933:216).

While Prokhanov regarded evangelism as the church's primary mission, he also emphasised the importance of social justice, as previously outlined.

 

Mission as contextualisation

David Bosch emphasised the importance of developing a local theology that is transformative within its context (Bosch 2011:loc. 9876). He proposed a framework for contextualisation that begins with what he termed 'theological suspicion'. Bosch was cautious of Western theology's potential to uphold the status quo, particularly in situations of economic injustice, where it might inadvertently serve Western interests and legitimise existing global power structures (Bosch 2011:loc. 9956).

In Bosch's view, contextual theology also demands an epistemological transformation. Theological truth, he argued, should align with both reason and Scripture, aiming not just to explain the world but to change it. This perspective echoes Marx's idea that philosophy should be transformative (Marx 1945; Torres 1979:5). Bosch particularly stressed that this transformation should prioritise the needs of the poor, making them central to theological reflection (Bosch 2011:loc. 9962; Torres 1979:5).

A critical aspect of Bosch's approach was the preferential option for the poor, a concept that underscores a theology committed to justice and solidarity with marginalised communities (Bosch 2011:loc. 9972-9973). For Bosch, this focus on the poor was not merely a theoretical stance but a practical and ethical imperative, ensuring that the struggles of the marginalised are at the heart of theological discourse (Torres 1979:5).

Furthermore, Bosch believed that those engaging in contextual theology must share in the suffering of the oppressed. This involvement is essential for the credibility and authenticity of their theological work (Bosch 2011:loc. 9972-9973). Theologians should not be detached observers, but participants in the struggles of those they seek to serve.

Bosch also asserted that true theological knowledge arises from action. Theologians must actively participate in God's redemptive work, refining their understanding through practice (Gutiérrez 1988:xxxiv). This integration of orthopraxis (right action) with orthodoxy (right belief) is crucial for a theology that is both relevant and dynamic (Bosch 2011:loc. 9976).

However, Bosch acknowledged the complexities and ambiguities inherent in contextualisation. He emphasised that this process must balance spiritual and social responsibilities, ensuring that the glorification of God is integrated with a commitment to social justice (Bosch 2011:loc. 10011). Bosch also argued that theology should be enriched by both local and universal perspectives, cautioning against the absolutisation of any single local theological viewpoint (Bosch 2011:loc. 10048-10053). Local theological values, while important, should not be considered universally binding (Bosch 2011:loc. 10053).

In addition, Bosch warned against manipulative interpretations of political and social events when discerning 'signs of the times' (Bosch 2011:loc. 10072). Contextual theology should be careful to avoid such distortions. It should also incorporate broader theoretical concepts such as justice, truth and morality, which are essential for a well-rounded theological discourse (Stackhouse 1988:11, 26-27).

Lastly, Bosch highlighted the role of poesis, or the language of symbols, in enhancing both theological theory and practice. Elements such as beauty and worship should not be overlooked in the process of contextualisation, as they contribute to a richer and more holistic expression of faith. These symbols have cognitive, evocative and relational significance (Bosch 2011:loc. 10132; Stackhouse 1988:104).

Prokhanov critiqued the Orthodox Church for serving state interests and neglecting the people (Prokhanoff 1933:18-19). His work aimed to alleviate the plight of the marginalised, embodying a theology of suspicion similar to Bosch's critique of Western theology. Despite severe persecution, which forced him to leave Russia in 1890 and prevented his return in 1928 (ed. Karetnikova 2001:124; Prokhanoff 1933:92, 252), Prokhanov's experiences, including brief arrests and hardship during the Petrograd famine (Karev 1922:14; Prokhanoff 1933:189-198; Redaktsiya 1922:6), enriched his theology with solidarity for the oppressed (Prokhanoff 1933).

Prokhanov's vision for Russia's transformation was driven by his awareness of ordinary people's dire conditions. He believed true change could only occur by transforming hearts through the gospel, which would, in turn, transform social realities (Prokhanoff 1933:36-38). His theology, grounded in the Apostolic Creed and Protestant Evangelical tradition (Prokhanov 1910a:1-19), focussed on practical and transformative aspects (Prokhanov 1898; 1910a; 1911:1, 1925a:4-23). His reflections aimed to reshape the religious and social life of the people (Prokhanov 1910a; 1925a).

Prokhanov's missiology incorporated Bosch's ambiguities paradigm, balancing spiritual and social work while fostering responsibility (Prokhanov 1925a:4-23; Prokhanoff 1933:236-237). His theology, while deeply rooted in the Apostolic Creed and Protestant Evangelical tradition, also embraced Christian concepts of truth and justice (Prokhanov 1910a:1-19; Puzyinin 2010:252). Recognising the impact of symbolic language, such as poetry and music, in Russian theological culture (Kal'nev 1913:529-556; Prokhanoff 1933:147), Prokhanov integrated these elements into his practice.

However, Prokhanov may have overestimated his evangelical tradition's global significance, aligning with a messianic view of Russia's role in world history (Prokhanoff 1933:13-14; Puzyinin 2010:259). His vision of spreading evangelical awakening worldwide reflects a characteristic Russian intellectual inclination (Prokhanoff 1933:265-266; ed. Prokhanov 1906b:69).

 

Mission as common witness

David Bosch noted a growing recognition among Christians of the need for unity in mission (Bosch 2011:loc. 10805). In his New Emerging Mission as a Common Witness Paradigm, Bosch emphasises several key elements to achieve this unity. He underscores the necessity of coordination and unity in missionary activities, advocating for a focus on the unity of the Church as a whole rather than on individual congregations (Bosch 2011:loc. 10909, 10919).

Bosch further advocates for unity that preserves diversity, asserting that the Church's unifying factors are Jesus Christ and the Bible. He calls for respectful dialogue to address tensions between churches while maintaining truth (Bosch 2011:loc. 10926, 10936). This approach discourages forming new churches over minor differences, advocating instead for a balance between Christology and Ecclesiology. Bosch emphasises that the Holy Spirit gifts the Church collectively, not just individuals (Bosch 2011:loc. 10958, 10970).

Moreover, Bosch views unity as a command of Christ, asserting that its absence should be confessed as sin (Bosch 2011:loc. 10976). This perspective places a moral imperative on the Church to strive for unity, recognising it as an essential aspect of their collective mission and witness.

Prokhanov shared a similar view on the importance of unity for the Christian mission. During his student years, he published 'Conversion', an underground magazine aimed at uniting believers and advancing God's Kingdom (Val'kevich 1900:162). His broad-minded approach, influenced by his interactions with the St. Petersburg intelligentsia and his studies abroad, helped him overcome confessional exclusivity (Prokhanov 1898, 1908a:9).

Prokhanov founded the Evangelical Alliance in Russia, emphasising unity as a priority. He outlined its goals to foster spiritual rapprochement among believers and support the spread of God's work in Russia (ed. Prokhanov 1908a:9). He believed that the Church's unity was crucial for the world to recognise Christ (ed. Prokhanov 1908a:8).

Prokhanov was well aware of the complexities of achieving unity because of differing opinions and tastes, which lead to various theological views (Prokhanov 1908a:8). Nonetheless, he proposed a theological discourse on unity and practical methods to achieve it. He emphasised recognising the unity created by Christ and valuing every member (Prokhanov, 1908a:8, 1909:17-21). Freedom in secondary matters should foster tolerance and unity (ed. Prokhanov 1908a:8, 1910a:10). Unity should be based on essential doctrines such as faith in Christ, justification and regeneration (Prokhanoff 1933:24; Prokhanov 1908d:1-2). The love of Christ should transcend doctrinal differences, with spiritual unity being the source of the Church's power (Grabb 1906:13; Prokhanov 1898).

Prokhanov also advocated for practical steps to build unity, such as joint prayer, collaborative projects and a culture of partnership between communities (Potapova 2014; ed. Prokhanov 1908a:9, 1910a:15, 1920a, 1920b). His views on unity share significant similarities with those of Bosch.

 

Mission as ministry by the whole people of God

In recent times, the church has experienced significant changes, characterised by the increasing prominence of non-ordained ministers (Bosch 2011:loc. 10982-10990). Jesus deliberately chose ordinary individuals as his disciples, and the early church adopted the term 'ekklesia' from secular contexts rather than Jewish synagogue practices, emphasising its democratic and inclusive character (Bosch 2011:loc. 10999; Meeks 1983:27,32, 81). By avoiding priesthood language - whether Greco-Roman or traditional Israelite - the church underscored its inclusive ethos.

The rise of heresies (Bosch 2011:loc. 11008) and the emphasis on sacrificial offerings symbolising Christ's universal sacrifice led to the establishment of ordained ministers. These ministers, as representatives of Christ, facilitated access to God's grace through consecration, forgiveness of sins and blessings (Bosch 2011:loc. 11018; Burrows 1980:60). This development introduced a division between active and passive roles - the bestowers of grace and its recipients. During the Reformation, the church prioritised preaching, and as education advanced, clericalism became more pronounced (Bosch 2011:loc. 11046).

Today, the church faces the imperative of formulating a theology tailored for the laity, aimed at overcoming the Enlightenment-era dichotomy that separated life into private and public spheres (Bosch 2011:loc. 11109; Newbigin 1986:ch. 6). Such a theology should not seek to transform laypeople into miniature pastors but should instead empower non-ordained ministers to extend Christian values beyond the church's confines into the broader world (Moltmann 1975:11). Meanwhile, ordained ministers uphold doctrinal fidelity and equip individuals for their respective ministries (Burrows 1980:112; Newbigin 1987:30).

Prokhanov advocated for the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, arguing that all believers possess 'the power of spiritual influence' (Prokhanov 1908c:4; 2009i:124-125). He asserted that the grace of the Holy Spirit is accessible to all believers and advocated for abolishing the clergy-laity division (Jn 3:5; Rm 8:9, 14; Eph 5:18).

Prokhanov believed ordination was beneficial but not essential. He argued that unordained individuals should not be barred from performing baptisms and Communion, stressing that if unordained individuals are allowed to preach, they should also administer sacraments, as preaching holds even greater importance (Prokhanov 2009j:174-175).

Evangelical and Baptist approaches to Communion differ significantly. In evangelical practice, the presbyter breaks the bread into large pieces, and each member breaks off a small piece individually (Mitskevich 2007:223). In contrast, Baptists have the presbyter and assistants break the bread into small pieces before distribution. This reflects more democratic preferences among evangelicals and more hierarchical ones among Baptists. Prokhanov sought to distance himself from Orthodox traditions where the priest distributes grace.

Prokhanov advocated for expanding women's roles in the church, recognising societal conservatism. His brochure 'On the Service of Women in the Church' (2009k:231) was approved at the evangelical Christians' annual congress (ed. Prokhanov 1922c:10). While affirming women's primary roles as wives and mothers, Prokhanov argued against limiting them to these roles, recognising their diverse gifts (2009k:231). He allowed women to pray, prophesy and evangelise under male guidance, and serve as missionaries and deaconesses (Prokhanov 1910a:15, 2009k:235). Prokhanov emphasised women's equality with men before God (ed. Prokhanov 1922b:11; 2009l:92), highlighting their potential to foster spiritual and moral renewal in Russia (Prokhanov 1922b, 1922c:11). He encouraged women's active participation in evangelical organisations and provided them with leadership roles.¹ Women made significant contributions to congresses and spiritual publications.²

The house church concept promoted the priesthood of all believers, encouraging families to maintain regular prayers and Bible readings (ed. Prokhanov 1922a:7). Prokhanov developed a theology for ordinary people, focussing on the ethics of labour, where work becomes a joyful necessity and participation in God's renewing work (Prokhanov 1925a:4-23).

Thus, Prokhanov's views on the universal priesthood were likely linked to his vision of a transformed Russia. He believed that changing human hearts through the gospel's preaching was essential to reaching every person with the evangelical message. To achieve this, he argued that every believer should be empowered to communicate the gospel.

 

Mission as action in hope

Bosch offers a holistic integration of mission and eschatology, addressing the de-historicisation of Christian faith influenced by Hellenistic culture and modern developments. He also tackles issues of ecclesiocentrism and mystical eschatological views. This approach aims to restore a more historical and comprehensive understanding of Christian mission.

Historically, both Old and New Testament believers anticipated God's intervention for the complete redemption of creation (Lampe 1953:19; Wright 1952:24). However, the delay in the expected Parousia led to a shift towards spiritual interpretations, which emphasised the soul's union with the divine rather than focussing on bodily resurrection and the renewal of creation (Lampe 1953:20). This shift contributed to a broader divergence in eschatological thought.

Jewish moralism began to replace the hope for a heavenly kingdom, redirecting focus towards rewards for righteous living (Lampe 1953:20). Consequently, eschatological thought bifurcated: one strand saw the church as fulfilling past eschatological hopes, while the other anticipated eternal soul salvation. This divergence was reinforced by the Enlightenment's retreat into mystical concepts of salvation or a focus on ecclesiocentrism, where the church's role was seen as increasingly detached from public life (Bosch 2011:loc. 11784).

Bosch's model provides a balanced perspective by combining post-millenarian optimism - the belief that the world can be improved through the gospel, social progress and scientific advancements (Marsden 2006:49; Quandt 1973:391) - with pre-millenarian realism, which acknowledges that true perfection requires God's apocalyptic intervention (Bosch 2011:loc. 6767-6770; Stackhouse 1988:206). This model not only addresses personal sin through conversion, fostering reconciliation with God and hope for the future eschatological kingdom, but also emphasises the importance of tackling social sin through activism.

Bosch argues that evangelisation and social action are complementary rather than mutually exclusive. He notes that pre-Civil War evangelists often combined their commitment to abolition with their post-millennialist views and belief in a supernatural kingdom of God, addressing both public (structural) and private (individual) dimensions of sin (Bosch 2011:loc. 6770).

Ultimately, Bosch's belief in God's apocalyptic intervention serves as a motivation for active efforts to improve the world, promoting action driven by hope (Bosch 2011:loc. 11994; 12005).

Prokhanov's eschatological-missiological paradigm was also balanced and ahead of its time. He effectively addressed the de-historicisation of Christian faith influenced by Hellenistic culture and the Enlightenment, avoiding both ecclesiocentrism and mystical eschatological tendencies.

Prokhanov embraced the optimism of postmillennial American evangelicals from the mid-19th century, believing in the successful spread of the gospel and progress in science, technology, culture and society (Marsden 2006:49; Prokhanoff 1933:258; Prokhanov 1925a:21-23). He encouraged believers to pursue high-quality education and actively engage in societal development. His optimism was rooted in Christ's victory over darkness through the crucifixion and resurrection, as well as the historical transformation of Greco-Roman society through the gospel, which he saw as evidence of the gospel's power (Prokhanoff 1933:270).

In his social programme 'New or Evangelical Life' (1925a:4-23), Prokhanov envisioned a utopian future marked by ideal believers, families and societies, expecting a glorious transformation in Russia even before Christ's return (Kravtsev 2017:85). He believed that the global spread of the gospel would lead to Christ's millennial Kingdom (Prokhanov 1910a:18).

Despite this optimism, Prokhanov's preaching also included apocalyptic expectations. He anticipated a new heaven and earth, with believers resurrected in bodies similar to Christ's (Prokhanov 1910a:18-19; 2009m:97; 2009n:187). For Prokhanov, the future involved the transformation of the current world rather than an otherworldly paradise.

Prokhanov (1933:265) saw personal and societal sin as interconnected, with the mission of the All Russian Union of Evangelical Christian focussing on the spiritual and moral rebirth of individuals and society.

While he upheld conservative evangelical soteriology and opposed the liberal social gospel, he saw evangelism as both a means of securing eternal salvation and a tool for social change (Prokhanov 1928a:15).

Prokhanov (1910a, 2009g:25), ahead of his time, advocated for the church's active social role while emphasising the spiritual anticipation of eternal life and Christ's Second Coming. The prospect of Christ's apocalyptic return motivated him to pursue moral purity, active service and evangelism, closely aligning with premillennialist views (Prokhanov 1925b:45-46). However, for Prokhanov, evangelism served not only to secure eternal bliss but also as a catalyst for social transformation, with spiritual awakening pivotal in establishing a new social order (Prokhanov 1928a:15).

During the planning of the government-approved yet unrealised project 'City of the Gospel' or 'City of the Sun', disrupted by Stalin, Prokhanov penned the poem 'City of the Sun' (Prokhanov 1928b:15-16), envisioning an ideal future city as a present-day model. His eschatological beliefs thus inspired both evangelism and efforts towards social transformation.

Thus, in terms of eschatology, the thinking of Prokhanov and Bosch is remarkably similar.

 

Conclusion

Thus, as demonstrated in this article, at least 9 out of 13 elements of Bosch's Emerging Paradigm and Prokhanov's missiological thinking are similar. This raises the question: How can we explain such similarity in the positions of missiologists who lived in different historical eras? It can be suggested that the common thread in the missiological theology of Prokhanov and Bosch was their epistemological orientation towards the apostolic New Testament missiological tradition. Bosch's Emerging Paradigm is, to some extent, a restoration of the apostolic missiological paradigm as formulated by Matthew, Luke and Paul - a paradigm that was lost in the course of the historical development of missiological thought. However, verifying this hypothesis could be the subject of another study.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

J.J.K. conceptualised and supervised the study and contributed to the methodology and project administration.

D.L. conceptualised the study, contributed to the methodology, investigation, the writing of the original draft, resources and writing - review and editing.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Pretoria Research Committee: Faculty of Theology and Religion (No.T015/22).

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Johannes Knoetze
johannes.knoetze@up.ac.za

Received: 03 Sept. 2024
Accepted: 02 Oct. 2024
Published: 13 Nov. 2024

 

 

1. Bratskiy Listok No. 10 (1908):5, 6; Molodoy Vinogradnik No. 7 (1909):5.
2. Utrennyaya Zvezda No. 2 (1920):4; Khristianin No. 4 (1928):12-14; Khristianin No. 5 (1928):13-16.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Parenting, family guidance and spiritual education: Proverbs 1:8-9 and its wisdom ethos for children's moral development

 

 

Blessing O. Boloje^{I, II}

^IDepartment of Religious Studies and Philosophy, Faculty of Arts, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria
^IIDepartment of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article seeks to provide a wisdom domain moral analysis of Proverbs 1:8-9 on the role of parents in conveying the significance of parental instruction and the development of wisdom in children. As a process through which young individuals acquire and cultivate essential qualities and values that shape their behavior and moral outlook, children character development encompasses various aspects, including moral, social, emotional, and cognitive dimensions, and it is influenced by a range of factors, including familial upbringing, social interactions, cultural influences, education, and personal experiences. Whilst the origin of parents as agents of moral guardian is not explicitly stated in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament (HB/OT), Proverbs 1:8-9 is one of those key passages whose themes underscore the profound significance of family structure and system, and parental responsibility. The verses highlight the spiritual and moral dimensions of family life, promoting a sense of dignity, submission, and personal development within the context of a supportive family structure. The incisive prescriptions of the text offer a journey into self-understanding, self-development, and self-actualization, by reaffirming the family as a pivotal social institution while balancing the roles and responsibilities of parents and children.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article brings together biblical and theological insights from the parental rhetoric of Proverbs 1:8-9 to bear on and help shape the oversight function of parents as agents of children moral development and healthy family life. The verses bridge spiritual wisdom with scientific understanding, presenting a holistic view of how a child grows intellectually, emotionally, and morally

Keywords: Proverbs 1:8-9; parent-child relation; family ethics; wisdom; character development; children; parental rhetoric.

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Introduction

The significance of children in family life is immense and cannot be overstated. They are crucial to the family unit, offering fathers heirs to continue the family lineage and mothers, sociocultural validation (Steinberg 2022:176). They are essential to the survival of the household; they are a gift from Yahweh and their absence creates concerns. Their presence in the household is highlighted by Perdue (1997a:182) when he remarked that, '… they provided their households, including their mothers, both economic security and social status'. Consequently, societies place great importance on raising and educating children with strong moral values. Parent-child relationship is at the heart of family ethics that turns out to be a broad interdisciplinary field in family research with collaborative efforts from experts in religion, family law, psychologists, sociologists and educationalists, philosophers and political scientists (Schaafsma 2023:48; Valavi, Soleimani & Moghadam 2022:1). In both the field of educational sciences and psychology, several factors are recognised as basic influencers and promoters of the personality formation and moral and social characteristics of children. While environmental factors are recognised as important to the process, from the perspective of psychologist and sociologist, the family is considered to be the most important environment for developing value, influencing human space and relationship (cf. Becker & Epstein 1993:85; Eisenberg, Fabes & Losoya 1997:129-131). Within Ancient Israelite society, an established family network provided stability and inclusion for children who are especially on the fringes of society (Perdue 1997a:182; cf. Perdue 1997b:223-258).

Children's character development is a process through which young individuals acquire and cultivate essential qualities, traits and values that shape their behaviour, attitudes and moral outlook, as they grow in life. The process itself encompasses various aspects, including moral, social, emotional and cognitive dimensions, and it is influenced by a range of factors, including familial upbringing, social interactions, cultural influences, education and personal experiences. In view of the fact that healthy family dynamics reflect marriage and parenthood that reveal God's character, and where children experience God's love and learn to love others, this article provides a wisdom domain moral analysis of Proverbs 1:8-9 on the role of parents in conveying the significance of parental instruction and the development of wisdom in children and sustainable family life.

Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 emphasises the importance of parental guidance, attentive listening and the value of family teachings in shaping a person's character and fostering wisdom. The verses highlight the spiritual and moral dimensions of family life, promoting a sense of honour, obedience and personal development within the context of a supportive family structure. Following this brief introduction, that article examines the place of parents as children's agents of moral guardian and development and continues with an analysis of Proverbs 1:8-9 and its moral wisdom. The wisdom ethos of the text that serves as drivers of children moral deployment and sustainable healthy family life concludes the Biblical, literary and theological exploration. Consequently, the verses bridge spiritual wisdom with scientific understanding, presenting a holistic view of how a child grows intellectually, emotionally and morally.

 

Parents as agents of moral guardian and development

Parent-child relationship is an essential aspect of family, which is tied to marriage pair, and which may be absent from some marriage partners. The fundamental issue is the understanding of needs and reciprocity of roles and responsibility; that is, what children, parents and partners need and how and whether these needs can be satisfied in the family setting. Essentially pivotal to the discussion of the role of parents as agents of children's moral guardian and development is the understanding of the notion of family in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament (HB/OT), and what moral status means, those who have moral status and who moral agents are.

Within the category of the HB/OT family discourse is one that is pervasive, as it serves as a central component of the patriarchal society of ancient Israel. In its broader cultural and theological context, the HB/OT offers insight into the pivotal role of family and families in shaping the moral development of their children and fostering social growth. Its kinship networks, emerging bonds between people, shared blood, collective lives and common destiny, form an integral aspect of its story. 'Household' or 'family' in scripture reflects a richness of meaning … It is a metaphor for YHWH's relationship with Israel and a vehicle of grace for human beings (Dearman 1998:117).

Family is regarded as an essential aspect of life that inspires or influences people's chances of development, physical and mental well-being, socio-economic status and so forth (Dutcher-Walls 2009:1-2; Schaafsma 2023:39; Wells 1987:51-52). The key term that is related to families, from the perspective of Israel's social life, 'the father's house' [בֵית אַב], functioned as a basic kinship unit consisting of, 'the father, his wife or wives and their unmarried children but also their married sons with their wives and children, and the servants' (De Vaux 1961:8). This kinship structure was not limited by strict family relationship or blood but included other categories of individuals (cf. Meyers 1997:17). The vital, yet distinct roles of fathers and mothers help in ensuring not only biological but also cultural and economic survival of their families (Albertz & Schmitt 2012:11, 21). From a structural perspective, therefore, one can say that the family was 'multigenerational (up to four generations) and included the social arrangement of several families, related by blood and marriage, who lived in two or three houses architecturally connected' (Perdue 1997a:175; cf. Perdue 1997b:223-258). The father's primary responsibility was to give proper education to sons, by ensuring that they develop morally, religiously and socially, while the focus for girls was primarily domestic, that is the life of the home. While the boys were well educated and equipped for war, the education of girls was focused mainly on preparation for marriage (Collins 1997:141-142).

On the other hand, the expression 'moral status' is an ethical and philosophical concept that refers to the degree to which an entity is eligible for moral consideration. According to Cutas and Smajdor (Cutas & Smajdor 2017; cf. Warren 1997):

[T]o have moral status is to be morally considerable, or to have moral standing. It is to be an entity towards which moral agents have, or can have, moral obligations. (pp. 6-7; p. 3)

The moral status of an entity has profound implications for how they are treated. As agents of children's moral guardian and development, parents have moral duties of instruction, protection, care and advocacy, development of empathy and conscience and helping them to learn how they ought to relate to others (Berkowitz & Grych 2006:371; Smetana 1999:312).

While morality can be constructed from reciprocal social interactions such as peer contexts of children, the parents' specific domain, where both cognitive and affective components of interactions with their children are negotiated, most probably enhance and facilitate children's moral development (Smetana 1999:311; cf. Sarukhani 1991:77). According to Smetana (1999:319), children's moral development most certainly originates from interaction with peers and siblings; however, parents underscore and strengthen the lessons that are constructed from such interactive engagements. Thus, parents are important and sit at the heart of children's moral development and welfare, by virtue of their active, affective and extensive relationship and interaction history. Through their emotional attachment and understanding of sources of children's social experiences that may lead to the construction of different moral concepts, at different stages of their life, parents work towards prohibition of certain actions, providing instructions, and responding to wrongdoings that facilitate moral development (Smetana 1999:319).

In their study on 'the moral status of children: children's rights, parents' rights, and family justice', Brennan and Noggle (1997:1) provide philosophical underpinning for rationalising children's moral status. They highlighted certain claims that constitute an appealing reasonable understanding of children's moral status, such as equal treatment of children like adults, different treatment from adults and limited authority of parents over the direct upbringing of their children (Brennan & Noggle 1997:2). The last claim, which is the legitimacy of the role of parents towards the upbringing of their children, is given attention here. Brennan and Noggle (1997:4) hold that children have limited cognitive power which makes them vulnerable in decision making, regarding their interests and furtherance of such choices. The physical, mental, healthy and emotional development of children requires that someone exercises an oversight function of nurture and protection and the authority to exercise informed judgement on a daily basis. Given the reality of children's vulnerability, it seems most natural to assign parents this oversight function. This oversight function invites reflection on the notion of stewardship that gives parents a complex moral status. Parents' role as stewards presents them with a set of duties toward their children, namely, obligation towards non-violation of children's right, preventing others from infringing on the rights of children and obligation to promote the interest of children (Brennan & Noggle 1997:12). The HB/OT offers an interesting perspective on this oversight function of parents as stewards.

While the origin of parents as agents of moral guardians of children is not explicitly stated in the HB/OT, one can look into a number of key passages and themes that underscore the profound significance of family structure and system, parental responsibility and the transference of religious and moral education from one generation to the other. Evidence from narrative examples, direct commands and larger cultural and theological context of the HB/OT presents parents as fundamental agents of moral guidance. The narrative account of Genesis 1 and 2 establishes the family as a fundamental social unit of human society by highlighting the creative mandate to the pair of Adam and Eve to be 'fruitful and multiply' (Gn 1:28). While the imperative is a comprehensive directive, it is interpreted as a mandate to procreate (i.e., having children), nurture and steward the earth with all of its resources faithfully and wisely. Genesis 2 continues the narrative account with the highpoint of social, ecological and spiritual embeddedness highlighted by the words 'bone of my bone', 'flesh of my flesh' and 'become one flesh' (vv. 23-24). Although these ideas have been taken to imply sexual union, in the Hebrew conception, they are actually applied to the joining of two families (Dearman 1998:119).

In Abraham, one sees the parental role of guiding his son, Isaac with the intriguing narrative of the Akedah [the binding of Isaac] in Genesis 22 that demonstrates faith, obedience and selfless devotion to YHWH's command and transferring covenantal promises and obligations. In 1 Samuel 1-2, the narrative of Hannah's plight, prayer, with the promise of dedicating her son that eventually materialised, justifies parents' moral responsibility of devotion to YHWH's concerns for their children. A third narrative example is the relationship of Jacob and his sons. In Genesis 49, Jacob is pictured as having warm interaction with his sons and offering them prayers. The narrative underscores the parental responsibility of guiding their children into their future.

Moving from these narrative examples, the HB/OT offers direct commands and practical teachings on parental guidance. In the Decalogue tradition (Ex 20:12; Dt 5:16), the explicit command: 'Honor your father and your mother' given in the context of parent-child relationship, implies, on the one hand, parents' role of education and modelling of moral principles that are praiseworthy and thus the respect and loyalty that children owe their parents, who are their primary spiritual and moral guides, on the other hand. The Shema (Dt 6:4-9), an essential article of faith in Judaism that serves as a basic text in the religious life of Jewish parents, highlights the continuous and pervasive role of parental instruction and education of their children in the ways of YHWH. Here one finds the role of parents as primary educators of the children in matters of faith and practice, modelling faithfulness through their wholehearted devotion to YHWH and transmission of the faith to future generation.

In the Wisdom Literature, particularly in the book of Proverbs, one finds an abundance of admonitions about the pivotal role of parents in shaping and instilling wisdom and discipline in their children. Two texts that illustrate parents' role of education and guidance are: 'Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it' (Pr 22:6) and 'Whoever spares the rod hates their children, but the one who loves their children is careful to discipline them' (Pr 13:24). As this article's focus is on parent-child relationship with limited focus on the wisdom ethos of Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 for family life, the focus in the following section would be to examine the richness of this parental rhetoric and wisdom portrait for children's moral development and growth.

 

Proverbs 1:8-9 and its parental rhetoric of moral wisdom

The book of Proverbs is one whose traditional didactic teachings are aimed at presenting wisdom in a clear and persuasive manner. Although its composition originates in the wisdom schools, the royal court, and of its training of scribes and princes, with contributions from other authors, the collection of sayings and teachings are traditionally linked to the Israelite monarchy and thus mostly attributed to kings, especially Solomon (Pr 1:1; 10:1; 25:1; cf. 1 Kgs 3:5-9; 4:32)¹ (Albertz 1994:512; Hess 2016:459; Kynes 2015:20-23). Structurally, the first nine chapters (chapters 1-9) creatively put together cosmic images from Israel's mythical worldview and parental instruction (cf. Longman III 2002:42). While chapters 10-29 cover the bulk of the private sayings whose role is to work out the wisdom worldview in the particularities of life, chapters 30-31 bring the book to a close by combining cosmic themes with timely and local particularity (O'Dawd 2009:113-114).

The cosmic and practical dimension of wisdom orientation in Proverbs that is typical in the Ancient Near East (ANE) (Estes 1997:21-22)² is a worldview that is grounded in a 'Yahwistic theology' (O'Dawd 2009:118-121). According to Routledge (2008:220), 'True wisdom is possessed by and proceeds from God, and may only be properly discovered by those who know God'. While its theological language may have become more or less explicit in different genres and epochs, wisdom in the HB/OT was theologically grounded. Its form of instruction is not incompatible with the law and the prophets but meaningfully corresponds to the rest of the biblical texts (Estes 1997:22).

The author identifies and situates the book's purpose as a matter of acquiring wisdom and leading an ethical life. The syntagm phrase ירְִאַת יהוָה [fear of Yahweh] (Prov 1:7, 29; 2:5; 8:13; 10:27; 14:27; 15:33; 19:23; 22:4; 31:30),³ which complements a theology of creation (Prov 3:18-20) and is creatively situated at important structural transitions to order wisdom and direct it within theological boundaries. It serves as both the book's credo and its theological and epistemological foundation (O'Dawd 2009:114; cf. Waltke 2004:180). To understand Proverb's wisdom worldview, Bricker (1995) contends, one must understand the:

[T]wo ways' concept used to teach the importance of choosing wisely which path or lifestyle would be followed: the path of the wise and righteous, or the way of the foolish and wicked. (p. 500)

Proverbs focuses on practical wisdom and moral conduct, by providing practical advice for everyday living. It addresses various aspects of life, including relationships, work, speech and decision-making. Its artistic portrayal of wisdom that lays the ground for the moral order in the created order invites readers to embrace its worldview as a foundation for learning wisdom. According to Estes (1997):

Because Yahweh alone fashioned the world, all of life proceeds from him. Yahweh, then, is the foundational authority for the whole ethical system of wisdom. The creative order mandates that the proper stance for humans is humble submission to the ethical demands of the just God, rather than arrogant insistence on choosing their own way independent of the Lord who made them. (p. 36)

Proverbs welcomes its readers with a preliminary prologue and a theoretical foundation of its purpose in Proverbs 1 verses 1-7 (see Estes 1998:21; Murphy 1998:5). The verses introduce the Solomonic figure and the father's voice and thus authenticate the traditional wisdom significance of the book. According to O'Dawd (2009) the rhetoric of paternity that is expressed in the address to 'son' (Prov 1:8, cf. Prov 2:1; 3:1; 4:1; 5:1; 6:20):

[I]s a typical image for the social setting of wisdom instruction, imagining an audience of more than just boys. Verses 4-5 indicate more broadly that the book is directed to both the 'youth' (נער) and the 'wise' (חכם). (pp. 116-117)

In this way, all levels of readers are invited to join the path of wisdom, as the wise will increase in their wisdom and the youth will learn to value and seek wisdom to move on to a new level of growth, maturity and development.

Having enticed his readers and/or audience to embark on the journey of wisdom (Prov 1:1-6), Solomon invites them to pay attention to the fundamental laws of morality. To make young people attain knowledge and discretion, they are made to first worship YHWH, by making Him their supreme object of devotion (Prov 1:7; cf. Ross 1991:907) and honouring their parents, by regarding them as their superiors (Prov 1:8-9).⁴ An analysis of the rhetoric of paternity in these verses (vv. 8-9) is undertaken here to highlight several key components of the wisdom-moral domain of Proverbs.

In the rhetoric of paternity, the exhortation בְּנִי 'my son' (Prov 1:8)⁵ heads the threefold structure of Proverbs 1 verses 8-19 (cf. Prov 1:8, 10, and 15). Whilst verses 8-9 are a poetically firm admonition, they however fit together with the exhortation in 1:10-19. The clear difference in these admonitions is the interference of persons, between the instruction of parents and the voice of evildoers, on the one hand, and the relationship between the content of verses 9 and 19. In verse 9, the teacher describes invincible material gain (education confers grace and success) in the manner of positive inspiration for the student of wisdom. This description is radically opposed to verse 19 that has negative incentive (the desire for gain leads to death). The rhetoric of 1 verses 8-19 is intended to instruct and guide individuals of all classes and epochs to follow the path of wisdom and stay away from foolishness (Hale 2007928).

Interestingly, Clements (1992:126-150) has strongly emphasised the importance of the household, highlighting it both as a setting for teaching and learning and as a subject of instruction. According to him, wisdom teaching had its setting within the family or clan, where parents, elders and otherwise individuals shared their worldly experiences and imparted wisdom to each succeeding generation. The details of instruction included lessons on family responsibilities, the value of hard work and the folly of laziness (Routledge 2008:217). The fundamental assumption is that humans learn from experience, and such knowledge, when imparted can be conveyed through the writings of Wisdom literature (Crenshaw 2010:11).

The form of the admonition, בְּנִי [my son] (Prov 1:8), characterises, on the one hand, the mentorship relationship between the wisdom teacher and wisdom student (cf. Qoh 12:12); thus the fatherly responsibility of instruction that he assumes towards his young and inexperienced children and the establishment of the authenticity and authority of the teaching he intends to give them, on the other hand (Clifford 1999:39). Here, Solomon authenticates the paternal authority and affection, so as to make his students (children) more attentive and responsive.

The introductory imperative שְׁמַע [hear] is akin to Deuteronomistic שְׁמַע ישְִׂרָאֵל [hear Israel] (Dt 6:4-7) and of its teaching concept (Dt 6:6-9), where Israel is required to transfer YHWH's commandment to 'your sons' [לְבָנֶיךָ]. The father's call to his son is an exhortation aimed at stimulating the son's intellectual capacity to intelligently discern and rightfully make sound judgement in moral, religious and psychological matters (Goldingay 2016:326). In verse 8a, מוּסַר is not associated with מִצְוָה [command, commandment] (cf. Prov 6:20a) but with 'correction', 'chastisement', 'discipline' or 'education'. מוּסַר assumes a prominent place in the journey of wisdom (Prov 1:1-7), especially verses 2, 3 and 7 as it represents a concept of an imperative instruction, if and when associated with שֵׁבטֶ [the rod] (Prov 22:15; cf. 10:13; 13:24).

In the second half of verse 8, וְאַל־תִטֹשׁ תּוֹרַת אִמֶּךָ [and do not ever neglect your mother's teaching], the fundamental meaning of נטַָשׁ [neglect, reject or forsake] is tied to תּוֹרַת [Torah] of the mother. This is indicative of instruction usually given by wisdom (cf. Prov 31:1-9). Here the diligence of mothers in imparting instruction provokes their involvement in the nurturing process of children. In Proverbs, תּוֹרָה is used essentially as a guide to life and life's directions. Where its appearance and usage are definite (cf. Prov 28:9; 29:18), it is interpreted to mean the divine law (a Jewish term applicable to the Pentateuch). Here, תּוֹרַת אִמֶּךָ [your mother's law 'Torah'](Prov 1:8b) refers to the insightful, sensitive maxims and home teachings, which the mother imparts orally to her son, based on the divine law but distinguishable from it (Kidner 1975:63). Thus, a mother's תּוֹרַת must be the right application of YHWH's תּוֹרָה. By using his childhood experience to teach his children (students), and to pay attention to parental instruction, Solomon makes clear that parents have it as their moral duty to discipline their children and of warning them to be careful of relationships that will negatively affect them. The proper application of YHWH's תּוֹרָה to their children's upbringing will develop into a fundamental principle and fabric of their life's orientation and direction.

Proverbs 1:9 invokes the consequence of compliance to the father's מוּסַר [discipline] and the mother's תּוֹרַת [instruction]namely, 'crown of graceful wreath upon your head, and ornaments of gold around your neck'. The metaphor of discipline and instruction are לִוְיַת חֵן [crown of grace] (cf.Pr 4:9) and עֲנָקִים [ornaments] on the head and neck of the obedient child. Typical of Israelite's orientation, no emblem or insignia of honour and glory were held in high esteem than 'crown of graceful wreath upon the head, and ornaments of gold around the neck' by which kings and their favourites are adorned (cf. Gn 41:42; Jdg 8:26; Dn 5:29). These metaphors of ornamentation and honour suggest that the wisdom and moral instructions imparted to children through their parents are not burdensome but rather, they are embodiments of honour and a source of dignity and enhancement of reputation and development of character. When parental disciplinary measures and instructions are obeyed, it will render them acceptable and honourable before YHWH and man. Conversely, forsaking such discipline and moral instruction will thrust them into the realm of contempt and misery.

 

Wisdom ethos for children's moral deployment and healthy family life

Although Scripture is, in many ways, an unlikely source for a 21st century ethic of family life, it, however, contains a vision for family, which can help to sustain commitment when family life becomes tough. The HB/OT clearly presents parents as the primary agents responsible for the moral and spiritual development of their children through direct instruction, exemplary living and the faithful transmission of covenantal values and teachings. This responsibility is woven into the fabric of many Old Testament commands, narratives and the broader theological framework, emphasising the crucial role of parents in guiding their children towards a righteous and God-fearing life. What ethical deductions do reflection on Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 offer its readers within the context of a supportive family structure and children moral deployment? According to Delitzsch (1950), Proverb's wisdom is:

Designed to state that the life which springs from the doctrine of the wise man, as from the fountain of health, for the disciple who will receive it, communicates to him knowledge and strength, to know where the snares of destruction lie, and to hasten with vigorous steps away when they threaten to entangle him. (p. 279)

The hermeneutical function of the parental rhetoric of Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 indicates that the discipline and admonitions of the pair of father and mother in a supportive family structure are fundamental for healthy development and viable living of their children. The combinatory role of father and mother in the text serves as a testament to the fundamental place and role of mothers in ancient Hebrew family structure. This role was relatively remarkable in light of ancient Near Eastern cultures.⁶

Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 underscores that the genuine, authentic voice of spiritual experience and modelling of parents conducted in compliance with YHWH's תּוֹרָה in ways of wisdom and virtue, do certainly embellish the moral character of children (Kinder1975:103). The enticing capacity of the metaphors in Proverbs 1:8-9 is an important component of the proverbial worldview and essential to the understanding of its wisdom-moral domain. Characteristically embedded in the parent-child relation is the call to obedience that connects with ethical living. This call incorporates the role of parents as teachers, the curriculum and process of instruction, expectation from children (learners) and the values and goals of education (Estes 1997:13-14). The text embodies ethical behaviours, sound judgement and devotion to moral principles.

The prescriptions of the text imagine and advance a parents' domain proposition that is basic and appropriate to the development and promotion of children's moral understanding in social relations. Such proposition should stimulate parents' optimistic role and responsibility in children's moral development, by being embodiments of values and communicating the same in ways and manners that are agreeable to their mode of comprehension (Smetana 1999:319). The wisdom ethos of the text encourages a family framework where parents are expected to create, develop and nurture a value driven and reverential environment, where their wisdom and education are held in high esteem, with the ultimate goal of furthering their children's well-being and holistic development.

The parent-child relationship of Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 strengthens the formation of moral values, as it provides a secure attachment for children with a sense of safety and confidence, allowing them to explore and learn from their environment. This is fundamental to developing self-regulation, empathy and moral reasoning. Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 resonates strongly with key concepts in human development sciences, such as secure attachment, moral development, sociocultural learning and self-regulation. Both frameworks emphasise the foundational role of early influences in shaping a well rounded, morally grounded and successful individual.

The moral nature of parenting for honour and dignity as Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 presents, places a burden not only on parents to live up to the expectations of their responsibility but also on children to imbibe by deliberate choice the admonitions and discipline of their parents. While the text does not explicitly refer to spirituality, its emphasis on listening and obedience could be regarded as part of a broader spiritual education, which in many religious interpretations, is considered as a fundamental role of parents in imparting moral and spiritual values to their children. Although there are contexts where children's interest in autonomy limits parents' moral responsibility of shaping their children's values, Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 offers a journey into self-understanding, self-development and self-actualisation, by reaffirming the family as a pivotal social institution while balancing the roles and responsibilities of parents and children. Thus parent-child relationship, when properly developed and nurtured holds the capacity for fostering a healthy, viable and stable family and society, anchored on sustainable values that can be transferred across generations.

 

Conclusion

Moral education does not only enrich individuals within family units but the moral health of society generally depends on it. This article reveals that parenting for honour and dignity requires a unified family structure where parents model ethical values, providing appropriate education, guidance and discipline for their children. The verses bridge spiritual wisdom with scientific understanding, presenting a holistic view of how a child grows intellectually, emotionally and morally. In line with principles of educational psychology, the parental instruction and teaching highlighted in Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 reflects a child's early cognitive and emotional development that modern education considers crucial for academic success and personal growth. Children are vulnerable in social settings if they are not properly nurtured into desired and appropriate ways of life. Thus, the ethical prescriptions of the parental rhetoric of Proverbs 1 verses 8-9 are ways of transmitting faith, inspiring children's towards growth and development and shaping their spiritual, moral and social imagination.

 

Acknowledgements

This research article is a revised version of the paper presented at the International meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature held at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands from 28.7-1.8.2024. It forms part of the author, B.O.B.'s, current research project on 'Family in Ancient Israel' at Ruhr University, Bochum.

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.

Author's contribution

B.O.B. is the sole author of this research article.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Ethical considerations

This article does not contain any studies involving human participants performed by any of the authors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Steinberg, N.A., 2022, 'Family, clan, and tribe in the Book of Genesis', in B.T. Arnold (ed.), The Cambridge companion to Genesis, pp. 168-187, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.         [ Links ]

Steinmann, A.E., 2000, 'Proverbs 1-9 as a Solomonic composition', Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43(4), 660-674.         [ Links ]

Stol, M., 2016, Women in the Ancient Near East, transl. H. Richardson & M. Richardson, Walter de Gruyter Inc., Boston, MA.         [ Links ]

Valavi, P., Soleimani, H.N. & Moghadam, S.M., 2022, 'The lived experience of parents from educating morality to their children Phenomenological study', Journal of Education and Health Promotion 11(1), 354. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_1053_21        [ Links ]

Waltke, B.K., 2004, The Book of Proverbs Chapters 1-15, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Warren, M.A., 1997, Moral status: Obligations to persons and other living things, Clarendon Press, Oxford.         [ Links ]

Wells, R.C., 1987, 'The subtle crises of secularism: Preaching the burden of Israel', Creswell Theological Review 2(1), 39-61.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Blessing Boloje
pstbobson@yahoo.co.uk

Received: 22 Aug. 2024
Accepted: 16 Oct. 2024
Published: 15 Nov. 2024

 

 

1. A number of critical scholars believe that these chapters originated during the exilic and postexilic periods, attributing little or no contribution to Solomon in their composition. However, Steinmann (2000:660-674) defended the Solomonic authorship of chapters 1-9 in his article, 'Proverbs 1-9 As a Solomonic Composition'.
2. Among Israel's religious neighbours were Egypt and Mesopotamia. Their speculative reflections and discussions of some of life's difficult issues, such as the problem of evil and the meaning of life find expression in the HB/OT (see Murphy 1992:928; cf. Arnold & Beyer 2002:175-179).
3. O'Dawd (2009:117) notes that, 'The phrase occurs fourteen times in Proverbs and directly qualifies wisdom at three structural transitions (1:7; 9:10; 15:33)'.
4. Although this article chooses verses 8-9 as its primary focus, the twofold reference to בְּנִי in verses 10-19 (cf. vv. 10, 15) indicates that verses 8-9 cannot be interpreted independently.
5. This form of address is commonly used by wisdom teachers to mark their superintendence, affection, and fatherly care and interest over their students. The form is common in the opening chapters of Proverbs (cf. 2:1; 4:10, 20; 5:1; 6:1; 7:1) and reappears again in the closing chapters (23:15, 19, 26; 24:13, 21; 27:11). In Proverbs 31 verse 2, the mother of Lemuel uses it in the strict sense of parental responsibility.
6. See Stol (2016:339-390) for women's role in and outside the home, in the highly researched volume on Women in the Ancient Near East, trans., Helen Richardson and Mervyn Richardson.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

'Forget your people and your father's house' (Ps 45:11): The Hebrew Bible, marriage rites and spousal abuse in contemporary Ghana

 

 

Michael K. Mensah^{I, II}; Comfort Max-Wirth^I; Alexander Salakpi^I

^IDepartment for the Study of Religions, College of Humanities, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
^IIDepartment of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Spousal abuse is one of the foremost threats to peaceful coexistence in families the world over. In Ghana, stakeholders, particularly Christian leaders, have raised concerns about the increasing violence associated with spousal abuse, which sometimes results in the death of victims. Although both men and women suffer abuse in marriages, those meted out to women are prevalent. While substantial effort has been made by biblical scholars to discuss these problems in the light of the New Testament teachings on marriage, a gap still remains on what light the Hebrew Bible could shed on these matters. This article, using the distinctive interest approach of African biblical hermeneutics, examines Psalm 45 as a text of Hebrew Poetry intended to accompany the marriage ritual. It argues that the portrayal of the bride and groom, and the admonitions offered in the psalm contain some of the same disturbing elements present in contemporary Ghanaian marriage celebrations, elements that engender spousal abuse. The article proposes both a theological and cultural review of these elements as a way of attenuating their combined negative effect on the marriage institution in contemporary Ghana.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This brings African biblical hermeneutics into dialogue with issues in gender studies, World Christianity, Pastoral Theology and the Exegesis of the Hebrew Psalter

Keywords: African biblical hermeneutics; Ghana; Psalm 45; marriage rites; spousal abuse.

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Introduction

Spousal abuse is a phenomenon both of historical and global dimensions. In Ghana, increasing media reports on the murder of spouses, particularly women, have drawn the attention of both the Church and academia to the problem. The Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS) report in 2022 indicates that two in every five (41.6%) women aged 15-49 years who have ever had an intimate partner have experienced at least one form of intimate partner violence (IPV), that is, emotional, physical or sexual violence. In all, 35.2% had experienced emotional violence at least once, 22.7% had experienced physical violence at least once, and 11.2% had experienced sexual violence at least once (Ghana Statistical Service 2024:357-363).

The reason for the soaring figures has been sought in various domains. Adinkrah observes how sexual jealousy and suspected infidelity are often the cause of violence in marriage (Adinkrah 2008:209-216; Adjei 2016:411). Cultural factors have also been blamed for the state of affairs. Adjei observes how normative discourses and practices provide tacit support for spousal violence in Ghana (Adjei 2015:1). Others have, however, sought to interrogate the interpretation or misinterpretation of some New Testament texts, particularly Paul's injunction to women to submit to their husbands (Eph 5:22), as contributing to the problem (Rordorf 1969:196). Such interpretations arise both within the context of the celebration of the marriage ritual, that is, during church wedding ceremonies, or even at contemporary traditional marriage celebrations, which today are often officiated by pastors, and in the pre-marital counselling sessions.

What perhaps has not been emphasised sufficiently is the contribution of Old Testament biblical texts especially the Hebrew Psalter, and the nuances that these texts bring to the discussion. We choose Psalm 45 as an example of a text which arguably presents a Hebrew marriage ritual. Our choice of the text is based on two reasons. Firstly, this text, as we shall seek to demonstrate describes the marriage ritual with deeply gendered categories. Secondly, the text intersects strongly with traditional Ghanaian worldviews about marriage. And thirdly, this text remains part of the Christian tradition of the marriage ritual. Our purpose would be to call attention to the need for a nuanced interpretation of biblical texts in the Ghanaian Christian experience as a means to engage the complex world of spousal violence and abuse. The study will thus proceed in three main steps: A canonical exegetical study of Psalm 45; a discussion of the contemporary practice of marriage in relation to spousal abuse; and finally, the implications of reading Psalm 45 within the contemporary Ghanaian Christian context.

 

Methodological considerations: African biblical hermeneutics

The argument for rigorous scholarship in the interpretation of the Bible which also addresses the existential issues faced by African peoples on the continent and in the diaspora, is what led to the growth of what has come to be defined as African biblical hermeneutics (Gatti 2017:47). This was because of the admission that the prevailing Western ideo-theological and ecclesio-theological approaches to the study of the Bible were ill-equipped to transform the life of the African reader of the sacred text. While some scholars warn against an 'exaggerated emphasis' on the contextual dimension of African biblical hermeneutics, because of its potential of 'suffocating the Word' (Ossom-Batsa 2007:100), other scholars like Adamo have defended the methods adopted by African biblical scholars arguing that there is no such thing as a hundred per cent objectivity, and anyone who interprets 'tends to bring his or her own bias to bear, consciously or unconsciously' to the text (Adamo 2015:33; Nsiah 2018:31-43).

Particularly relevant to this study are the contributions of scholars like Masenya (1997:439-448), who through her Bosadi approach to biblical interpretation has underscored the need for sensitivity to gender dynamics in the reading of scriptures. For this reason, she argues for women to embrace this book, that is, the Bible, 'as their treasure and use it for their liberation' (Masenya 1997:448). Similarly, Mtshiselwa (2016:8) takes the view that 'it is indeed possible to read ancient texts in favour of the oppressed', thus advocating liberation hermeneutics as an approach which serves the needs of the African reader. These approaches represent important attempts to ensure that the reading of the biblical text goes beyond an exercise in literary or historical analysis and contributes positively to the transformation of the African continent (Mensah 2023:1-2).

The need to find epistemological pathways located within the African experience, for engaging the biblical text, is what undergirds our choice of this method. As Kubai (2023) puts it, 'no one enters his house through another person's door'. African biblical hermeneutics, particularly the Distinct Interest Approach (Adamo 2015:45), is suited for engaging both the religious and social dimensions of the problem of spousal abuse, by interrogating the biblical text, and bringing it into conversation with the existential reality of the Ghanaian context. This involves both conducting a structural and literary analysis of the Hebrew Psalter, as well as an exegesis of the Ghanaian social context in which the interpreters live and work.

 

Conceptualising spousal abuse

The UN defines spousal abuse, also known as 'intimate partner violence', as a pattern of 'behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner' (United Nations n.d.). While cases of men as victims of such abuse can be attested, the overwhelming majority of cases of abuse find women as the victims. The most enigmatic issue relating to this global health phenomenon is the reason why victims stay in such relationships. Several theories ranging from depression to personality disorders have been proposed to explain the phenomenon. Similarly, cultural values and ideological framing have been blamed for the inability of women to disengage from abusive relationships. Adjei and Mpiani argue that perpetrators construct husbands' conjugal authority over their wives in terms of 'prescriptive religious norms' (Adjei & Mpiani 2022:1). The result is that such religious narratives become complicit in the dehumanisation of women in such relationships and emerge as tools for gender discrimination in contemporary Ghanaian society.

 

Premarital admonitions and marriage rites in Psalm 45

Psalm 45 has widely been considered by commentators as a psalm composed for marriage (Gaster 1955:239; Postell 2019:146). Problems, however, arise with the conception of the king in the psalm. Proposals range from the identification of the king as a particular historical King of Israel, such as Ahab or even Solomon (Attard 2018:464), on the one hand, to any ordinary person on the other, based on Gaster's observation that the language of royalty was often ascribed to any bridal couple in the Ancient Near Eastern cultures (Gaster 1955:239).

Other scholars have raised other concerns in the psalm. These include problems related to the identity of the figure referred to as שגל in v. 10 (Blankesteijn 2022:4); and the problem of the near-divine characterisation of the King in the Psalm (Blankesteijn 2022:2). Meanwhile, early Church Fathers, such as Augustine and Jerome have read the psalm as an image of the spousal relationship between Christ and his Church (Hunter 2000:285). Our discussion here will focus on the gender-constructed relations between the spouse and his bride in the psalm.

 

The structure of Psalm 45

There appears to be quite a general consensus among scholars on the structure of Psalm 45 as being divided into two main strophes (vv. 2-10; 11-16), preceded by an introduction (v. 1) and a conclusion (vv. 17-18) (Blankesteijn 2022:9; DeClaissé-Walford, Jacobson & Tanner 2014:loc. 403; Van der Lugt 2010:36). Slight variations however occur. Kraus (2003:493), for instance, argues for the beginning of the second strophe in v. 10, citing the beginning of the marriage ritual. Postell (2019:148) argues based on a movement of location from the battlefield (vv. 2-5) to the palace (vv. 6-16) as constituting the main strophes of the psalm.

There is however good reason to retain the division, vv. 2-10; 11-16. Strophe I (vv. 2-10) is morphologically marked by the repeated use of the 2nd masculine singular suffix. The sudden shift to the 2nd feminine singular suffix in vv. 11-15 is remarkable, with the masculine suffix only returning in the conclusion (vv. 17-18). This is also underlined by the repeated use of the 2nd feminine singular imperative in vv. 11-12 which does not appear in any other part of the psalm. This interplay between the address to the spouse king (vv. 2-10) and the daughter bride (vv. 11-16) results in a gendered structure of the Psalm, as illustrated in Table 1.

 

 

Psalm 45 is thus divided into two strophes. Strophe I (vv. 1-10) begins with the introduction (v. 1) and continues with the discourse on the spouse-king (vv. 2-10). Strophe II begins with the discourse on the daughter-bride (vv. 11-16) and ends with the conclusion (vv. 17-18).

 

Strophe I (vv. 2-10): The portrait of the spouse king [מלך]

Strophe I (vv. 2-10) sketches the portrait of the spouse king. Key to this portrait is the use of the term גבור to describe the spouse. The term is usually translated as hero. Kühlewein (1997:415) asserts that the term is used for a war hero or a person who is accomplished militarily (Jos 6:2; 10:7; 2 Sm 17:8; 2 Ki 24:16). It is also used for a person considered to be capable (1 Sm 9:1) or generally of good social standing. In Ps 112, it is used to refer to the wealthy but generous man (Kühlewein 1997:415). Kosmala (1975:374) emphasises that the term is neutrally nuanced and could equally refer to anyone who distinguishes himself in any way, whether as exceptional in drinking strong wine (Is 5:22) or in violence and wickedness (Ps 52:3-5; 120:2-4). The characterisation of the spouse as גבור is thus quite ambiguous.

The bellicose image of the spouse king is thus clear in Psalm 45. He bears a sword (v. 3); rides a steed (v. 4), shoots arrows (v. 5) and is victorious against his foes (v. 5). This bellicose image is juxtaposed with the image of a handsome-looking king (v. 2), an expression used to characterise the attractive young Joseph (Gn 39:6), the young David (1 Sm 16:12) and Absalom (2 Sm 14:25) (Postell 2019:149). His wealth is seen in his use of cosmetics such as myrrh, aloes and cassia (Can 4:14; Pr 7:17), and lives in a luxurious ivory palace amidst the playing of musical instruments while being attended by a harem of women (Blankesteijn 2022:4; Van der Lugt 2010:40). The spouse king is also a father of sons (v. 17), the founder of a dynasty and an ancestor whose name is not forgotten (Kraus 2003:493).

 

Strophe IIa (vv. 11-16): The portrait of the daughter-bride

The characterisation of the daughter-bride is achieved in strophe II by reference to three concepts: her age or youth, her appearance and her agency. Firstly, Haag (1975:333-334) notes that the term בת [daughter] as used in the Hebrew Bible both refers to the female child (Gn 11:29; 19:8; Ex 3:5) or a young woman in the broad sense (Gn 24:13). The daughter was often esteemed to be of less value than the son (Job 1:2; 42:13). The father had the authority to dispose of her and in the case of marriage exacted a bride price for her (Gn 29:15-30). Hossfeld and Zenger (1993:283), however, point out that the primary emphasis of the term בת related more to the sense of her youth. This is further reinforced in verse 15 by the introduction of the term בתולה [virgin] which also bears the nuance of a young woman (Tsevat 1975:341).

Secondly, the concept used to characterise the daughter-bride is her physical appearance. Strophe II refers to her beauty as the focus of the king's desire (v. 14). The objectification of the young woman is further reinforced by the reference to her apparel and her coif.

Thirdly, and perhaps more importantly, is the question of agency. The use of the passive, in the wedding cortege is noteworthy. In verse 14, she is decked by unnamed agents with all the garments and cosmetics; moreover, she is led [תובל] to the spouse. The bride's diminished agency at least raises questions about whether she engages the spouse willingly or out of duty to her family, given the string of imperatives in v. 11. Moreover, the use of the verb יבל in v. 15 poses further problems. Hoffner (1986:366) points out that the verb comprises a second semantic component, which involves the offering of gifts or tributes to a superior to obtain his favour. The mention of the gift [מנחה] brought by the people of Tyre mentioned in v. 13 thus raises questions about whether the bride is not considered a part of the tribute being offered to the king. Whether this is precisely the case or not, the language in the strophe suggests a certain offering of the daughter-bride as an offering which seeks to please her rich and powerful male spouse.

 

Gendered roles and premarital admonitions in Psalm 45

Two important pre-marital admonitions are given to the daughter-bride in Psalm 45. The first concerns the need for the bride to forget her father's house (v. 11) while the second requires her to 'pay homage to him' (v. 12b). The admonitions presuppose certain gender-structured relationships between the daughter-bride and her male counterparts are the next to be examined.

 

Forget your father's house (Ps 45:11)

The advice to forget her father's house needs to be understood within the patriarchal structures characteristic of the Hebrew culture. The father maintained strict control over his unmarried daughter (Sir 7:24). This notwithstanding, Haag (1975:337) asserts that the daughter retained her own personal sphere, reflected in Rebekah's self-assurance (Gn 24:24). The relationship between father and daughter could be affectionate (Jdg 11:34-40), as the parable of the poor man and the ewe lamb expresses (2 Sm 12:3). The pre-marital admonition to forget the father's house thus signals a transfer of paternal authority to the spouse. The bride might no longer be answerable to her father, but she is now answerable to her husband (Nm 30:4,11).

 

'He is your Lord; pay homage to him' (Ps 45:12b)

The question of how to interpret Psalms 45:12b is one of those which divides scholars. Attard (2018:466) asserts, based on Psalms 44:24, that this reference is made to indicate that YHWH is the spouse being spoken of. Similarly, Postell (2019:154) suggests that the daughter as used in the Psalm is a metaphorical reference to Israel as a nation (Is 22:4; Jr 4:11) and is similar to other expressions such as 'daughter of Judah' (Lm 2:2), 'daughter of Edom' (Lm 4:21) or 'daughter of Egypt' (Jr 46:42), in which case the bride is admonished to submit to YHWH as her spouse.

Eissfeldt, however, demonstrates that the term אדון (Lord) is used 300 times in the Hebrew Bible in reference to an earthly lord with only 30 references to a divine lord (Eissfeldt 1974:61). The title is often given to kings (Jr 22:18; 34:5). The use of the expression to refer to a father (Gn 24:27) and to a husband (Gn 31:35) are both attested. The action required of the bride is to bow down (חוה) before her 'lord' spouse. Postell (2019:150) points out that this action of bowing down is reserved for YHWH in the Book of Psalms. Preuss (1980:251) shows, however, that the use of the verb extends to the realm of secular greeting, respect and honour. Thus, Ruth bows to Boaz (Rt 2:10) and Abigail to David (1 Sm 25:23,41) as a gesture of submission, in both cases to men who would eventually become their husbands. Thus, it remains entirely plausible that the admonition to the daughter-bride in Psalms 45:12 is a call for submission to her spouse-king.

 

Reading Psalm 45 in contemporary Ghana

The questions that arise in reading Psalm 45 resonate closely with both narratives relating to the process of preparing couples for marriage and the celebration of the marriage rite in contemporary Ghana. We therefore proceed first by examining some of the intersections between Psalm 45 and the celebration of the marriage ritual in contemporary Ghana.

 

Spousal abuse and the marriage ritual in Ghana

Contemporary Ghanaian marriage, whether Christian, Islamic or customary, is steeped in tradition. The marriage rite is the third of the five major rites of passage. Traditionally and even in contemporary times, young people, when they get to a certain age, are expected by society to settle down with either a wife or a husband, depending on their gender. This stage of life is not without its unique rituals that cement the union between the man and the woman. The problem though is that elements of these rituals, which have been accepted, especially into the Christian marriage ritual usage, continue to preserve elements that work in favour of the perpetuation of spousal abuse in Ghana. As a number of studies have shown, the Ghanaian, specifically the Akan indigenous cultural context itself engenders an atmosphere that promotes violence against women (Bowman 2003:473-491; Frost & Dodoo 2009:44-49, 2010:41-59; Horne, Dodoo & Dodoo 2013:503-529).

 

The bride price

One of the most significant dimensions of indigenous marriage rituals is the payment of the bride price by the man's family (Horne et al. 2013:503-529). This practice, even though it was originally obtained in traditional marriages, is now recognised by Christian churches, some of whom do not proceed with the Christian marriage rites until this requirement has been fulfilled and the bride's family is satisfied. In the Akan context, for example, the bride price is paid in exchange for the bride. It symbolises that the man has paid back the family, especially the girl's parents, all that they have invested in raising the young woman to a marital age. The bride price serves a dual purpose - once the bride's family accepts it, it signifies their acceptance of the man to marry their daughter and the bride's consent to the marriage. Also, whenever the bride initiates a divorce, the bride price must be returned to the man's family, and if accepted, symbolises the outright dissolution of the marriage despite any legal battles that may ensue afterwards between the husband and the wife.

Parallels have been drawn between the concept of the bride price in African Traditional Societies and the Old Testament. Nwaoru (2002:22) observes that in the Old Testament, the bride price was 'more far-reaching than a mere gratuitous offer made by the groom to the bride's father'. The value and form of the bride price were sometimes stipulated by law (Ex 22:15; Dt 22:28-29) or determined by the bride's father (Gn 34:12), the quality of the bride, the social status of the family (1 Sm 18:25) or the altruism of the groom (Gn 24:53) (Nwaoru 2002:24). Rashkow (2022:144) suggests that the function of the practice was to compensate for the loss to the bride's family upon her marriage. Thus, Nwaoru (2022:31) concludes that 'the idea of paying 'price' to acquire a bride is not foreign to the Africans'.

The concept of bride price, in recent times, has become an issue of contention among many scholars, some of which argue that its payment engenders abuse in marriages, often with women at the receiving end. Scholars like Sarpong (1974:83) have thus even advocated the use of the term, 'bride wealth', instead of 'bride price'. These scholars contend that the payment of the bride price is tantamount to selling off the woman to the man, thereby making her one of the many properties or chattel the man acquires in the course of his life and, therefore, affords him the impetus to abuse the woman as and when he pleases. Other scholars disagree with this view, however, and opine that although the payment of the bride price could play a role to some extent, it cannot be blamed as the sole cause of spousal abuse in contemporary times, and that there may be several other issues at play, including temperament. Some have gone to the extent of positing that although it is the abuse of women in marriages that often gets a chunk of attention, there are many men also suffering abuse in their marriages.

What is clear is that the bride price remains a delicate traditional element in the Ghanaian Christian marriage ritual, albeit borrowed. Husbands continue to cite this practice as legitimising their sense of ownership of women. The mention of the gift [מנחה] in Psalms 45:13 within the context of a marriage procession thus re-evokes the question of the bride price. Admittedly in Psalms 45:12-13, the gift is brought to the bride not by the spouse-king but by 'the daughter of Tyre', a designation which could refer to a foreign nation (Attard 2018:470; Lancelotti 1984:35). Even still, the idea of the inducement of the bride, 'showered with gifts from those of wealth and influence' who seek her favour [פניך], underlines precisely the commodification of the woman (Brueggemann & Bellinger 2014:21). The elements of similarity between Psalm 45 and the African context can thus not be denied, and further show the importance of a nuanced interpretation of these texts in order not to aggravate an already problematic situation.

 

Royalty and display of wealth

In traditional Akan marriages, the emphasis is often on the nobility of the man (Obarima nuonyamfo); if the man happens to be rich (odefo), then it is considered a huge achievement, and many families often pride themselves in the fact that their daughters have managed to attract wealthy men to marry them. It sometimes creates competition between families and neighbours as to whose daughter would bring home a rich man who can boast of houses, cars and enough money to take care of the girl and her family. Oftentimes, the size of the bride price determines whether the potential husband is rich enough to cater for the needs of their daughter. If a man cannot afford an expensive bride price, then it suggests that he is not wealthy enough to marry their daughter. However, some studies, such as that of Ofori et al. (2019:1), have shown that the payment of the bride price in itself creates 'power imbalances', because after paying the bride price, the men feel that they have bought the women from their families and so can treat them as they please, including abuse. The bride price thus acts as a double-edged sword. Although it can prove how much a man cherishes his future bride, it can also serve as a tool for abuse.

The portrayal of the royal couple in Psalm 45 thus resonates particularly closely with the celebration of the marriage ritual in contemporary Ghana. The problem associated with this, unfortunately, is the inordinate desire to appear wealthy at these ceremonies, leading many men into huge amounts of debt. Indeed, deep disagreements between spouses are known to have developed precisely because of over-expenditure at the wedding, with the woman often taking the blame and suffering abuse for the family's eventual financial distress.

 

'He is your Lord': The admonition to submit

Another dimension of contemporary marriage is the admonition for complete submission to the husband as stated in Psalms 45 v. 11b and reiterated in Ephesians 5 v. 22. These Bible verses are the major influences of why women in some churches in Ghana are still taught to refer to their husbands as 'me wura' [my Lord] and also treat him as such. One major perception in Ghanaian popular culture is the saying 'obaa anuonyam ne ne kunu' [a woman's honour is her husband], and it has become a form of admonition that is still given to brides at marriage ceremonies presided over by clergymen. This perception underscores the idea that no matter how high a woman climbs on the social and economic ladder, she is not complete without a man. It is only when a woman marries that she is honoured. This also means that being married must be worn by women as a 'badge of honour'. However, a deeper meaning of this saying is to ensure that women submit to their husbands, or risk either divorce or their husbands marrying more wives. This is to be understood within the generally polygynist Ghanaian traditional context, in which society is largely tolerant of men having multiple wives while frowning on the reverse. A running theme in conversations with many married women these days, then, is that 'Marriage is to ensure the happiness of the man and not the wife'. Because the husband is the 'lord', he gets to laud it over his wife and she, in turn, has to submit.

The traditional practice of referring to the man as 'lord' or 'master' is seen also in Psalm 45. The 'daughters of kings' in v. 10a could be a reference to the royal harem underlining the permissibility of polygamous relationships (Blankesteijn 2022:4; Van der Lugt 2010:40). These present a real difficulty, especially when passages like these are presented within the context of pre-marital counselling as well as at Christian marriage ceremonies. A conscious effort is thus required to deconstruct such passages, without which the risk of deepening patriarchal structures in traditional society is further reinforced by biblical ones.

 

'Sons shall be yours': The dynamics of childbearing and parenthood

³ Lo, sons are a heritage from the LORD, the fruit of the womb a reward. ⁴ Like arrows in the hand of a warrior are the sons of one's youth. ⁵ Happy is the man who has his quiver full of them! He shall not be put to shame when he speaks with his enemies in the gate. (Ps 127:3-5, Revised Standard Version)

The emphasis on children at Christian marriage ceremonies in contemporary Ghana is evident, as the clergy do not tire of quoting the biblical scripture cited above. For example, the Roman Catholic Church's marriage ritual includes the petition for children in the nuptial blessing while Pentecostals and charismatics also pray almost without fail for 'the fruit of the womb'. Traditional society's views and expectations for childbirth are also never divorced from the contemporary Christian context. Indeed, some women, because of their inability to bear children within a few years after marriage, are either chased out of their marital homes, or other women are forced on their husbands, even if the inability stems from the man. Some families and members of the community can go as far as branding so-called barren women as 'witches who have eaten all the children in their wombs', although purely medical reasons could account for their inability to have children.

The supposed blessing in Psalms 45:16 almost wholly repeats this idea. The children are to make the spouse-king's name remembered. Nothing is said about the daughter-bride who is reduced to an instrument for childbirth. The task of reading Psalm 45 in contemporary Ghana is thus one of deliberately pointing out the risks of perpetuating those elements which could aggravate the problem of spousal abuse in marriage.

 

Recommendations

From the discussion earlier in this article, it has become evident that certain texts in the Bible, such as Psalm 45 inadvertently engender spousal abuse in contemporary Ghanaian Christian marriages. Masenya (1997) has cautioned against such warped interpretations of scripture noting quite poignantly that a woman, being created in the image of God, is fully human and:

[A]s an independent person, she may choose to be involved with a male partner in a marriage relationship though that does not entail that she loses her humanness and independence to her male partner. (p. 442)

It is in light of these concerns that this study proposes three main recommendations that may help reduce, if not entirely stem the issue of spousal abuse in modern Ghanaian Christian marriages.

The first recommendation is the effective training for clergy, especially those who officiate marriage rituals as regards how to deal with so-called 'texts of terror' (Chaudhry, Muers & Rashkover 2009:198) in their pastoral ministry. The paradigm appears to have been provided in texts like Ephesians 5:2, where the author uses the concept of submission [ὑποτάσσω] 'in an effort to combat the reigning hierarchical social norms, employed a message that was not only counter-cultural but also a distinctly Christian perspective' (Armstrong 2017:169). Mutter (2018:20) equally argues that Ephesians 5 introduces a new narrative that 'transcends the limits of the old and introduces a distinctly new Christian vision of husband-wife relations that is not tied to the culturally dominant view of the husband-as-lord-and-master'. The careful application of texts such as these should contribute to a more balanced vision of marriage, allowing alternative voices in the biblical repertoire to be heard, and not exclusively those which serve patriarchal interests (Keown 2016:47-48). Similar training is recommended for marriage counsellors in order to arm them with the right tools and skill-set to effectively prepare couples for marriage. Finally, the article adds its voice to the call by many other scholars for the adoption of the term 'bride wealth', instead of 'bride price'. This is because while the latter creates a kind of 'power imbalance' between the husband and wife, which normally leads to abuse, the former is much more empowering. Instead of it being the 'price' paid as in the purchase of a property, it will rather symbolise wealth for the bride.

 

Conclusion

The problem of spousal abuse continues to be a challenge both in the Christian Church and in the wider society. While several factors have been identified as contributing to the problem, the interpretation of biblical texts remains a delicate element which could aggravate the problem, given the use of these texts both in premarital counselling sessions and in the marriage ritual. An examination of Psalm 45 reveals gendered dimensions both to the ritual and the admonitions given to the daughter-bride, which could reinforce traditional views of marriage unless deliberate exegetical and pastoral choices are made. It is recommended that these issues are incorporated into training programmes for pastors and church counsellors as a way of sensitising them and encouraging them to intervene and correct the uncritical use of these interpretations during Christian marriage celebrations.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

The research was led by M.K.M., who conceptualised the project, wrote the abstract, coordinated the project, and worked on the biblical exegetical portions. C.M.-W. contributed to the contextual study, extensively reviewing and editing the work. A.S. contributed to gathering literature, specifically on spousal abuse.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

All data underlying the results are available as part of the article and no additional source data are required.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Michael Mensah
mikmensah@ug.edu.gh

Received: 12 June 2024
Accepted: 19 Aug. 2024
Published: 15 Nov. 2024

^rND^sAdamo^nD.T.^rND^sAdinkrah^nM.^rND^sAdjei^nS.B.^rND^sAdjei^nS.B.^rND^sAdjei^nS.B.^rND^sMpiani^nA.^rND^sArmstrong^nK.L.^rND^sAttard^nS.^rND^sBlankesteijn^nD.^rND^sBowman^nC.G.^rND^sChaudhry^nA.S.^rND^sMuers^nR.^rND^sRashkover^nR.^rND^sEissfeldt^nO.^rND^sFrost^nA.E.^rND^sDodoo^nF.N.A.^rND^sFrost^nA.E.^rND^sDodoo^nF.N.A.^rND^sGaster^nT.H.^rND^sGatti^nN.^rND^sGeorge^nO-B^rND^sHaag^nH.^rND^sHoffner^nH.A.^rND^sHorne^nC.^rND^sDodoo^nF.N.A.^rND^sDodoo^nN.D.^rND^sHunter^nD.G.^rND^sKeown^nM.J.^rND^sKosmala^nH.^rND^sKühlewein^nJ.^rND^sMasenya^nM.^rND^sMensah^nM.K.^rND^sMtshiselwa^nV.N.N.^rND^sMutter^nK.F.^rND^sNsiah^nG.^rND^sNwaoru^nE.O.^rND^sOfori^nC.^rND^sDodoo^nF.N.-A.^rND^sDodoo^nN.D.^rND^sBiney^nA.A.^rND^sOssom-Batsa^nG.^rND^sPostell^nS.D.^rND^sPreuss^nH.D.^rND^sRashkow^nI.N.^rND^sRordorf^nW.^rND^sTsevat^nM.^rND^sVan der Lugt^nP.^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Student-centred OdeL support in theology: Why? and how?

 

 

Erna Oliver

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History, and Missiology, Faculty of Theology, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Equipping students to become future-fit graduates who are competent to survive and thrive in an increasingly liquid and complex society presents an agonising challenge to educators at institutions of higher education. It seems that student-centred support is a key requirement for the renovation of open distance higher education. 'The complex fourth revolution world we are living in', the current unequal and diverse student body and the need to train students in theology to be agents of positive change and transformation highlight why student-centred edu-actions are required. Suggestions on how to create opportunities for, and how to implement effective student-centred support are presented through a descriptive qualitative approach. Although this is focussed on theology students, student support is needed in all disciplines and this structure can, if successful, also be transferred to other fields in human science. Nested in the centre of the Community of Inquiry model, the triangle of effective education provides the structure and foundation for both the discipline-specific and the more general fields of the pillars of higher education. Based on the foundation of this triangle, a toolkit for student success is proposed. The toolkit forms the inner part of the triangle; referring to who the students are, how they think, reason and act, culminate in how they change and grow through education. In addition, a short learning programme for educators is proposed to assist them in adapting their tasks to the changing environment and simultaneously supporting their students.
INTRADISCIPLINARY/INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: Although the focus is on theology students and lecturers, both the toolkit and lecturer training programmes can be implemented for the promotion of purpose-driven and human-centred skills development and academic excellence in the larger disciplines and fields of arts, humanities, social sciences and religious studies

Keywords: higher education; student support toolkit; ODeL lecturer training; diagnostic assessment; triangle of effective education; paradigm shift; fourth revolution world; theological training.

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Introduction

More than 50 years ago, in his best-seller titled Future Shock, futurist Alvin Toffler (1970) quoted psychologist Herbert Gerjuoy who, in an interview, argued that:

[t]he new education must teach the individual how to classify and reclassify information, how to evaluate its veracity, how to change categories when necessary, how to move from the concrete to the abstract and back, how to look at problems from a new direction - how to teach himself. Tomorrow's illiterate will not be the man who can't read; he will be the man who has not learned how to learn. (p. 214)

Central to the three actions indicated above - learn, unlearn and relearn - is development and change. In the past, learning and change habitually worked together to drive innovation, discovery and progress. However, during the past decades, higher education and education in general moved from the driving seat to clinging onto the back bumper of the fast-moving vehicle of change and innovation.

Also of importance in this quote is the focus on the individual learner or student. This is in line with the development of Education 4 which focusses on individual lifelong and life-wide education. Moreover, it aligns with the opportunities provided by technological advancement (the Fourth Industrial Revolution [4IR]) and digitalisation (the fourth communication revolution) that has transformed humans into 'inforgs' (Floridi 2014:94), depicting the fourth human self-understanding revolution, and the fourth sociological reformation of personal freedom and choice (more on this later in the article). However, the 'tomorrow' that the two Americans are referring to in the above-stated quote, conflicts with the education system that was implemented to carry the early industrial revolutions with its focus on mass education in a one-size-fits-all model that is currently barricading progress and development in the South African educational system.

The regression of higher education and its failing influence on society sounded many alarms. Prophecies on the expected death of institutions of higher education became common topics in most parts of the world (cf. Whelan, Walker & Moore 2013:22 - Australia; Deshpande 2016 - India; Eagleton 2015 - England; Wright & Shore 2017:2 - Europe). The 2016 New Media Consortium (NMC) report calls the problem of keeping higher education relevant a 'wicket' challenge (Johnson et al. 2016:32). One of the grounding reasons for these prophecies is the rapid and disruptive changes brought about by technology over the past 30 and more years. The world in which many of us were raised (with e.g., no Internet and no mobile phones) no longer exists, while classrooms and pedagogies did not change much over the past few centuries and are no longer relevant to society (cf. Gous 2022:215). Although technology historically brought significant change and disruption to education, the fruit of the current major fourth revolution is not fully utilised to lift education to the next level of progress and development that can keep this sector at the cutting edge of knowledge production and innovation.

A drastic and urgent paradigm shift is therefore needed to produce future-fit graduates who will be able to function optimally in a liquid and fluid society where the stability and consistency brought about and protected by the old educational system are no more. The core activities of teaching, learning and assessment should be the focal point when revolution, change, innovation and transformation are explored and implemented. This back-to-basics-with-new-tools approach can, especially in the South African environment where the student cohort is unequal and diverse (in terms of educational backgrounds, economic status, social status, digital fluency, etc.), equip students to become well-rounded, adjustable, competent¹ and capable graduates - or, in the words of Cross (2010:48), can ensure that students and graduates 'become all they can be'. However, the hyper-speed with which technology is evolving and the demands put on society as a whole seem to be so overwhelming and demanding that both institutions of higher education and educators try to hold on to comfort zones where the minimum of input, effort and work is needed to keep the wheels slowly turning with little acceleration from technology (Oliver 2024:2 of 8).

The proposed foundation model on which student support in the open distance e-learning (OdeL) environment can be constructed is the triangle of effective and flexible education (for more detail cf. Oliver 2019:3 of 8). Before providing a few short explanatory notes on this model to show where student support fits in, the focus falls on explaining why urgent and in-depth changes must be incorporated into the South African higher educational system. Suggesting on how such changes can be done, a proposed toolkit for student success that focusses specifically on the inner pillars of the triangle is linked with a coincided educator development initiative. The transformation needed in higher education must start with student support while both required value formation of theology students and the small student numbers in this field provide a workable testing ground for implementing new pathways and paradigm shifts.

 

Why should student support be prioritised in open distance e-learning?

A long list can be compiled to indicate the reasons why student support is urgently needed in the South African higher education system. Most of these listed items could be grouped into three main categories: Firstly, the fragmented, complex and liquid 21st-century global society is disruptive and demands constant change. To this, the unique South African environment of uncertainty can be added. Ideologically, the majority of the African population demands a break from Western ways and the implementation of decolonisation and Africanisation. Secondly, the lived experiences and living conditions of students are extremely diverse and unequal. In addition to their different environments, most students are novice learners who demand an individual approach to student support. Thirdly, the education model needs adjustment. It must be student-centred, allow for interactive and expanded learning experiences and opportunities, and aim to provide transformation and positive change as a final outcome. A liquid, expanding and fully functional ODeL system implemented by skilled academics can empower students to become successful graduates who can survive and thrive in a VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) world.

Global and South African challenges

We live in a complex world. Higher education cannot function in silos or ivory towers, isolated from the influences and changes that are transforming the world - neither can Christians who are confronted with the same challenges and are also expected to provide answers and guidelines to tough questions. The fragmented, liquid, uncertain, fourth revolution world requires theological educators to keep external circumstances in mind when focussing on providing education and training. It is not only the 4IR - expanding already into the 5IR, which is called the cognitive age, the 6IR with artificial intelligence (AI), and the 7IR with natural organic AI systems (NOAI-Systems) and the fourth communication or digitalisation revolution which are demanding attention from educators and the whole higher education system. We are currently also experiencing the fourth revolution in education, the fourth sociology revolution, and the fourth revolution in human self-understanding. Although we are still living in the Society 4 era, countries such as Japan and others are already creating Society 5 (cf. Table 1). These developments result in challenging new encounters with education, including how educators support their students.

In addition to the impact of these global disrupting occurrences, South Africa is struggling with issues of uncertainty and instability. 56.75% of people living in the country are poor or extremely poor (Stats SA 2024), with not many opportunities to better their circumstances through higher education. For nearly 30 years now, electricity provision has been unstable, resulting in constant power outages that leave people in the cold and dark while providing ample opportunities for crime to flourish (Van der Merwe 2021). South Africa, with its high crime index, is often included in lists of dangerous countries (cf. Richardson & Xie 2024). In recent years, water shortages because of natural disasters and poor service delivery have added to difficult living conditions (Bartlett 2024; Heggie n.d.). Although the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has officially passed, diseases such as influenza, monkeypox and rabies are on the current list of health alerts (NICD 2024) while malaria and rubella remain a constant threat. These external factors all have negative implications on education provision and success in the country.

International university rankings are highly sought after despite attempts to move away from Western academic standards by focussing on decolonisation and Africanisation. In light of these conflicting priorities, it is difficult to successfully develop and implement alternative academic models and theories on the one hand and to use the work of African scholars in research and teaching while pushing for higher global rankings and accreditation on the other hand (cf. Fonn 2024; Hanke-Louw 2023).

Diverse and unequal student cohort

The time when higher education prescribed the matric curriculum has long passed. Because of the sub-standard level of basic education, the majority of current first-year students are novice learners. Students entering higher education at ODeL universities are ill-prepared and often struggle to transfer from the paced, structured, teacher-centred, outdated and one-size-fits-all basic education model to fit into the open distance and e-learning environment. The ability of many first-year students to use technology is skewed: They can use social media and play digital games but are not experienced in the academic use of technology. Students from less privileged backgrounds or rural areas often do not have the basic technological and digital skills required to access and interact with their study material. Many theology students are older individuals who are full-time employed and have family and/or church obligations. They frequently experience the unfamiliar distance and e-learning environment as an obstacle to their academic aspirations.

The general picture of formal education results is bleak: Only 12% of learners who start Grade 1 get access to higher education while only 4% of these eventually graduate (Dyomfana 2022). Focussing on higher education, the dropout rate of first-year students varies between 50% and 60% in South Africa (Dyomfana 2022; Viljoen 2019). If students are met where they are, and not only find the educators waiting for them where they ought to be, it is hoped that effective student support can counter the high dropout, force-out and failure rates in the South African educational system (cf. Mutsila 2023).

The preceding scenario requires a more individualistic and multi-faceted approach as non-academic circumstances further complicate the lives of students in South Africa. These challenges often prevent students from performing at their best. It is impossible to list all the problems because they vary from one individual to another. In general, the cost of living and the lack of safety and security that influence accommodation, transport and sustenance in addition to the cost of education and spiralling debt are all major hampering factors (Van der Merwe 2021). Family obligations such as being breadwinners, single parents, taking care of siblings and the expectations linked to being a first-generation student can also become too much to bear. Health issues, personal emergencies, social life on campus, wrong study choices as well as laws on the migration of international students, are similarly mentioned as obstructions to academic progress (cf. Fundiconnect 2024). Interrupted service delivery impacts severely on online education systems which adds to stress and failure.

Problems in higher education

Universities in general do provide student support services such as counselling, career advice and tuition services, but these services alone are not sufficient. The underprepared, unequal and diverse student cohort that is entering higher education, demands that the support system be significantly expanded beyond subject-specific content to include the teaching and training of basic knowledge and skills in a variety of fields necessary for academic progress and success. However, although this need has long been alerted to by educators and confirmed by low pass rates and high dropout rates, it seems as if the words of Tony Bates (2010:22) quoting a vice-chancellor who said that 'universities are like graveyards - when you want to move them, you do not get much help from the people inside' still ring true. Therefore, the call is for the university management to acknowledge student needs and assist them by availing finances and manpower to urgently develop effective bridging courses to enhance student support. Both internal and external resources can be used to develop a range of support structures independent of the formal, subject-specific academic systems to release pressure on both students and academics.

Academics are under pressure because of huge workloads. The wide range of key performance areas (such as teaching and learning, assessment, research, community engagement, academic citizenship, academic leadership, etc.) result in educators teaching existing and often outdated curricula, and not implementing new and developing technologies. The enormous amount of time and effort needed and the absence of recognition for work done demotivate academics to constantly upgrade modules and develop new curricula or invest in developing scaffolding as safety nets for student support. The inability to take on more work and resistance to develop new skills to effectively implement technology as well as acquiring knowledge and competencies in fields outside their areas of specialty often restrict educators from providing much-needed support in areas where students are struggling (e.g. critical thinking and problem-solving skills, language competencies, digital literacy and academic writing skills).

The lack of student support and providing education that empowers students are evident from the persistent skills gaps that graduates grapple with. Compared to employers from the United Kingdom who believe that nearly 80% of graduates are not work-ready when entering the employment market (CMI insights 2021), the situation in South Africa is seemingly less severe. A recent study by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) reveals that about 31% of employers in South Africa state the lack of skills among graduates as the main reason for not employing them (Msuya 2023). However, the official unemployment rate among South African graduates aged up to 34 years, stood at 33.6% in 2023 (Msuya 2023). Apart from general career management support and training (e.g. how to search and apply for employment and how to compile a curriculum vitae [CV]), employability skills that should be addressed during the academic phase include teamwork, critical thinking skills and problem-solving skills as well as self-management, effective communication skills, flexibility, adaptability and resilience, initiative and self-directed development, digital skills, emotional intelligence, innovation and creativity, and entrepreneurial skills (Adecco Group 2022; CMI Insights 2021). Focussing on discipline-specific content alone neglects important life-wide and transdisciplinary learning which are crucial skills that can ensure that graduates are equipped to thrive in a fast-changing world.

Close cooperation between institutional management and academics to create and sustain a comprehensive support package on the one hand and innovative educational strategies that are fitting for current circumstances on the other hand, can bring about the required paradigm shift in higher education. This cannot be a once-off, quick-fix intervention but must include a continuation of change and progress at all levels through constant testing, implementing and adjusting (cf. Ice 2010:158).

Christians as agents of positive change

Postmodernity and metamodernity tend to focus on the negative aspects of religion in general and Christianity in particular. However, for nearly 2000 years, Christians managed to bring hope and change at all levels of human existence (cf. Schmidt 2004; Hill 2005; Sunshine 2009). Society changed because of a transformation in worldviews regarding the sanctification of human life and the notion of liberty and justice for all. Christianity initiated charity organisations and influenced the development of health care, science, art, music, architecture, and much more (Schmidt 2004). The voice of the church affected cultures, politics, education, social structures and economic and labour practices. Although the guidance provided by the church and its prominent figures it is also not without errors. The current corpse-like existence (mute, deaf, blind and lame - Oliver 2021:2) of South African Christianity is contributing to the increasing numbers of crises the country is facing because of the lack of good education to the more than 80% of the population that claims to be Christians.

Christianity in South Africa could soon find itself on the brink of extinction because of affirming and mirroring the ills of society or creating personalised and often syncretistic interpretations of Christianity. Theological education must provide students with knowledge, skills and competencies that will empower them to become effective agents of positive change in the faith, social and environmental milieus in which they will find themselves after graduation. They must be encouraged to transfer these positive capabilities towards sustainable transformation. Because of the small student numbers in theology modules, these departments provide an ideal test ground to implement and assess optimal student support, proposed ideas, strategies, actions and outcomes.

The abovementioned reasons explaining why a fresh and expanded way of student support in the South African ODeL environment is needed, are by no means complete or detailed enough. It does, however, provide a glimpse of the elephant lurking in the corner of the higher education hall. Acknowledging that change is needed, the next and more important question is how to bring about student support that can empower successful studies and sustainable development even after graduation.

 

How to support theology students in the open distance e-learning environment

Christians can and should be able to live life differently compared to 'the world'. This can be promoted by disruptive change in the theological education model. The proposed triangle of effective education focusses on holistically educating each individual. The outer triangle is focussed on providing a firm foundation for the academic side of theological training. The inner triangle is focussed on life-wide aspects of education that include literacies and competencies not directly linked to but essential for theological training and academic success in general.

The triangle of effective flexible education

The foundational structure of the triangle of effective and flexible higher education has student-centred teaching and interactive/amalgamated/intermingled learning as the two base pillars, with transformative assessment as the culminating pinnacle. As can be observed in Figure 1, this model is multifaceted. Each pillar consists of several sub-sections that interlink with each other, while various sub-sections interlink the different pillars. All linkages are flexible to enable expansion and change as and when needed.

Student-centred teaching caters to individual needs, growth and development, both as a person and as a student. Interactive and amalgamated learning implements all available media, formal, informal and non-formal learning environments and experiences to ensure individual success through all available learning opportunities. Transformative and alternative assessments are active learning and growth opportunities that promote development towards life-wide and lifelong learning, and the formation of positive habits as well as the adaptability to change and transform.

The triangle of effective education model fits into the intersection of the teaching, cognitive and social spheres identified through the Community of Inquiry Framework of Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000:88) - see Figure 2.

The current focus is on the inner part of the triangle (Figure 1). This is the more indirect part of academic life that has a huge influence on the visible results of student performance. The aim is transformative in nature. The toolkit for student success must assist students to bridge the gaps between basic and higher education in such a way that they can proceed with and complete their studies. In addition, it is intended to change attitudes and behaviour, shaping theology students to become future-fit agents of positive change that can negotiate the current turbulence while assisting others to hope, cope, grow and develop.

Edu-active student support

The inner triangle toolkit

Academics should, in line with the chaotic and turbulent world of change and technology that we are living in, be bold, disruptive and different in their approach to teaching, learning and assessment because of the following:

Providing content is not teaching.

Learning is not easy.

Regurgitated information is not assessment.

If there was no change, education did not happen.

Therefore, academics must implement stimulating scaffolding (i.e. challenging support without embarrassment) and appropriate technology in addition to all the tried and tested educational tools to teach uncertainty, learn through chaos and diversity, and assess transformation, growth and change.

The proposed toolkit for student success is focussed on the inner part of the triangle indicated in Figure 1 with the terms BE (strengthening behavioural intelligence), THINK (enhance cognitive intelligence) and ACT (increase proficiency in what they can do and how they behave). This short, comprehensive bridging programme should be integrated into the first-year modules to ensure early diagnosis and interventions towards enabling academic progress. Such a programme must provide layered interventions for each of the three different sections to accommodate the unequal competencies of students on aspects such as language proficiency, digital competencies, AI and media literacy, academic skills (such as how to learn and how to do research, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills) and life skills. The proposed programme consists of three modules.

The first module, called BE, focusses on strengthening the behavioural intelligence of students through self-management and interpersonal skills development. Self-management topics include self-understanding and acceptance; situational and spatial awareness; time management and planning; developing a growth mindset, curiosity, common sense and motivation; personal development plans; personal wellness and goal setting. Topics included under interpersonal skills are relationships and networking; cultural awareness; work ethics; teamwork and collaboration; negotiation and conflict management; empathy; and public speaking.

The second module, called THINK, focusses on cognitive capacity building (lifelong and life-wide) by stimulating critical, logical and creative thinking abilities. Open-mindedness is crucial. Both traditional and current issues need to be placed on the table for theological consideration together with guidelines for believers. Medical and ethical issues, how Christians interpret and use laws, regard war and peace, as well as cosmology and earth keeping all provide traditional (cf. Oliver 2016:5, 6) and challenging new debates (such as AI and alien life), for studying, debating and investigating. Theologians must think differently, disruptively and creatively from a Christian perspective about such challenges, and provide useful and practical guidelines. Theologians are not only required to guide and speak to believers in churches and to governing bodies and regulators, but must also guide society in general.

The final module is called ACT. This module expands students' proficiencies by focussing on developing and enhancing digital skills, media literacy, academic skills and language proficiency. It will also evaluate and track progress in value development and behavioural change and development on a personal level. The focus must be on supporting individual students in their unique circumstances towards growth, development and success. Faculties of Theology can serve as ideal hosts for these modules on people-focussed interventions and student support. If successful, this programme can be adjusted to be implemented in other departments and the school of humanities.

The programme will start with diagnostic testing (Figure 3). The test will measure all the desired outcomes and expected competencies in each of the three categories of the triangle's pillars: Be, think and act. Depending on the outcomes each student will be declared fully competent, or sufficient, or in need of assistance, for each of the three categories of the tests. To qualify for the certificate, results from all three categories must at least be on an adequate level. Outstanding results in all three categories will result in certification without the need for further interventions, while those who obtain adequate results in all three categories can choose to participate in the interventions or opt for the certificate. Those who need further assistance in one, two or all three of the categories will have to complete the intervention courses. After working through the course material with added support where needed and completing competency exercises, a re-assessment will take place for the required categories. Hopefully, the content and support provided through this short course will equip and encourage our students towards academic success.

 

 

Empowering open distance e-learning educators

Although the toolkit will be directed to support students, academics will also need to learn, unlearn and relearn to ensure a correlation between what, why and how they teach, learn and assess, and the support and guidance needed by and provided to students. Ideally, an online short course for educators should be introduced to be implemented alongside the student toolkit. Like the toolkit, it must also focus on the three foundational pillars of the effective education model. However, in this case, the training for educators focusses more on the outer parts of the pillars for effective education. By questioning the way we teach, learn, assess and seek alternatives, better practices and new pathways to implement the pillars, we can build valuable attributes for our graduates while offering lifelong learning opportunities for educators.

Student-centred teaching is well-established at Unisa. However, in a fast-changing world, educators need to ensure that they are up to date with who the current cohort of theological students is, what their circumstances and needs are and what their work and social environments are. The focus of teaching should be on the students (people) and not primarily on content. How students should interact with content and technology such as the use of AI, large language models and ethically sound behaviour must form part of student-centred teaching. Different models of teaching such as pedagogy, andragogy, heutagogy and academagogy or omnigogy² are fit for purpose in specific circumstances and with specific outcomes in mind, and should be applied accordingly. In the new dispensation, curricula must be open, allowing for self-directed paths towards the development and growth of students. This implies that academics must let go of their total control over the curriculum, allowing for variety, disruption and the unintended but necessary development of new curriculums on current topics and developing fields.

Non-discipline-specific teaching of things such as the flattening and flipping of Bloom's taxonomy for real-life problem solving, cognitive dissonance as a trigger towards change, the red car theory³ and the importance of mentors, coaches and trainers in the educational process must be included in foundational teaching support. Fun, adventure and surprise must return to teaching. Current technological developments that enable the use of serious games, gamification and digital game-based learning can ensure that teaching levels up to new and exciting heights. However, the technical support needed and the time and costs involved in such endeavours are obstructing progress in this regard. Narratives (stories) are one of the oldest educational tools. Through the process of Africanisation and decolonialisation, this can once again be used as a valuable tool to bring joy and entertainment into the learning environment.

One who teaches needs to learn, unlearn and relearn to stay relevant and up-to-date with developments and changes in the education environment. Lifelong and life-wide learning are prerequisites for academics. The test for critical thinking is whether a person can apply it to their own thinking, perceptions and biases. The questions academics should ask themselves are: When last did I change my mind? How can I expect students to change if I am still clinging to old and outdated ideas, tools and views? How can I use devices and technology to improve my teaching, assessment and student support? Regarding learning, academics must focus on questioning, creative thinking, micro-learning, exploring technology, non-discipline-specific skills, knowledge and capacity building. Online platforms allow for the use, recognition and encouragement of all forms of interactive learning. This implies that there should be no restrictions on time, space, media or activities that can be implemented to encourage sustainable learning behaviours. In addition, prior learning and experience must be recognised and where possible, linked to current learning through creative and flexible curriculum design and workflow. Formal, informal and non-formal learning are useful options to ensure that students grasp and master thresholds and anchors that are difficult to comprehend but essential for academic progress and the development of theological insight.

Failure should never be a final outcome. It is a part of life and a necessary learning experience. Failure does open opportunities for scaffolded learning. Scaffolding (cf. Rosenshine & Meister 1992:32) can assist students to grasp concepts and information that are slightly too difficult and therefore require a 'cognitive stretch' (Fox & Helford 1999:162) to succeed by providing additional support and information, as well as feedback, feedforward and feed upward⁴ assistance. Scaffolding provides a safe space for growth and failure without disgrace. The effective use of scaffolding gets students interested and motivated to move from dependent to interested and involved in their studies and the impact thereof.

Value formation is key to theological training. Traditional tests and exams are not ideal for assessment in the ODeL environment. Numerous alternative and creative ways can be used to test or evaluate students' growth, change, development, skills, knowledge and understanding. Micro-assessment tasks are well suited to focus on evaluating key capabilities while projects and portfolios can show progress and development over longer periods or bigger volumes of work.

Celebrating progress is just as important as celebrating success. It is not only about obtaining a degree, but also about each small victory, advancement and step towards transformation and change that make the education journey a joyful and rewarding experience. Both educators and students must be made aware of this and encouraged to celebrate small victories and achievements as this will boost motivation and provide support when facing obstacles.

Edu-action in terms of student support is a frontline initiative to meet the students where they are and, well knowing where they should be, guide, train, tutor, coach and teach them in such a way that they can become competent agents of positive change that grow in knowledge, skills and competencies while also becoming experts in subject-specific fields. The triangle of effective and flexible education model provides a broad foundational space to allow for student support in all three major aspects of education, namely teaching, learning and assessment. It could also be used for workshops and short courses to ensure that academics are equipped with up-to-date skills and knowledge to best support their students.

 

Conclusion

The dissonance between the outdated educational system and the fast-developing and overwhelming changes we are currently experiencing at all levels of life points towards the urgent need for transformation in higher education. This research focussed on two important questions regarding a paradigm shift to student support in theological education, namely 'Why?' and 'How?'

Explaining why student support is needed, the fragmented, liquid, complex and changing 21st-century world sets the broad stage. This is narrowed down to the unique South African situation with its restricted basic services and the problematic tension between Westernised higher education standards and the need for Africanisation and decolonialisation to make higher education relevant and useful in daily life. The diverse and unequal education levels and living conditions of students and the difficult task of changing systems and patterns in higher education further highlight the need for an unlearn and relearn shift to support novice first-year students. A comprehensive bridging programme, integrated into the first-year modules can diagnose and address some of these problems. Such a programme must provide layered educational interventions.

Based on the triangle of an effective education model, a toolkit for student success that is generic to students in theology and other fields within the humanities, is proposed to house important topics and content for student support. The inner triangle is used to develop competencies on self-knowledge, interpersonal relationships, developing cognitive abilities and empowering transformation in behaviour. Together, these pillars focus on who the students are and can become, how they need to think, reason and learn, and how the effect and growth gained from the learning process can transform them to be successful in a liquid and unstable world.

Although universities do have structures for student support, it is primarily through contact with lecturers where effective support can have a significant influence on students. The small student numbers in theology make these modules and courses ideal testing fields for the implementation of the student support toolkit.

Hand in hand with the toolkit for student success, a short learning programme based on the outer parts of the three pillars of effective education namely student-centred teaching, interactive learning and transformative assessment, must be developed to ensure that lecturers are capable of using what is offered by the developing new technologies and revolutions in society to effectively support students. A short unlearn and relearn course will assist lecturers in using the toolkit effectively and in adjusting and getting up to date with current trends and opportunities to bring about effective change.

The envisioned result from implementing the full-scale triangle of effective education model is successful graduates who are capable lifelong and life-wide learners and agents of change and transformation within their work, faith, social, and economic communities and environments. It will also assist lecturers with lifelong and life-wide teaching as well as implementing effective curriculum design strategies and, to support students, implement interactive learning and assess transformation and progress that all are flexible, liquid and adjustable to changes and challenges in society.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

E.O. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical consideration

This article followed all ethical standards for a research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Erna Oliver
olivee@unisa.ac.za

Received: 05 July 2024
Accepted: 02 Oct. 2024
Published: 18 Nov. 2024

 

 

1. 'Competency' is the proven ability of acquiring knowledge and skills, while 'capacity' is the person's confidence in their competency and, as a result, the ability to take appropriate and effective action in both familiar and unfamiliar and changing settings (Cairns 2000:1).
2. Academagogy, also known as omnigogy is the fluid and flexible actions of instructional systems (Mackh 2015:124). This means that pedagogy, andragogy and heutagogy must be implemented as, when and where needed within a specific curriculum to ensure that basic, advanced, threshold and new knowledge, skills, and competencies can develop and grow.
3. The Red Car Theory is a concept that deals with the phenomenon of heightened awareness and selective attention. It posits that once something has been brought to our attention, we start noticing it more often, not because it has become more prevalent, but because we've become more attuned to noticing it (Hossain 2024).
4. Upward feedback in the academic sense refer to fitting specific information into the bigger picture or larger context on the one hand and further focus attention on where specific content and activities feed into reaching the projected outcome and end goal of current work.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Genesis 15:1-6 and child adoption in Awkunanaw, Enugu state, Nigeria

 

 

Chisom S. Ugwuewo^{I, II}; Mary J. Obiorah^{II, III}; Onyekachi G. Chukwuma^{II, III}

^IDepartment of General Studies, Joint Universities Preliminary Examinations Board (JUPEB) programme, Madonna University, Okija, Nigeria
^IIDepartment of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIIDepartment of Religion and Cultural Studies, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Adoption is a global phenomenon, and many childless couples choose adoption because they cannot have children biologically. Over the years, legally approved orphanages have been a beacon of hope for prospective adoptive parents. However, in contemporary times, many childless couples have employed both legal and illegal means to have children. As a result, baby-making industries have become a lucrative business because it is a fast means for childless couples to have children. In the contemporary Awkunanaw, this practice has devalued socio-cultural practices and made the Awkunanaw society and her dwellers vulnerable to social vices. This study investigates the importance of adopting a child from a known background other than a strange one. Genesis 15: 1-6 tells of God's covenant with Abram in which God promised him a great reward. Amid the divine promises of greatness and protection, Abram was worried about his state of childlessness. The part of the pericope which relates to this study is that Abram adopted an heir from a known background. The exegetical research methods employed in studying Genesis 15:1-6 include a narrative method and sociological approach to the study of the Old Testament. The data obtained through interviews and secondary sources were analysed using the phenomenological method. The study aims to advocate that Awkunanaw parents who patronise baby-making industries should desist from such practice as it contributes to the prevalence of social vices in the community.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article studies adoption in Awkunanaw, Enugu state, Nigeria, in the light of Abraham's narrative in Genesis 15:1-6. In Awkunanaw culture, adoption from an unknown background is abhorred. The article submits that adopting children from unknown backgrounds is precarious for the social development and peace of the Awkunanaw community. Hence, the study is a contribution to Old Testament discourses on religion and society. Its related disciplines are sociology, biblical interpretation and practical theology

Keywords: Genesis 15:1-6; childlessness; adoption; baby-making industries; Awkunanaw.

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Introduction

Adoption is an age-long and socio-cultural phenomenon. It refers to the act of taking the child of another parent to be one's child. Norman (2003:29) notes that 'It is a process whereby a person receives another into his family and confers upon that person familial privileges and advantages'. The practices associated with adoption vary among cultures across the globe. In the Jewish culture, there is usually a well-known and strong relationship between the adoptee and the adopter. A trace of the lineage of the adoptee by the adopter is observed in Old Testament narratives. Most times, there has been a common social heritage concerning adoption.

Genesis 15:1-6 is a narrative about Abram's tete-a-tete with God regarding his state of childlessness. Abram stressed that despite God's promise of an heir from his blood, it has been another person, though well known to him, that has remained his heir. The text reveals that Abram did not adopt an heir from a strange background. Eliezer was born in the house of Abram. Abram was conversant with the events surrounding his birth. The Old Testament patriarchs who were childless, were not so desperate over the adoption of an heir. They were careful to trace the origin of anyone being adopted into their family circle before the adoptee was granted the right of inheritance.

The practices associated with adoption in contemporary times is an indication of a shift from the Old Testament pattern of adoption. The references to adoption in the Old Testament indicate that there is usually a relationship between the adopter and the adoptee. According to Norman (2003), although adoption is not explicitly mentioned in the Old Testament, references to the phenomenon exist. For instance, Abram adopted Eliezer, Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses, and so forth. These adoptions were socially and culturally accepted in the then society.

It is disheartening that in contemporary times, some people advocate and sponsor illegal adoption. The emergence and prevalence of baby-making industries in Southeastern Nigeria is a worrisome development (Omeire et al. 2015). In recent times, an awful development has surfaced in Nigeria; unmarried pregnant teenagers are kept in an undisclosed location until they give birth. After delivery, the teenage mothers are given token amounts and discharged while their babies are taken from them and sold at outrageous prices by the proprietor(s) who engaged them. According to Mba (2013), the phenomenon is referred to as 'baby factory business'. The baby factory business has become a social menace in Nigeria, particularly in Igboland, and it is proliferating at an alarming rate. Uzor (2014) indicates that about 2500 pregnant teenagers were rescued by the police from various baby factories within 1 year in the Southeastern states of Nigeria (Omeire et al. 2015). The emergence of buying babies from baby-making industries is no longer incongruous in the land of Awkunanaw. This strong patronage has exposed the Awkunanaw community to many social vices such as violence and killing within the family, prostitution, stealing, robbery and other vices (Ene, Ewah, Nwachukwu, Nwigwe, Ogbodoachime, Okoli, and Ugwuonyia: interview). Some of these vices have been in existence but they seem to have heightened. This illegal way of making strangers members of various families in Awkunanaw is very precarious.

The research methods employed in studying Genesis 15:1-6 include a narrative method and sociological approach to the study of the Old Testament. The narrative method is the approach used to take a discourse of a biblical text which is a story. This method, according to Obiorah (2015), investigates how the narrator engages and draws the readers into his narrative world. Alter (1981) opines that using the narrative method, biblical narratives are not merely history or religious doctrine, but rather exquisite works of literature deserving of careful analysis and appreciation. It revolutionises the way readers engage with and understand the timeless tales found within the Bible, opening a door to a world of literary richness to be explored. The sociological approach, on the other hand, is a method used to study the life situation that gave rise to a biblical text. Obiorah (2015) asserts that 'situation in life', technically called Sitz-im-Leben, is the study of the sociological milieu that generated a particular text. The narrative method is suitable for this study because the pericope is a story; the sociological method is equally appropriate because certain social situations brought about the event(s) in the story.

The researchers obtained informed consent to analyse the data elicited from the interviews carried out among 33 middle-aged and elderly members of the Awkunanaw community. The interviewees were recruited using random sampling selection method. The semi-structured interviews centred on the practices of adoption in the Awkunanaw community (ancient and contemporary). During the interviews, the languages of communication were English and Awkunanaw local dialect. The primary and secondary data were analysed using the descriptive analytical method, also known as the phenomenological method. This method gives room for detailed discussions on a specified phenomenon. For confidentiality, pseudonyms were used to present the views of the interviewees in the text.

 

Insights into Genesis 15:1-6

Genesis 15:1-6 contains a single literary unit which focusses on God's covenant with Abram. In a prolonged interview with Yahweh, Abram's misgivings regarding the fulfilment of the divine promises are removed by solemn and explicit assurances, and by a symbolic act in which the Almighty binds himself by the inviolable ceremonial of the covenant (Skinner 1976:276). The discussion is initiated by God who promised Abram a great reward. Abram was not comfortable because someone other than his biological son was to be his heir.

Genesis 15:1 presupposes a situation of anxiety on the part of Abram, following some meritorious action performed by him. This regards Abram's defenceless position among the Canaanites immediately after his heroic obedience to the divine call (Skinner 1976:278). Cook (2010) notes that:

A call consists of a theophany or appearance of God, a commission from God to perform a particular task, a question or objection on the part of the one receiving the call, and a reiteration of the call followed by a sign of confirmation. (p. 45)

The phrase אַחַ֣ר׀ הַדְּבָרִ֣ים הָאֵ֗לֶּה [after these things] was used to introduce a new revelation of God to Abram, which differs from the previous ones in form and meaning, and constitutes a significant turning point in his life. Barnes (1870) posits that the formula, 'after these things' implies the victory, the blessing and the self-denial recorded in the previous chapter. Benson (2004) avers that as a result of that act of generosity which Abram had done, in rescuing his neighbours, God paid him the gracious visit. Barnes further avers that it was not out of place for Abram to entertain some fears. The intimidating allies had been defeated, but they might return with an overpowering force. God had stood by him and given him victory, and now speaks to him in the language of encouragement.

In verse 1, the phrase דְבַר־יְהוָה֙ [the word of the Lord] denotes a divine and solemn communication. Exell and Leale (1974:306) state that 'This is the first instance in which the phrase "word of the Lord" is applied to a Divine communication'. God's words to Abram: 'Do not be afraid, I am your shield; your reward shall be very great' was necessary because Abram was afraid that God's promises would not be fulfilled. God promised to give him land, but Abram has not yet possessed it. God promised to make his offspring like the dust of the earth, but Abram had no son. Again, as a result of the impending danger in the land where Abram lived, God reassured him that he was his shield. Calvin (2015) asserts that Chedorlaomer and his associates had been overcome in battle, yet Abram provoked them excessively so that they might, with fresh troops and with renewed strength, attack the land of Canaan again.

Abram's response to the divine promise depicts a state of anxiety and perplexity. He questions the promise because he is childless. The interrogative statement מַה־תִּתֶּן־לִ֔י [what will you give me?] is not rhetorical; rather, it is a question that requires a response. Speiser (1990:111) notes that 'The question can be put in another way: "To what purpose are you gift?" This question refers to the promise of rewards in the preceding verse'. Exell (1978) writes that:

God had given Abram everything but a child, and therefore it seemed to him that all this flow of God's love was running into a pool where it could only stand still. (p. 604)

Exell adds that Abram had no child; all his goods were in the hands of a steward, a true servant, but still not a son; what was to become of all these tokens of God's love? Ellicott (2018) avers that there is a slight tone of complaint in the statement: 'What will you give me, for I continue childless'. God repeats the promise, expanding on it and adding the sign of the heavens: Abram's descendants will be as numerous as the stars in the sky. Likewise, Barnes (1870) reports that notwithstanding the pricelessness of the promise, Abram is still childless and landless; and God has made no sign of action concerning these esteemed promises. Hence, of what use will land or wealth be to Abram, the immediate reward specified by the promise?

In the second part of Genesis 15:2, the statement אָנֹכִ֖י הוֹלֵ֣ךְ עֲרִירִ֑י [I go childless] is used metaphorically and means 'I am going out of this world in this condition' (Calvin 2015). Seeing that he was advanced in age, Abram was worried about his childlessness because of the need to have an heir after his death, going by the prevailing cultural practice of his time. Following the fundamental statement of promise, Abram protests, doubting that such a promise can be accomplished in the circumstances. The Lord responds to the doubt with a double statement of assurance (Brueggemann 1982:140). According to Skinner (1976:279), 'To die childless and leave no name on earth is a fate that even the assurance of present fellowship with God brings no hope or joy'. Richard and Roland (2003) assert that Abram complains, like Kirta and Danil in the Ugaritic texts, that he is still denied the one thing that he wants - his son to carry on his name. Abram knew that it was a misfortune among his people for a man to die without a child, especially a male child. An advanced man in socio-cultural Israelite society who had no son was tantamount to a deceased man. Likewise, Assohotto and Ngewa (2006) affirm that:

Like a true African, Abram's greatest need was a child. If he remained childless, his only option was to adopt an heir, and the one he was considering to adopt was Eliezer of Damascus. (p. 33)

Genesis 15 describes Eliezer as Abraham's heir even though he was not a blood relative of the family. It is believed that Abraham had earlier adopted Eliezer as son and heir (Selman 1974). Hoezee (2022) posits that Abram made legal arrangements about giving the right of inheritance to his heir as it was prevalent at that time to make sure the whole thing would not end up in probate court after he had died.

Genesis 15:3 states that the major reason for Abram's adoption of an heir was for the succession of his household. The use of the particle הֵן [behold] before לִ֔י לֹ֥א נָתַ֖תָּה זָ֑רַע [you have given me no offspring] is for emphasis. Benson (2004) comments that Abram was not worried because he had no son, but because he had no child (neither male nor female) with whom the promise of the covenant would be fulfilled. This could imply that if Abram had a female child, she might be married subsequently and continue the generation of Abram probably in another clan other than Abram's clan, but there would be a mention of Abram's name as the father of the mother of a certain existing nation. But unfortunately, he did not have even such alternative hope.

Since Abraham has no descendants, his estate will pass to a member of his household. Abram has a detailed background of the heir even though the heir is not his biological offspring. Bock (2015) notes that the childless master (Abram) of the house is here represented as likely to be succeeded by a member of his household (Eliezer of Damascus). According to Skinner (1976:279), 'The expression "Eliezer of Damascus" refers to Abram's heir. In the absence of children or near relatives, the slave, as a member of the family, might inherit'. Though Eliezer of Damascus is said to have been in Abram's house, his parentage was of Gentile city; and Abram refers to it as conveying a reflection on his desolate case (Exell & Leale 1974:306). The Hebrew text does not make use of 'slave' as observed in some English versions such as the New Revised Standard Version. The use of 'a slave born in my house' and 'one born in my house' are latter additions to the original manuscript. Supporting this observation is Ellicott (2018) who argues that the use of 'one born in my house' is a mistake in the translation. The original text reads בֶן־בֵּיתִ֖י '(the son of my house)' and implies that the son of Abram's house was born by Abram's relative, a person well-known to him. Abram's heir was not a stranger to his house and kindred. Hamilton (2011) and Wenham (2017) aver that there may not be assurance about the custom that would result in Eliezer being Abram's heir. However, the extra-biblical sources from the Nuzi document in Mesopotamia indicate that a childless couple is allowed to adopt a slave who would then become responsible for assuming the responsibilities of a son - caring for the couple in their old age, seeing to their proper burial and mourning them following their death. The adopted slave would assume the right of inheritance. Abram's choice of Eliezer as his adopted heir could be a result of such practice at that time. Selman (1974:115) observes that 'A number of the Old Testament patriarchal narratives have parallels at Nuzi text. One of the examples is the inheritance narrative between Abram and Eliezer'. In verse 3, the verb יָרַשׁ means 'to seize', 'dispossess', 'take possession of', and 'inherit'. This implies that the son of Abram's house would possess Abram's possessions after his death. Hence, Abram was worried about transferring the right of inheritance to a relative other than his biological son. An adopted child is a source of great joy and blessing. But what Abram wanted was a child from his own body, and this is what God will give him (Assohotto & Ngewa 2006:33).

Genesis 15:6 reports that Abram renewed his confidence in God by immediately accepting God's promise. By this, Abram received an immediate applause from God; a divine sentence of approval. This is the famous statement about Abram's faith and is quoted in some New Testament texts such as Romans 4:3, Galatians 3:6 and James 2:23. This is one of the single most important Scriptures in the entirety of the word of God. In this, one finds the meaning of justification by faith. Abram was saved by grace through faith, not by his good works. Similarly, Clarke (1996) asserts that this is one of the most important passages in the Old Testament. It accurately contains and emphatically states the doctrine of justification by faith which occupies a considerable part of the epistles of Paul. Hale and Thorson (2007:153) aver that 'in this statement, we see the center of God's acceptance of man. Trust and humility are what God looks for in a man. In God's eyes, this counts as righteousness'.

 

Alternatives to child adoption in ancient Awkunanaw

In ancient Awkunanaw, the adoption of a child from an unknown background was seen as an abomination; there was rarely an adoption of children outside one's relative (Ewah, Echi, Ekwomchi, Onyeabor, and Ngene: interview). Members of the Awkunanaw community avoided adopting children from unknown backgrounds to maintain society and family cohesion (Atu, Ani, Ngwu, Nsude, and Aninwene: interview). Similarly, the Old Testament patriarch in Genesis 15 did not adopt an heir from an unknown background. Awkunanaw community devised other acceptable means of preserving the family name. There were alternatives for childless couples and families with no male child because members of the Awkunanaw community believe that adopting a child from elsewhere is a contamination of family lineage (Aninwene, Odoh Ngwu, Ugwu, Nwigwe, Ogbodo, and Ani: interview).

In ancient Awkunanaw, families without children or male children usually resorted to marrying a second wife. If, as a result of age or other factors, the husband were unable to perform his sexual obligation to the second wife, she is permitted by the husband to have sexual affairs with a younger man of their kindred who would perform the sexual duty on behalf of her husband (Atu, Ani, Ngwu, Nsude, and Aninwene: interview). However, the consent of the first wife was usually sought before such arrangements were made. Sometimes, it was the first wife who sought a girl from a good reputable family. Hence, it is culturally acceptable for a married man (whose first wife is barren or could not give the husband a male child) to take a second wife at the permission of the first wife. In most instances, the first wife would be happy that she has gotten a younger person who would help her with domestic chores and farm work (Ogbodo, Aninwangwu, and Ogbodoachime: interview).

Another alternative was adopting one's relative. However, it was done out of love and consent between both families. Such a system of adoption is common in some Awkunanaw villages such as Amechi, Ugwuaji, Amodu, Obuoffia, Akegbe, Akwuke, among others. Moreover, such relationships existed among relatives who maintained mutual interpersonal relationships (Echi, Nsude, and Ani: interview). In families where their daughter got pregnant out of wedlock and gave birth to a male child, the child may be adopted by his grandfather and thus, accorded the right of a son while the grandfather is alive. However, if the grandfather were dead, he may not be adopted by his uncles, especially if there is not much property left by the deceased grandfather (Aninwene and Ngwu: interview). Nevertheless, in ancient Awkunanaw, it was forbidden for someone to get pregnant out of wedlock. Such a person is considered to be a nuisance in her father's house (Atu, Odoh, Ngwu, Aninwene, Ewah, Ugwuonyia, and Ani: interview).

In ancient Awkunanaw, a man who had no male child saw himself as a man who had no child at all, even if he had numerous female children. Culturally, female children are not permitted to own their father's property (Ani and Ugwuonyia: interview). However, in rare cases, a man, by the permission of his kindred, may request that one of his daughters should forfeit marriage. She is encouraged to get pregnant and if she gives birth to a male child, her father gets reassured. However, such was not an acceptable cultural practice (Ani, Ogbodoachime, Odoh, Aninwangwu, and Echi: interview).

 

Studying Genesis 15:1-6 in relation to child adoption in Awkunanaw

The study of Genesis 15:1-6 reveals that Abram's adoption of Eliezer as an heir was a result of Abram's loss of hope of getting a biological son. This is also the major reason for adoption in the contemporary Awkunanaw. Whereas Abram was careful to adopt from a known background, parents in contemporary Awkunanaw adopt from any available source, including from an unknown background. Moreover, adopting a child from an unknown background was not original in Awkunanaw in particular, but in Igboland in general. The text also indicates that Abram adopted an heir from a background well known to him. However, in the contemporary Awkunanaw, many childless couples go to any extent to get a child, even though the background of the child is unknown. Amato (2000) avers that infertility in marriage could cause marital conflict and lead to separation or divorce. Child adoption appears to be a viable solution to the problem of infertility in Igbo society. Likewise, Nwaoga (2013) observes that it is common knowledge that most women in Nigeria and Igboland can do anything to get a child because having a child gives them 90% right to stay in their husband's house. However, some studies report that in Igboland, some infertile women are not willing to adopt children as a result of the socio-cultural effects which might follow afterwards (Ezugwu et al., 2002; Omosun & Kofoworola 2011). The implication of adopting a child from an unknown background may bring about some negative consequences subsequently (Nwachukwu, Nweze, Ngene, Ngwu, and Nwagu: interview).

Abram was worried that one who was not his biological son might be his successor, even though according to the text, the heir was a member of his household. He thought of the implication of what he was about to do. Abram's name and fame may be forgotten if his successor was not his seed. Moreover, the text did not indicate that Abram's adoption of an heir, Eliezer was through any illicit arrangement or plan; adoption of Eliezer never upheld any immoral practice. However, the reverse is now the case in the contemporary Awkunanaw community where couples patronise various baby-making industries. There was no deceit in Abram's adoption of an heir. In the contemporary Awkunanaw, many women fake pregnancy when planning to adopt a child from a baby factory. Omeire et al. (2015) assert that women who fake pregnancies prefer to purchase babies from baby factories and claim such as their biological babies rather than formally adopting children from orphanages. They do this to create the impression that the woman is capable of becoming pregnant and that she is not unproductive after all. The second reason is to secure the new child's socio-cultural acceptability and remove from the child the stigma associated with adopted children (Omeire et al. 2015). This, however, creates more problems than solutions in subsequent times. The adopted child may be the biological child of an armed robber or prostitute (Ene, Edeh, Egbo, Ugwunta, and Odoh: interview).

Abram's acceptance of God's words paved the way for his emancipation from the dangers of adopting a child from an unknown background. In the contemporary Awkunanaw, there are very few couples who still maintain the traditional practices of Awkunanaw by keeping away from adopting a child from an unknown background. More so, some couples decide to remain childless until God gives them children either through natural means or medical intervention (Aninwene, Ewah, Nwachukwu, Odoh, Onyeabor, Ugwu, and Ugwunta: interview). The aftermath of illegal adoption as well as adopting children of unknown backgrounds is sometimes unfavourable.

Husbands and wives who intend to adopt a child should be aware of the dangers associated with adopting from an unknown background. The lineage of the adopted child might be known for a particular social vice such as stealing, fierce anger, prostitution among others. The child, while growing, may in one way or the other bring problems in the family and also influence people around him or her. It can also breed sexual misconduct, particularly in a family where a male child is adopted among female children since he is not biologically related to the female children (Ugwuonah, Ejim, Okoli, and Uzo: interview). Awkunanaw community forbids an adopted individual to be a community leader. Moreover, in the Awkunanaw traditional fellowship meal, an adopted child is not permitted to participate. It is the leftover meal that adopted children may be allowed to partake in (Aniagu, Aniebe, Aninwangwu, Odoh, Ogbodoachime, and Ugwuonyia: interview). The trauma of social marginalisation faced by an adopted child may be unbearable. It is the joy of parenthood and transfer of inheritance that usually propel childless couples and couples without male children into adoption.

 

Recommendations

• Members of the Awkunanaw community should refrain from patronising baby-making factories because it encourages immorality among the youths.

• They should maintain the cultural practice of adopting children from known backgrounds.

• They should refrain from fake pregnancy; faking pregnancy while adopting a child implies that such means of adoption are socially unacceptable.

• Law enforcement agents should fish out baby-making factories in all Local Government Areas in Awkunanaw and take necessary disciplinary actions against them.

• Couples who remain childless till old age can bequeath their inheritance to a relative.

 

Conclusion

The study of Genesis 15:1-6 reveals that Abram adopted a son whom he already had a close relationship with - a son born in his house. He adopted an heir from among his relatives. Hence, Abram adopted a son whose identity he knew. Unfortunately, the dominance of baby-making industries is a challenge to embracing this Old Testament practice of adoption among members of Awkunanaw. Be that as it may, members of the Awkunanaw community should endeavour to borrow a leaf from the patriarch (Abram) to spare themselves from the problems associated with adopting children from unknown backgrounds. Couples who need children should be conscientious when considering getting a child into their family to maintain a socially healthy family tier. Adoption of a child from a strange source and unidentified background should be frowned upon by members of the Awkunanaw community. This will enable Awkunanaw people to preserve and easily transmit their cultural and social values to subsequent generations and, to a great extent, minimise the infiltration of social vices and other menace which can be bred by illicit adoption. Among many works which focus on adoption, this research is distinct because the exegetical study of Genesis 15:1-6 aims at having a feasible solution to the problems of adoption of children from untraced backgrounds in the Awkunanaw community.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge and express their gratitude to Professor Dirk Human who registered the authors as research associates in the Department of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

C.S.U. wrote the sections of the study and article which border on 'Alternatives to child adoption in ancient Awkunanaw', and identified the appropriate methodology for the study. M.J.O. supervised the study and edited the original draft of the manuscript. O.G.C. wrote the section on the exegesis of Genesis 15:1-6, and did the final editing of the manuscript.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the Research Ethics Committee of the Department of Religion and Cultural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka and ethics consent was received on 09 May 2023.

Data availability

A greater percentage of the data used for this work was novel and was gathered from field work (personal communication). Data generated are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author, O.G.C.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

References

Alter, R., 1981, The art of Biblical narrative, Basic Books, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Amato, P., 2000, 'The consequences of divorce for adults and children', Journal of Marriage and the Family 62(4), 1269-1278. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01269.x        [ Links ]

Assohotto, B. & Ngewa, S., 2006, 'Genesis', in T. Adeyemo (ed.), Africa Bible Commentary, pp. 9-84, Word Alive, Nairobi.         [ Links ]

Barnes, A., 1870, Genesis chapter 31, viewed 15 January 2024, from https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/bnb/genesis.html.         [ Links ]

Benson, J., 2004, 'The Book of Genesis', in T. Carlton & J. Porter (eds.), Benson Commentary on the Old and New Testaments, pp. 48-75, T. Mason & G. Lane, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Bock, D., 2015, 'Genesis', in B. Witherington & B.T. Arnold (eds.), New Cambridge Bible Commentary, pp. 116-189, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.         [ Links ]

Brueggemann, W., 1982, Interpretation Genesis: A Bible Commentary, for Teaching and Preaching, John Knox Press, Atlanta, GA.         [ Links ]

Calvin, J., 2015, 'Genesis', in Calvin's Old Testament Commentary, pp. 18-59, Delmarva Publications, Salisbury.         [ Links ]

Clarke, A., 1996, 'Genesis 15', in Adam Clarke's Commentary, pp. 52-91, Abingdon Press, Nashville, TN.         [ Links ]

Cook, J.E., 2010, 'Genesis', in D. Durken (ed.), New Collegeville Bible Commentary, pp. 43-66, Liturgical Press, Collegeville, PA.         [ Links ]

Ellicott, C.J., 2018, 'Book of Genesis', in Ellicott Bible Commentary for English readers, pp. 14-86, Cassel and Company, London.         [ Links ]

Exell, J.S., 1978, 'Genesis Vol. 1', in The Bible illustrator, pp. 595-621, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Exell, J.S. & Leale, T.H., 1974, The Preacher's complete Homiletic commentary, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Ezugwu, F., Obi, S. & Onah, E., 2002, 'The knowledge, attitude and practice of child adoption among infertile Nigerian women', Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 22(2), 211-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443610120113463        [ Links ]

Hale, T. & Thorson, S., 2007, The applied Old Testament commentary, Morris and Winrow, Ontario.         [ Links ]

Hamilton, V.P., 2011, An Exegetical Commentary, Baker Academic, Ada, MI.         [ Links ]

Hoezee, S., 2022, Sermon Commentary: Genesis 15:1-12, 17-18 Commentary, viewed 05 February 2024, from https://cepreaching.org/sermon-commentary/.         [ Links ]

Mba, F., 2013, 'How teenagers, desperate couples fuel baby factories', Sunday Vanguard, 01 December, pp. 3-8.         [ Links ]

Norman, S., 2003, 'Adoption', in C. Brand, C. Draper & A. England (eds.), Holman illustrated Bible dictionary, pp. 29-31, Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, TN.         [ Links ]

Nwaoga, C.T., 2013, 'Socio - Religious implications of child adoption in Igboland South Eastern Nigeria', Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 4(13), 705-710. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n13p705        [ Links ]

Obiorah, M.J., 2015, Bibliotheca Divina: A basic introduction to the study of the Bible, University of Nigeria Press, Enugu.         [ Links ]

Omeire, C.O., Iheriohanma, E.B.J., Osita-Njoku, A. & Omeire, E.U., 2015, 'The challenges of child adoption and the emergence of baby factory in South Eastern, Nigeria', International Journal of Education and Research 3(8), 63-74.         [ Links ]

Omosun, A. & Kofoworola, O., 2011, 'Knowledge, attitude and practice towards child adoption amongst women attending infertility clinics in Lagos State, Nigeria', African Journal of Primary Health Care and Family Medicine 3(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v3i1.259        [ Links ]

Richard, J.C. & Roland, E.M., 2003, 'Genesis', in R.E. Brown, J.S. Fitzmyer & R.E. Murphy (eds.), The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, pp. 8-43, Burns and Oates, Trenton, NJ.         [ Links ]

Selman, M.J., 1974, 'The social environment of the patriarchs', Tyndale Bulletin, 114-136, viewed 26 June 2024, from https://tyndalebulletin.org; https://doi.org/10.53751/001c.30630.         [ Links ]

Skinner, J., 1976, A critical and exegetical commentary on Genesis, T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh.         [ Links ]

Speiser, E.A., 1990, 'Genesis' in W. David, F. Noxwell & A. Freedman (eds.), The Anchor Bible, pp. 110-115, Doubleday, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Uzor, A., 2014, '2500 Teenagers Rescued from Baby Factories', The Nation Newspaper, 4 January, p.1.         [ Links ]

Wenham, G.J., 2017, 'Genesis 1-15, Volume 1', in D.A. Hubbard & G.W. Barker (eds.), Word Biblical Commentary, pp. 322-335, Zondervan Academic, Grand Rapids.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Onyekachi Chukwuma
onyekachi.chukwuma@unn.edu.ng

Received: 19 Mar. 2024
Accepted: 05 Aug. 2024
Published: 06 Nov. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Re-reading Genesis 24:55b-60 in the context of marriage by proxy in Awkunanaw, Enugu State

 

 

Chisom S. Ugwuewo^{I, II}; Mary J. Obiorah^{II, III}; Damian O. Odo^{II, III}

^IDepartment of General Studies/JUPEB, Faculty of Education and Arts, Madonna University of Nigeria, Okija Campus, Okija, Nigeria
^IIDepartment of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIIDepartment of Religion and Cultural Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Genesis 24:55-60 takes cognisance of the right of a damsel in marriage arrangement. The study aims to examine Genesis 24:55-60 in the context of marriage by proxy in Awkunanaw, Enugu State, Nigeria. The methodology employed in this study is narrative analysis. The findings of the research indicate that marriage by proxy has been a longstanding practice in ancient Awkunanaw. The approach to this practice has evolved between ancient Awkunanaw and contemporary Awkunanaw. The study also reveals that damsels were granted the right to choose their life partners within the socio-cultural context of Genesis 24:55-60. The Hebrew phrase supporting this claim is niqrä' lanna'árä, meaning 'we will call to the girl'. This suggests that Rebekah, the damsel in the text, consented to the marriage made on her behalf. Therefore, the study recommends that parents and guardians in contemporary Awkunanaw should adopt the socio-cultural practices of Laban's society, as indicated in the study, to help curb the state of chaos within families in Awkunanaw.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This study emphasises the need to advocate for the rights of young women in Awkunanaw concerning marriage by proxy. It indicates that allowing a woman to choose her marriage partner would help reduce domestic violence and other marital crises in Nigeria, particularly in Awkunanaw

Keywords: marriage by proxy; Genesis 24:55b-60; consent; Old Testament; selfless motive.

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Introduction

Marriage by proxy in the Old Testament text of Genesis 24:55b-60 takes into consideration the consent of the damsel who is being intended to be married by a suitor, who is often represented by another person probably from the family tier. Henry (2003:15) observes that the provenance of proxy marriage is a long-time establishment with an emphasis that its first recognition can be traced back to biblical times and events. Hence, marriage by proxy has been a perennial practice in the Old Testament and has been a welcomed development because it often led to good and successful marriages. This socio-cultural practice of the ancient Israelites was never performed for material benefit. Similarly, in the pristine Awkunanaw society, parents do not allow their daughters to be engaged or married to any man whose source of wealth is questionable. Marriage by proxy in the contemporary Awkunanaw has taken another dimension and trend other than it was in ancient times. In the past, marriages were arranged by parents for their children with the sole aim of establishing a high moral background and success for their children. Most times, a mutual relationship that existed between two friends always resulted in such marriage for those friends' children so as to retain the friendship and secure a good background for their children. Most of such marriages were always successful. It is quite regrettable to observe that in the contemporary Awkunanaw society, parents wish and plan towards making their children marry a well-to-do man who is financially buoyant, a man who is academically established alongside other expectations without giving a solemn thought to the background, attitude and moral rectitude of such a man. On the other hand, some parents forbid their sons from getting married to certain young girls because they are from poor backgrounds and uneducated. They relegate to the background and moral rectitude of such girls. This other approach of marriage by proxy in recent times has created perennial problems such as domestic violence and incessant divorce among various couples in Awkunanaw. Therefore, the aim of the researchers in this article is to explore the literary unit Genesis 24:55b-60 in the light of marriage by proxy in the Awkunanaw society of Enugu State. The approach adopted in the study is narrative analysis. The narrative method is used to study a biblical text which is in prose form. According to Obiorah (2015:96), the 'narrative method is used to study the place, characterisation of persons and events in the story, and point of view taken by the narrator'. The narrative method is apt for this study because the text of the study, Genesis 24:55b-60, is a narrative.

 

Historical context of Genesis 24:55b-60

The event as narrated in the text of Genesis 24 is one of the good examples of Ancient Near Eastern influence on the patriarchs of the Old Testament. Marriage transaction or arrangement was a predominant practice in Mesopotamia where Abraham lived with his father, Terah. Hence, marriage negotiation on behalf of young members of the then society by their parents and/or guardians was standard for marriage practice for that contemporary. This gives a clue as to why the negotiation for the marriage between Isaac and Rebekah, was conducted by Eliezer, on behalf of Abraham, and Rebekah's brother and father. It was typically a major practice among ancient Mesopotamians who surely did feel love. Marriage in ancient Mesopotamia was a legal transaction and was treated as such, often between the groom and the bride's father or, more often, between two families (Bertman 2003:121-122). In this kind of marriage negotiation, it is left for both parents and/or guardians to make a decision, hence in Genesis 24, the negotiations for the marriage were between Eliezer, on behalf of Abraham, and Rebekah's brother and father. Both intending couples would have no say in that matter. This gives a clue to why Isaac practically had no say in the matter regarding his marriage. The same thing applies to Rebekah though she was consulted to seek her consent according to the vv 57-58 of that text (Gn 24). This Mesopotamian practice influenced Israeli culture through the pioneer patriarch of Israel. It was after this interaction with Mesopotamian people that Israel adopted marriage negotiation and transactions as part of their major cultural practices. In support of this, the Library of Apostolic Faith Church (2024:14) notes that in the culture of that time of Isaac and Rebekah, it was the right and social duty of the father to typically arrange the marriage for his children.

 

Close reading of Genesis 24:55b-60

The text of Genesis 24:55b-60 brings into focus the consent of the damsel who is being intended to be married by a suitor. The prospective husband is often represented by another person probably from a family tier. A close reading of Genesis 24:55b-60 is examined in this section.

 

Clash of interest between Eliezer and Rebekah's paternal members (vv 54b-56)

There is a clash of interests here; Eliezer wanted the damsel to follow him immediately to his master's house as the new wife of his master's son. But in contrast to his wish, Laban, the damsel's brother and the maiden's mother saw it as an impromptu arrangement. Therefore, they raised objection to the idea at once. The Hebrew שַׁלְּחֻ֥נִי לַֽאדֹנִֽי which is translated in various English versions as 'send me away to my master', 'send me back to my master', 'send me away unto my master' and send me away that 'I may go to my master' are not the actual representation of the original text. Though the thought of the text is not completely altered, there is an addition of elements which are not part of the original text as seen clearly in the Hebrew text. שַׁלְּחֻ֥נִי לַֽאדֹנִֽי is best translated as 'send me to my lord' or 'send me to my master'. The addition of other elements such as 'send me away', 'send me back' and 'send me that I may go' seem to be the corruption of the manuscript. The verb שַׁלְּחֻ֥נִי derives its root from the root of the Hebrew verb 'to send'. The form of this verb in the study text is imperative. Whereas imperative in Hebrew denotes command, other volitives denote an appeal or supplication. For שַׁלְּחֻ֥נִי to be imperative implies that Eliezer requested that the family of Bethuel give him the authority to return to his master with Rebekah. He was not demanding that the damsel join him back home in a commanding tone. Unfortunately, this expected authority was not granted to him as he expected. Instead, there was an objection against his request (Ugwuewo 2023).

The response given to Eliezer by Laban, Rebekah's brother and Rebekah's mother was unfavourable for Eliezer. The Hebrew clause תֵּשֵׁ֙ב הַנַּעֲרָ֥ אִתָּ֛נוּ which is translated as 'let the damsel dwell with us' is volitive. Hebrews often use תֵּ to show its volitive that is request. תֵּ is not an independent word; it is usually attached to the word which is used to make the request. The English equivalent of תֵּ is 'let' or 'may'. So, תֵּשֵׁ֙ב הַנַּעֲרָ֥ אִתָּ֛נוּ is used in the text to express the intention of Laban and Rebekah's mother that it was not yet the right time for Rebekah to go with him as the daughter-in-law of Eliezer's lord.

Observing the event in the text, one would take note of Eliezer's uncontrolled impatience to return to his master with Rebekah. Spence-Jones (2004:54) concurs with this observation as he posits 'that Eliezer's immediate request to go with Rebekah shows that he is impatient to report to Abraham the success of his expedition'. According to Carson (1994):

[T]he servant of Abraham, Eliezer was a model of loyalty and persuasive speech, who commended his master's interests by word and deed. His speeches were finely judged to persuade Rebekah's family to give her in marriage to the unknown Isaac. (p. 90)

However, Mcgee (1997) explains that:

Laban and Rebekah's mother saw Eliezer's request as being in a hurry. Such a decision is not shrewd to be taken in a hurry. They need to be given at least ten days to tell Rebekah good-bye and to have better talk with her on Eliezer's mission of taking her as a wife for his master's son, Isaac. (p. 32)

Matthews, Chavalas and Walton (2000:101) interpret the text to mean that the 10 days that Rebekah's family requested would have given them a little more opportunity to make sure that everything was as it appeared to be. The Hebrew sentence אַל־תְּאַחֲר֣וּ אֹתִ֔י is translated in various English versions as 'do not delay me', 'hinder me not'. The words 'delay' and 'hinder' do not express the same meaning. Whereas delay designates a period of time when one has to wait for something, or a time or situation when something does not happen as it should, hinder, on the other hand, designates making something difficult for someone to do a thing. The root of the word תְּאַחֲר֣וּ is best translated as 'delay' not 'hinder'. From the happenings in the narrative as well as to retain the accurate Hebrew grammar in the text, אַל־תְּאַחֲר֣וּ אֹתִ֔י is best translated as 'do not delay me'. This denotes that there is no need for Eliezer to keep waiting longer and lingering on the outcome of the already achieved mission.

Henry (1991:15) interprets the text in the context of Eliezer being a responsible man who is dedicated to his duties. 'He (Eliezer) knew his master would expect from him on his arrival at home'.

 

Need to seek damsel's consent in marriage arrangement and approval by parents (vv 57-58)

The bone of contention of this article is found in this text. Vv 57 and 58 of Genesis 24 contain the major subject matter the researchers are undertaking. These two verses narrate the invitation of Rebekah to inquire if it is her wish to go with Eliezer in order to become the wife of Eliezer's master's son. Rebekah was accorded regard in that proxy marriage. According to the narrative, she was neither coerced nor persuaded to accept the marriage. She was asked to make her choice. The Hebrew phrase וַיֹּאמְר֖וּ could also be used to mean that Laban and Rebekah's mother avowed publicly and bluntly that Rebekah must not be given out in marriage without giving her due regard. According to Alidon (2024:8), 'the paternal family of Rebekah leaves the time of departure up to Rebekah'.

The following Hebrew sentence נִקְרָ֣א לַֽנַּעֲרָ֑ translated as 'we will call the girl' as used in the text shows that Rebekah's parents were serious in seeking her consent for the marriage. נִקְרָ֣א לַֽנַּעֲרָ֑ is given a variety of translations by different English versions such as 'we will call the girl', 'we will call the damsel' and 'let us call the girl'. Therefore, נִקְרָ֣א לַֽנַּעֲרָ֑ is used in the text to insinuate that they want to engage Rebekah in a meeting in order to know her stand in that proxy marriage before giving her out to Eliezer to give to his master's son as a wife.

Another Hebrew group of words that needs description and explanation in v 57 is וְנִשְׁאֲלָ֖ה אֶת־פִּֽיהָ. This has been given various translations in the English versions. Some of these translations include: 'and inquire at her mouth', 'and consult her wishes', 'and ask her'. However, the English equivalent of this Hebrew sentence is: 'and we will inquire her mouth' or 'and we will ask her mouth'. To inquire about her mouth in this context means to seek her speech and to discover her opinion regarding the proxy marriage. This text denotes that Rebekah's parents are not ready to give Rebekah to that marriage if it is not her will. Seeking her consent indicates that they recognise her right as a young damsel to make a personal decision to become the wife of the husband already chosen for her through a proxy arrangement. From this foregoing, it implies that the confirmation of the will of YHWH in that proxy marriage is Rebekah's willingness to accept the man without any external influence. This is why it is highly necessary that her paternal family seek her consent privately.

There is a notable event in this text that triggered a quest for knowledge. A woman participated in the decision, especially in regard to the marriage arrangement of a damsel. This tends to contradict the already known practice in the Old Testament where the father is the head of all decision-making. This is obviously strange to patriarchal practice and system in the Old Testament. Be it as it may, Walvoord and Zuck (1985:225) clarify this confusing phenomenon by asserting that in that society, a woman as well as a woman's brother has the authority to give his sister in marriage, which explains why Laban, Rebekah's brother and her mother, were the negotiators in this marriage contract.

Henry (1996:97) and Canel (2012:65) reveal that before the matter of the proxy marriage is resolved, the damsel's voice must be heard, particularly her own words from her mouth. The damsel is the party who is principally concerned in the matter at hand. Therefore, she ought not to be ignored. Her consent is more important than that of everyone else. She must be principally consulted because her final decision determines the fate of the emissary for the marriage proxy.

Verse 58 tells about the meeting with Rebekah. וַיִּקְרְא֤וּ לְרִבְקָה֙ 'and they called to Rebekah' denotes the family meeting at Bethuel's house where Rebekah is specifically invited for her consent to be sought. Her parents thought it is wise to accord respect and regard for her as a damsel who has the right and privilege to take the decision of who to spend the rest of the days of her life with, under the web of marriage. The meeting with her is a private affair between her and her paternal family. The essence of this meeting is to find out the proper response which Laban and Rebekah's mother would give to Eliezer afterwards. The agendum of this family meeting is to inquire from Rebekah her mind regarding the arrangement already planned by her parents. Though the proxy marriage has been arranged, its reality and feasibility will be determined by the willing acceptance of Rebekah to be the wife of the unknown man arranged for her. The Hebrew interrogation used to show the line of this discussion in the meeting is הֲתֵלְכִ֖י עִם־הָאִ֣ישׁ הַזֶּ֑ה which is translated 'will you go with this man?' implies that Rebekah was neither coerced nor persuaded to accept the marriage proposal made on her behalf. This question directed to Rebekah is used to attest to the fact that she was formally consulted by her parents to inquire if it is her wish to accept the marriage. Though הֲתֵלְכִ֖י עִם־הָאִ֣ישׁ הַזֶּ֑ה is literally translated 'will you go with this man?', the implication of this interrogative statement is 'will you accept the proxy marriage proposal made by this man?' This question is apt because the major intention of the coming of Eliezer is to seek the hand of Rebekah in marriage for his lord's son, Isaac.

Wiersbe (1993:73) asserts that Rebekah's faith was rewarded. She shared Isaac's love and wealth, and she became an important part of God's plan. Had she refused to go, she would have died an unknown woman. The use of 'I will' by Rebekah denotes willing acceptance of the marriage proposal. Acceptance of that marriage by proxy by Rebekah is an indication of trust in YHWH and fulfilment of destiny. This corresponds to Abraham's acceptance of departure to an unknown land as commanded by the LORD. Both Rebekah and Abraham demonstrated trust. Rebekah never knew Isaac before accepting to marry him. Abraham had not known the place he was to make his abode before accepting to forfeit his ancestral heritage to that unknown land.

It is noted that Rebekah's name has connectivity with covenantal blessing to Abraham. According to Wenham (2000), the significance of Rebekah's name lies in the fact that it shares the consonants b and r with Abraham's name [~hrbaavraham] and the keyword 'blessing' [hkrb berakah]. Apart from the aforementioned literary link between Rebekah and Abraham, the connection of their faith in YWHW further reinforced the connection between their names. Keeryer (2022) posits that after declaring her intention to leave, Rebekah receives the blessing thus 'may you become thousands of ten thousand'. Teugels (2004) avers that it is at the marriage of Rebekah to Abraham's family that the fulfilment of Abraham's covenantal promise and blessing of becoming a great nation came to be realised.

 

Efficacy of mutual agreement and final blessing (vv 59-60)

The resolution made in the family meeting which culminated in mutual agreement between Rebekah and her parents consequently brought about happiness and celebration. The preparation to send Rebekah to her matrimonial home began afterwards. The Hebrew clause וַֽיְשַׁלְּח֛וּ translated 'and they sent away' needs clarification. The root of this Hebrew verb is 'to send'. The Qal form of this verb is always 'send'. Westminster Seminary (2001:18) observes that וַֽיְשַׁלְּח֛וּ is a verb, piel, imperfect, waw consecutive, third person masculine plural. Ordinarily, it should be regarded as an imperfect, but because it is in waw consecutive, its status has been transposed from imperfect to perfect tense. The best English translation of piel of the Hebrew verb root is 'sent away'. Eventually, Rebekah, by the confirmation of her acceptance of that proxy marriage, is hereby handed over to the man in the marriage by proxy. Fleming (2005:66) posits that sending Rebekah away by her paternal family implies paternal support and consent.

וַיְבָרֲכ֤וּ אֶת־רִבְקָה֙ translated 'and they blessed Rebekah' is an important element of this discussion. The Hebrew words בּרך and בּרכה meaning 'blessed' and 'blessing' are carefully and deliberately used. Usually, it is an expression and pouring out of great positive and pleasant wishes on another. This outpour of good intentions comes from the inward of the pourer. In the Old Testament, parents (especially fathers) are ontologically bestowed with the authority to bless their children, especially in their old age. This is called the testament of the patriarch. Therefore, ויַבְרֲָכוּ֤ אֶת־רִבקְָ ֙ ה denotes that Rebekah's parents have settled her in all ramifications of life. She has received her parental blessings to excel in all aspects of her life as a wife and mother. The details of their words of blessings which are contained in the Hebrew sentences אחֲתֹנֵ֕וּ אַתּ֥ הֲייִ֖ לְאַלְפֵ֣י רְבבָהָ֑ ויְי רִַ֣שׁ זַרְעֵ֔ךְ אֵת֖ שַׁע֥רַ שׂנְֹאָיֽו translated 'May you, our sister, become thousands of myriads; may your offspring gain possession of the gates of their foes' authenticate this parental outpour of blessings as a means of settling her. Calvin (2002:44) maintains that Rebekah's being blessed by her parents is comprehended as a prosperous state of life.

In summary, the parents of the damsel in the narrative were not desperate to give their daughter's hand in marriage (vv 54b-56). The discovery of the exegesis particularly vv 57 and 58 reveals that it was a common socio-cultural practice to seek the consent of a damsel in marriage arrangement. The parents of the damsel in the study text engaged her in a family meeting in order to seek her consent in that proxy marriage.

 

Brief history of Awkunanaw

Awkunanaw (also spelt Okunano) is one of the sub-clans that make up the Ntuegbenese clan, hence Awkunanaw Ntuegbenese. The Ntuegbenese clan comprises only five groups, all of which share a common legendary founding father whose name is known as Ntuegbe Eze. His five sons who came to be the founding fathers of the five sub-clans of Ntuegbenese are Ogwuwgwu, Owelli, Ihe, Agbogwugwu and Awkunanaw (Osagwede) or Akegbe-Eze. These towns are arranged in sequential order of their traditional seniority; this indicates that Ogwugwu is the eldest son (Ekwomchi in Nnaji n.d.).

There are various versions of opinions and submissions about the origin of Awkunanaw. Most of these records of the origin of Awkunanaw are orally represented. One of the notable versions reports that UbaOjene, a hunter who came from the Akaeze area and settled in Ogwugwu, was the progenitor of Ntuegbenese. When Ntuegbenese came to the age of responsibility, he married two wives. One gave birth to three boys namely, Ogwugwu, Agbogwugwu and Awkunanaw in order of elderly. The other wife gave birth to two boys namely, Owelli and Ihe in elderly order. Their father Ntuegbenese was known as Shikeaguma, but the names of these five sons came as a result of where they settled, not the original names given to them (Enechukwu 1993). The present-day Awkunanaw, otherwise called contemporary Awkunanaw, is found under the two following Local Government Areas in Enugu State. One is Enugu South where Amechi Awkunanaw, Ugwuaji Awkunanaw, Obeagu Awkunanaw and Akwuke Awkunanaw belong. The other one is Nkanu West where communities such as Amodu Awkunanaw, Obuofia Awkunanaw, AkegbeUgwu Awkunanaw and Umueze Awkunanaw belong.

Awkunanaw (Okunano) people used to be industrious independent farmers, whose social outlook and customs have been seriously influenced by their proximity to Enugu Township.

Farming used to count 100% of what the people of Okunano did for their living. Today, from the influence of urbanisation and proximity to the township, the status of the occupation of the people of Okunano changed, such that farming cannot count up to 30% of the clan's population. Of course, it will not be far from the truth that those who practise farming do so as a part-time job. (That is supplementary to white-collar jobs). Because of the dynamic nature of culture, the occupations of the whole communities of Okunano have greatly changed to civil service. In recent times and because of the nearness of Ogbete main market, Kenyatta market and Afor Okunano market, a number of the citizens of Okunano have joined the business world in the activities of buying and selling goods and services. The success of those in the business class has reduced the original occupation of farming to a part-time activity or hobby rather than a major means of living for the people. The surge into the business of buying and selling has adversely affected both the number entering schools and those wishing to do civil service jobs. This is a complete redirection of people's occupation. Moreover, a good number of the sons and daughters of Okunano have shown interest in modern politics and have even produced politicians of local, national and international reputes (Nwobodo 2001). Different political positions held by indigenes of Awkunanaw from Old Anambra State to date authenticate this claim.

 

Genesis 24:55-60 and marriage by proxy in Awkunanaw

It was a common practice for communities to abide by the tradition which gave parents the audacity to decide the choice of marriage of their daughters without the consent of their daughters. However, one of the discoveries from the exegesis of the study text contrasts this practice. The discovery of the exegesis, particularly vv 57 and 58 reveals that it was a common socio-cultural practice to seek the consent of a damsel in marriage arrangement. Such prevalent practice was revered in the social milieu of Bethuel's residence at that time. The attempt by Laban and Rebekah's mother to meet with Rebekah to inquire if it is her interest to accept the proxy marriage proposal gives credence to that. On this note, the researchers strongly propose that all communities including autonomous communities in Awkunanaw adopt this way of life. This would enhance mutual understanding as well as save each community from the incessant troubles caused by proxy marriage forced on damsels in the Awkunanaw clan. This new trend, if practically adopted, would present contemporary Awkunanaw as a civilised society among other civilised societies of the contemporary (Ugwuewo 2023). It would obviously indicate that the Awkunanaw clan has produced men and women who are enlightened and sophisticated, and are conversant with the global happening instead of being influenced by the archaic and unfavourable practice of ancient times.

It should be extended that a damsel must not be preyed on or her right violated because it is not in her interest to succumb to the personal will of their parents and guardians. As it was a known practice in the social-cultural days of the society of Bethuel, it should be made so in Awkunanaw. This practice must be followed by a strict warning against the deliberate marginalisation of a damsel for her refusal to accept marriage against her will. Stipulations should be enacted against parents and guardians who would be defiant. This practice would make Awkunanaw communities free of escalated violence often ensued between damsels and parents or damsels and guardians which usually disrupts the peace of the community. It would also aid the possibility of making every marriage ceremony a happy one instead of an avenue where a damsel is reluctant to participate in her marriage rites and celebration.

This part of the hermeneutics of the text is the heart of the discussion. First of all, the parents of Rebekah made an attempt to know if the marriage arrangement of their daughter was divine will. The finding of the exegesis which is used to imply that the plan for the marriage arrangement is directly from a divine source gives credence to this exegetical finding. Another corresponding Hebrew statement in the study text is the convincing of the LORD which denotes that Rebekah's parents accepted the proposal as the LORD has spoken. The only factor that motivated them to accept the marriage arrangement was divine involvement. They confirmed that the LORD is the initiator of the marriage from the onset. This exegetical discovery is found in vv 50-51 of the study text.

It is observed that in the traditional Awkunanaw society, it was the parents who used to decide the fate of their daughters in marriage (Nwobodo 2001:37). Awkunanaw parents are hereby encouraged to adopt by emulation, the approach used by Rebekah's parents. The major interest of the parents in the study text is the conviction that YHWH is directly involved in that plan, hence they had no need to struggle over it. Parents of damsels in contemporary times should devise the necessary means to seek divine will in regard to the marriage approval of their daughters. It is high time they refused to be tossed by material gain and other personal interests while considering the acceptance of the suitor of their daughters. Sentiments caused by social status as well as other acquisitions of a suitor or a damsel before approval of the choice of marriage partner of a damsel by concerned parents should be abrogated. Rather, such concerned parents should trust it in the hand of the LORD for proper execution. It is observed that in recent times, some parents in the Awkunanaw clan have arranged fake prophetic oracles in order to lure their daughters to accept a man of their choice as a husband. Most times, the factors that motivate parents to decide approval of their daughters' choice of marriage and acceptance of marriage rites on behalf of their daughters are not far fetched from avarice and gluttony (Ugwuewo 2023:131). It is against this practice that the exegetical lesson of the study text warns contemporary Awkunanaw parents to desist. This will enhance the tranquillity and progress of Awkunanaw society. Parents of contemporary Awkunanaw are strongly advised to absorb on every occasion and where necessary, the finding of this exegesis. This will enable to curbing of social vices often bred by enforcing marriage on a damsel. They are expected to use necessary means with respect to their belief to seek divine approval before taking any action regarding the proposed suitor of their daughters. This will greatly help to minimise the menace of coercing a damsel to accept or not accept certain marriage proposals.

A typical marriage arrangement in Awkunanaw involves a middle person often called onye na-eji otuwa or onye otuwa. This person is an individual who is trusted by the family of the damsel who would be a channel of communication between the families of both the proposed bride and the proposed groom (Nwala 2000:41). Onye na-eji otuwa could be a man or woman who is trusted to have a good reputation and worthy character. Such a person could be married or single. According to Nnaji (n.d.), such a person could be a man or a woman and must be a very close family friend or relation.

The equivalent of onye otuwa or onye na-eji otuwa in the study text is Eliezer. The finding of the exegesis reveals that Eliezer's mission to the family of Bethuel to take a wife for Isaac was not in selfish interest. He went further to engage in the herculean task of commitment to prayer to seek YHWH's intervention and assistance. Onye otuwa or ndi otuwa (plural form of onye otuwa) should learn from the pattern adopted by Eliezer in that proxy marriage in the study text. They must not betray the trust the families have in them. They must be objective in their opinion of the marriage arrangement in order to maintain tranquillity and transparency on both sides (Ugwuewo 2023).

 

Recommendations

The recommendations are as follows:

• Parents of the contemporary Awkunanaw should learn from the parents of Rebekah to allow their daughters to make choices about their marriage partners and the responsibilities that follow afterwards.

• Damsels of Awkunanaw origin should advocate for their rights, and they can always do that by making special reference to Genesis 24:57-58.

• Individuals who are often the middlemen or women in marriage by proxy should learn from Eliezer who was selfless in his mission to take a wife for the son of his master.

• Various communities in Awkunanaw should make a communal law which should support seeking the right of a damsel in any marriage arrangement.

 

Conclusion

Marriage by proxy in the study text, Genesis 24:55-60 is a good platform for the establishment of an enactment that would give strong allegiance to the right of a damsel in marriage by proxy in the Awkunanaw socio-cultural milieu. The preying of some damsels by their parents or guardians for their selfish interest has been in existence since the time of ancient Awkunanaw. Some parents in the ancient and contemporary Awkunanaw have exchanged their daughters for wealth. They usually do this by coercing them into marrying a wealthy suitor whom they do not wish to marry. It is reported that damsels who have experienced this bad encounter are numerous in Awkunanaw society. Both ancient and contemporary Awkunanaw societies have witnessed this practice. The text becomes a veritable tool to handle the issue of such practice in Awkunanaw society.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

C.S.U., M.J.O. and D.O.O. all contributed equally to the writing of this research article.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Ethical considerations

This article does not contain any studies involving human participants performed by any of the authors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

References

Alidon, J.D., 2024, A wife for Isaac, Scribd Inc, viewed 30 June 2024, from https://www.scribd.com/document/431165781/A-Wife-for-Isaac        [ Links ]

Calvin, J., 2002, Calvin's commentaries, Galaxie Software, viewed 20 August 2024, from https://ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom01/calcom01.i.html        [ Links ]

Canel, A.N., 2012, Marriage and family life, Remzi Publishing, İstanbul.         [ Links ]

Carson, D.A., 1994, New Bible commentary: 21st century edition, 4th edn., Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester.         [ Links ]

Enechukwu, A., 1993, History of Nkanu, Kaphof Publishers, Enugu, OR.         [ Links ]

Fleming, D.C., 2005, Commentary on Genesis 24:59, viewed 27 July 2024, from https://www.studylight.ord/commentaries/bbc/genesis-24.html.         [ Links ]

Henry, A., 2003, Marriage in the Bible Times, InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, IL.         [ Links ]

Henry, M., 1996, Matthew Henry's Commentary on the Whole Bible: Complete and unabridged in one volume, Hendrickson, Peabody, MA.         [ Links ]

Keeryer, 2022, The Portrayal of Rebekah in Genesis 24. Writing Contest. Pressbooks: Simple Book Production, viewed 05 September 2024, https://www.portrayalofrebekahingenesis24.         [ Links ]

Library of Apostolic Faith Church, 2024, viewed 28 July 2024, from https://www.apostolicfaith.org/daybreak-and-discovery/genesis-24-1-67.         [ Links ]

Matthews, V.H., Chavalas, M.W. & Walton, J.H., 2000, The IVP Bible background commentary, electronic edn., InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, IL.         [ Links ]

McGee, J.V., 1997, Thru the Bible commentary, electronic edn., Thomas Nelson, Nashville, TN.         [ Links ]

Nnaji, L.T., n.d., History of AwkunanawNtuegbenese, Madonna Printing Press, Enugu, OR.         [ Links ]

Nwala, U., 2000, History of Enugu South Local government, Publication of Enugu South Local Government, Enugu, OR.         [ Links ]

Nwobodo, C.N., 2001, Okunano: A case of common origin, common identity & Pseudo-Dichotony, SUMAKS, Enugu, OR.         [ Links ]

Obiorah, M.J., 2015, Bibliotheca Divina. A basic introduction to the study of the Bible, University of Nigeria Press Ltd., Nsukka.         [ Links ]

Spence-Jones, H.D.M., 2004, The pulpit commentary: Genesis, Logos Research Systems, Inc., Bellingham, WA.         [ Links ]

Teugels, L.M., 2004, Bible and Midrash: The story of "The Wooing Rebekah" (Gen. 24), Contribution to Biblical Exegesis and Theology:35, Peters, Leuven.         [ Links ]

Ugwuewo, C.S., 2023, 'Genesis 24:50-60 and the Right of a Damsel in Marriage by Proxy iAwkunanaw, Enugu State', Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Religion and Cultural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.         [ Links ]

Walvoord, J.F. & Zuck, R.B., 1985, The Bible knowledge commentary: An exposition of the scriptures, Dallas Theological Seminary, Victor Books, Wheaton, IL.         [ Links ]

Wenham, J.G., 2000, Genesis 16-50. Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 2, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Westminster Seminary, 2001, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia: With Westminster 3.5 Morphology, Westminster Seminary, German Bible Society, Stuttgart.         [ Links ]

Wiersbe, W.W., 1993, Wiersbe's expository outlines on the Old Testament, Victor Books, Wheaton, IL.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Damian Odo
damian.odo@tuks.co.za

Received: 30 July 2024
Accepted: 13 Sept. 2024
Published: 06 Nov. 2024

^rND^1A01^nWillem H.^sOliver^rND^1A01^nWillem H.^sOliver^rND^1A01^nWillem H^sOliver

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Serious games in service of Theology

 

 

Willem H. Oliver

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History, and Missiology, School of Humanities, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Serious games (SGs) are part and parcel of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and Education 4.0 that we are living in right now. A SG is an alternative educational approach where a part of the curriculum, in this case, the practical side of Practical Theology - being one of the subjects presented to prospective theologians and pastors - is presented in the form of a game, familiarising the students with practical issues in a congregation. This article takes the educator through the main steps on how to create an SG together with an entire team of people. The underlying goal of the article is to get one educator interested in venturing on this innovative and 'disruptive' expedition.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article involves all the disciplines of Theology, especially Practical Theology, as well as Psychology and Information Technology (IT) (especially the designer and developer). The content of this article can be applied to any person in any discipline (whichever discipline it is) who wants to create an SG for their students

Keywords: Theology; serious games; traditional education; parroting; educator-centred teaching; student-centred teaching.

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Introduction

We are currently living within the realm and era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which constantly impacts and changes what we do and even who we are (Pascoe 2022). One could say that this is in fact general knowledge. We cannot do now what we did in the past anymore, or be the same people as we were in the past - we have to adapt to this new normal. If we do not adapt, we will be trying to keep the past alive and in this way, becoming out of date, and in fact inefficient. With reference to education, the implication is that the institutions of higher education (IHEs) should also adapt to the new era, inter alia, with reference to the presentation and contents of their curricula (cf. Checa & Bustillo 2019:5501). This article aims to contribute to the way in which an alternative educational approach can be utilised in curricula within the faculties of Reformed Theology in Pretoria, Bloemfontein, and Stellenbosch in South Africa, with specific reference to the subject, Practical Theology.

It is alarming to observe that the style of presentation in classrooms has, in many cases, not changed much over the years (cf. Gous 2022:215¹; Caruth & Caruth 2013:12). Most of the time, the students are still sitting in the classroom while the educator presents a 'lesson' and they have to write down all the disseminated knowledge as quickly as possible - 'often without even thinking about it' (cf. King 1993:30). This pedagogical style already starts in the pre-graduate years where the students are taught biblical languages (Hebrew, Greek, and Latin) and other subjects. When the students commence with their post-graduate studies, they indulge in subjects like Old Testament, New Testament, Systematic Theology, Church History, Practical Theology, Missiology, and Christian Spirituality. This article suggests that the educators should give a serious thought to the implementation of an alternative educational approach like 'serious game' (SG) in their respective subjects.² Serious games in short are games played on smartphones within a learning environment, with the objective 'to develop skills and teach concepts in a ludic way' (Enoch 2022:1 of 6), requiring 'complex reciprocities of engagement, motivation, challenge, and flow'³ (Bjørner 2021:157), linked to enjoyment (cf. Sweetser & Wyeth 2005), also called entertainment or edutainment (Ge & Ifenthaler 2017; Moizer et al. 2022: 2 of 27).⁴ More characteristics and advantages of SGs will be discussed further.

Something that does not form part of the scope of this article, but needs to be addressed cursory, is that most Theology students have a part-time job as they are either married or in need of money to make ends meet for themselves, while they are studying. This means that they cannot focus all their attention on their studies, therefore mostly aiming to 'just pass' all their subjects. As the presentation of classes is still mostly done in an educator-centred style, the students quickly learn to just 'parrot' their educators in order to pass a subject at the end of the year because they do not have enough time to study.⁵

One of the red lights that flashes here is that during their 'tenure' at an IHE, the students are mostly presented with theory, even in a subject like Practical Theology, as the practical side of the subject is mostly conducted and discussed in a theoretical way, resulting in a 'weaker and less robust understanding' of the subject (Checa & Bustillo 2019:5502). The practical congregational scenarios - grassroots' level scenarios - which involve the congregants and all their needs and challenges ('problems') in a specific congregation, the congregation's administration, as well as field work, mostly do not enjoy the practical component at the Theological Faculty that should be attached to it. Students are therefore not practically trained enough to handle and administer situations in the congregation, like unwanted pregnancies, cohabitation, adoption, divorce, and post-divorce, and the youth, let alone LGBTQ+ congregants (Rasmussen 2022) 2020), and school or cyberbullying (cf. Van der Merwe 2020). Sabri, Moumen, and Fakhri (2021) have also experienced this challenge in their field of study, stating and asking:

Students develop a big commitment personally and invest financially to pursue their education and get the degree that opens many gateways for them, but what if the degrees don't match the skills required by most employers? (p. 1)

I have already addressed the issue of implementing a SG in 2019, with specific reference to the mastering of the biblical languages (cf. Oliver 2019:4-5 of 8). This article links to that article by implementing a SG, focusing more on practical situations in congregations. I am proposing that the educators in Practical Theology should seriously think of starting to design SGs in order to assist their students to handle these real-life congregational situations better.

 

A constructivist approach to learning

This article aligns the constructivist theory with and applies it to SGs. Constructivism can be divided in at least three broad categories, that is, cognitive constructivism of which Jean Piaget is the originator (cf. Brau 2018), social constructivism, which was developed by Lev Vygotsky (cf. Brau 2018), and radical constructivism, based on the works of Ernst von Glasersfeld (Von Glasersfeld 2002; cf. McLeod 2019). Cognitive constructivism argues that a student constructs their own knowledge from their current cognitive structures, in line with their cognitive development. During the teaching process, the educator must assist the student to assimilate the new information provided to them, with their existing knowledge, in this way modifying their existing intellectual frame of reference. Social constructivism, on the other hand, claims that learning is a process of collaboration between a student and their culture or society. Learning is therefore first a social interaction, followed by a personal action happening inside the student, making it their own. According to radical constructivism, one's senses are constructing all the knowledge that one has, meaning that the knowledge is not perceived - it is invented and not discovered. For the sake of this article, Piaget's cognitive constructivism will be followed as an applicable learning theory.

Obviously, (cognitive) constructivism is student-centred, in line with Education 4.0 (cf. Popenici & Kerr 2017). King likens the student to a carpenter 'who uses new information and prior knowledge and experience, along with previously learned cognitive tools (such as learning strategies, algorithms, and critical thinking skills) to build new knowledge structures and rearrange existing knowledge' (King 1993:30). Students are therefore not passive recipients of knowledge, but become active participants in 'a collaborative problem-solving environment' with their educator (McLeod 2019). This is in line with the words of King (1993:30), claiming that the educator is no longer the 'sage on the stage, [but the] guide on the side'. (He has already claimed this 30 years ago!)

 

A different era, a different classroom

A comparison between the current functioning of many Theology classrooms, and what Education 4.0 actually acquires from educators and students (cf. McLeod 2019) is presented in Table 1:

 

 

The difference between the traditional educator and the 21st-century student can be summarised in Table 2 as follows:

 

 

The classroom for 21st-century students requires the educators and students to share their knowledge with each other in a student-centred space. They are even sharing authority in this interactive classroom. This classroom - be it in-person or online - is therefore not the space for learning anymore, but it becomes the space for the development of skills according to the presented subject's requirements. In Practical Theology, where the students are required to familiarise themselves with the way in which challenges in congregations (already indicated above) are met and handled, the classroom must become a 'congregation' filled with challenges (individuals with 'problems') and solutions (counsellors who are assisting the 'people in distress'). The classes therefore become case studies where students are free to explore, make mistakes without endangering people or humiliating themselves, and also learn in 'real life' scenarios. The educator should act only as an advisor and an informed listener.

While skills should be developed inside the classroom, academic learning takes place in any other place, wherever the student prefers it. The new era in which we find ourselves, therefore calls for a different and innovative classroom, linked to 'disruptive stuff,' in the case above, mostly linked to SGs, which will take a lot of time to create, but will also bring much satisfaction for the educators (and the students). This will be discussed further in the text.

 

The advantages of serious games

As indicated earlier, today's students differ in many respects from the 'students of yesterday,' as 'they are seeking for more interesting, fun, motivating [games] and … prefer learning based on experiences' (Anastasiadis, Lampropoulos & Siakas 2018:139). They love to work in groups, being together 'all the time' - be it virtual or in-person. Their 'way of thinking, their concept of effective learning as well as their educational needs and requirements have drastically changed' (Anastasiadis et al. 2018:139).

An adjustment to student-centred education requires a changed classroom - one that could be supplemented by a SG. One may ask, 'But what is the advantages of a SG?' Almeida and Simoes (2019:121, 124) answer the question this way: '[S]erious games in an educational context promote the development of skills and abilities through immersive experiences, [while offering] a significant number of benefits, such as making players feel responsible for success according to their actions, combining high-quality content, showing great involvements, and turning errors into learning elements'. Anastasiadis et al. (2018) add that:

[S]erious games offer motivating and engaging experiences, interactive learning environments and collaborative learning activities [putting students] in a position of conflict and confrontation as they often have to compete or cooperate with each other [within] a constructivist learning environment. (p. 139)

Hall, Watson, and Kitching (2017:2 of 16) illustrate that SGs 'offer environments in which players feel comfortable to explore complex challenges and situations safely … without experiencing social stigma'. Gee (2003:23) focuses more on groups of students, called 'affinity groups' where individuals interact with each other, sharing their acquired 'knowledge, skills, tools and resources' (Gros 2007:30). These citations are filled with the kind of characteristics that a 21st-century student can identify with. Being in a student-centred environment, the educator has to seriously take note of these.

To assist the educator even more, Chandross and DeCourcy (2018:2 of 27) refer to core elements in higher education, including collaborating in groups or teams, making plans, taking decisions, and being resourceful within groups. These 'core elements', if recognised by the educator, are also part and parcel of SGs and will therefore enhance both the teaching and learning processes.

Something that will make life much easier for both educators and students, is the fact that because SGs involve continuous training (Mokhtar, Ismail & Muda 2019:331) and assessment - consisting of 'high-engagement learning' (Chandross & DeCourcy 2018:2 of 27; cf. Jacobs 2021:32) - the educator can easily replace many of their formative and summative assessments and assignments with a thoroughly planned SG. As many students are not comfortable with tests and exams, as these are in many cases accompanied for them by anxiety (De Klerk & Kato 2017:34), this seems to be the perfect solution. Shute (2011:503) describes this kind of assessment spot on as 'stealth assessment', as the students, while participating in the game, are not really aware of them being assessed.

In this environment, the educator is constantly in the background, monitoring every student, as they handle the challenges of a congregation by means of a SG. When the students therefore have questions, the educator should be available (at least within reasonable hours of the day) to supply prompt and direct answers (Anastasiadis et al. 2018:141; Mokhtar et al. 2019:331). Will this become overwhelming for the educator?

 

'This is asking too much!' versus 'This is imperative!'

Just to change the curriculum of a subject, requires ample time, currently not being linked to any incentives from the IHEs in South Africa where educators are working. The writing of books, chapters, and articles is linked to incentives and even overseas trips, making just the idea of recreating or revamping one's curriculum a very difficult decision. However, as the main goal of an educator is to teach (based on research done), it seems to be imperative to take the idea further and present a more innovative curriculum - one that is in line with Education 4.0. To bring an educator to this point, is already a massive step in the right direction. However, to convince an educator to take the next step and create a SG, could be 'asking too much'.

On the other hand, one will find the odd educator who already thinks in an Education 4.0 direction and who realises that the students will benefit from a SG, one who is prepared to forget about incentives for a while - and one whose IHE will be willing to allow that educator to present a SG. This is the person who will be willing to go all the way and create a SG. The question that the next section answers is how one goes about to create a SG.

 

The creation of a serious game

The first thing that an educator has to do when they decide to create and implement a SG, is to get a team together, as the educator cannot (in most cases) successfully do the job alone. According to Nousiainen et al. (2018:85), the educator must initially assess themselves with reference to their capability or competence in four main areas, namely the pedagogical, technological, collaborative, and creative areas. If the educators find themselves to be lacking some of these characteristics, they would need another educator with these characteristics to become part of the team. Notwithstanding this, the educator would do good to find an exciting and competent fellow educator to assist them in compiling the contents for the game - two academic heads are better than one. (For the sake of this article, I will constantly refer to 'educators' and 'students' in this concern). It would also be good to inform the Faculty about one's intention to create a game, thereby also introducing the members to this alternative and innovative way of learning.

The educators should also realise that this is a multidisciplinary effort (Bakhtiari 2022:3 of 6), as they will have to find both an interested and competent designer and developer for the game. The game designer's job is to design the concept, title, theme, and 3D animation of the game for a smartphone - in line with the curriculum and in cooperation with the educators. The game's mechanisms and rules also form part of these discussions. The game developer will utilise these mechanisms and rules to develop the game. However, the team is not complete yet, as the end user of the game - the student - should also be represented in the team. One or two students will make a positive contribution to the whole process, having a shared power and control over the curriculum and its contents (Camilleri 2017; Maheu-Cadotte et al. 2021:1 of 10). Bonnier, Andersen, and Johnsen (2020:25) explain that the students will be the best evaluators of the usability of the game. This team will have to organise many discussions between them in order to find each other ('get on the same page') and eventually to make the game playable.

Although the team is now complete, they cannot commence with the work. The reason? Funds. To create a SG is very cost-consuming (cf. De Klerk & Kato 2017:33), and the bigger the team wants to go, the more expensive this project will become. The team will have to sit down and responsibly decide on the amount of funds they need in order to complete this project. Together with this estimate, they must have a well-planned introduction, introducing the members of the IHE's board to SGs and the advantages thereof, also indicating that they have already done the groundwork (e.g., getting a team together) and specify what their job description and framework entail to finish the project. The IHE board could present a myriad of excuses not to fund the project, for example, being biased towards this venture, or simply not having the funds for it. If this happens, then many educators will think that this is the end of the road, but it is not. There is still the private sector, and in this specific case, the church institutions themselves. The private sector has much sympathy for projects like these, which will most probably make this a positive endeavour (cf. Hall et al. 2017:12 of 16). Somewhere someone will have a positive ear and fund the project. This can become very tiring and demotivating, but it should not. If the team feels that they are not up to it to get the necessary funding, then maybe it is time to get a professional marketeer (maybe one that works for their IHE) to help them deliver a better presentation in order to get the funds.

Having secured the funding (at last), the initial work is done. The next step involves the educators and students to compile the contents for the game, while the designer and developer take notes of the proposed contents. In our example case, using Practical Theology, the educators and students must decide which scenarios they need to be done in an interactive 3D animation (by the designer) to become part of the game (at least 50 scenarios), in order to teach the students enough about the congregational challenges, indicated above. This is an exhaustive venture and will take some time to complete. Doing that, and in cooperation with the developer and designer, the educators must make sure that the 'three high-level needs of autonomy, relatedness, and competence' are operationalised in each scenario (Jacobs 2021:32).⁷

At this stage, it would be good to decide on a name (title) for the game. Now everyone has some work to do. The designer⁸ and developer will have to start with the initial development of the game, including the 'rules' of the game (Enoch 2022:3 of 6), while the educators and students will have to write full scripts for at least five of the congregational scenarios⁹ (this also includes the distinctive questions that should be asked in the game on how to handle each scenario). This takes much longer than expected.

When the two groups of the team have finished this part of their work, then the team should come together again and discuss what they have done. The designer and developer will first show the app and start of the game, while the academical 'critics' will decide whether it is good enough or needs improvements and adjustments.¹⁰ The educators and students will then put the contents and questions of the first five of their congregational scenarios on the table for discussion.

It is then time for the designer to start with their arduous job to create the 3D animation. This also takes much longer than expected, as it must look authentic and have a good background and 'feel'. All the members of the team are therefore involved in this action, also the developer who must make sure that the scenarios are captured well enough to fit on the screen of a smartphone. When a scenario is finished to the satisfaction of every member of the team, the developer-cum-designer then take it and 'gamify' it.

When a scenario is fully loaded onto the game, then the students (and educators) must assess the prototype to see if it works properly,¹¹ if the scenario is clear enough on the screen, if the questions are fully relevant, if the overall 'feel' of the scenario is good, and how it can be improved (Enoch 2022:3 of 6). In this way, the team creates the game identity (Enoch 2022:3 of 6). Part of this is scaffolding.¹² This is a very important concept, as the scenario must neither be too intricate, nor too easy. It is also of no use to hurry everything at this stage (just to finish it) - as this is the most important part of the whole venture - where the game in its full format must be tested to the satisfaction of the educators and students. Having reached this point with all the scenarios (five at a time) completed, the game is ready to be used by the broader group of students. It would be good to go back to the Faculty and show the members the completed game (and invite them to play).

If everything goes according to plan, this venture will take the best part of a year to finish. However, the positive results flowing from this SG will make up for all the time that the team has spent on all the stages of the SG.

 

Excursus 1: Cognitive behavioural therapy

Multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary research (MIT) is currently a buzzword and something that every discipline at an IHE is recommended to do (cf. Schmalz, Janke & Payne 2019; Stock & Burton 2011). When the Practical Theology curriculum reaches the point where the students should do congregation work, especially counselling congregants with challenges or problems, it is highly recommended for the students to be exposed to a specific course in Psychology, called Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) (cf. Chan et al. 2021), before engaging themselves in doing this kind of work in a congregation, and then specifically also on the SG which will entail much counselling. Together with the SG, this course could form part of their Practical Theology training.

The American Psychological Association (APA 2017) gives a cursory discussion on CBT. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, being a kind of psychological treatment, effectively addresses and treats psychological challenges and mental illnesses, including marital problems, teenage pregnancies, depression, anxiety and eating disorders, and drug abuse (alcohol and nicotine included).

The core principles of CBT are (APA 2017):

• Wrong (faulty) ways of thinking easily lead to psychological problems.

• These are based on 'learned patterns of unhelpful [behaviour]'.

• With CBT, the counsellor can help the congregant ('patient') to cope with their problems, to relieve their symptoms, and to once again become more effective in life.

In order to do this, the congregant must be taught how to change their thinking patterns. The counsellor could use the following strategies, helping the congregant to:

• Identify the distortions in their thinking patterns, and to re-evaluate them.

• Use problem-solving skills that could assist them in coping with their situation in a better way.

• Start to believe (gain confidence) in their own abilities.

Apart from that, the congregant should be taught how to change their behavioural patterns. In this case, the counsellor should, in a collaborative way, help the patient to, where applicable:

• Face their challenges, not to avoid them.

• Use roleplay, preparing themselves to interact with people who could harass them or hinder them to live life to the full.

• Learn how to become calm and relaxed with everything they do.

The main aim of CBT is to help 'individuals to be their own therapists' (APA 2017). In order to reach this point, the counsellor should assist the patient to acquire a way of developing coping skills that would be unique for them and their situation, with which they will be able to change their personal emotions, thinking patterns, and behaviour in line with, and built on their faith.

What makes CBT so attractive, is that it focuses on a patient's current life, with less emphasis on their history. This is a more realistic way to cope with life. With this tool in hand, the students will be far better equipped to handle situations in a congregation and then also on the SG. The suggestion here is therefore that the students first do the CBT course before they engage in the SG. The implication is that the educators should have done the course before starting to compile the contents of the SG, in order to know what the correct questions for each scenario would be.

 

Excursus 2: 'Salaries' (bursaries) for theology students

Without going into too much detail, it is imperative to suggest here that when a student wants to become a preacher and they are screened positively for the job - before they start their studies - their church institution should 'employ' them from their first year onward. That implies that they will become part of a congregation from starters, and work at that congregation during the weekends and holidays (December excluded) on an annual basis (swopping congregations at the end of the year if necessary). By doing this, the students will not have to go and look for jobs and will have ample time to study and really become acquainted with a congregation's environment and space. This will create more diligent students, who are also more knowledgeable of the subjects that they take up at the IHE. This is no pipe dream, but should be made a reality.

Funds? The church institution does not have to pay a cent for all of these. The better way to go is the adopt-a-student option where a few families in a specific congregation will sponsor a student who is working in that congregation for a year. The church institution should also take care that all their students receive free Wi-Fi and that each of them has access to a smartphone.

 

Conclusion

This article approaches the educator with an 'impossible' challenge namely, to sacrifice the best part of 1 year of their life, to give up their peace and quiet lifestyle, to leave their comfort zone, and to become something they have never dreamt of: to be disruptive. In this article, the educator is introduced, maybe for the first time, maybe not, to SGs and the advantage of presenting a SG to their students. The educator finds a broad outline with suggestions on how to start with a SG, till it is completed. Read together with my previous article, being referred to, as well as all the articles and books being cited, the educator will hopefully have enough information to take an informed decision for or against a SG.

The two excursuses in this article are absolutely disruptive, firstly to recommend that the Faculty of Theology should reach out to Psychology and send its students there to pursue a course, and secondly, to employ all the Theology students in order to give them ample time to study and not waste their hours of time on frivolous stuff just to get money to make ends meet. To my mind, if church institutions really are serious about their students and the survival of their institutions, they will certainly take these recommendations seriously.

As the article has indicated, the motivated and willing educator (educators) who is willing to create a SG, has a strenuous task at hand, finding the right team members, creating the right scenarios for the SG, getting and holding everyone in the team on the same page, and making sure that the SG realises the expectations attached to it - being a quality SG and an indispensable tool in the hands of the educators-cum-students.

A very straightforward question that the educator should ask themselves, is: Why does a post-graduate decide to become an educator? The obvious answer should be to work with and teach students. The focal point of the educator should therefore be their students. The more committed the educator is, the more committed (most of) their students will be. When students realise that their educator gives their everything, they tend to give more attention to that subject. This breeds a love for the subject and many post-graduate students.

Student-centredness adds to the educator's better relationship with their students. Furthermore, when the educator 'goes over the top' and presents a quality SG to the students, then that educator will experience satisfaction on so many levels, including:

• The students will attend more classes - more students will attend the classes - where the scenarios in the SG can be discussed and debated, also creating new scenarios.

• The students will perform better in this subject, compared to others.

• There will be a camaraderie between the educator and the students.

• The SG could be counted as continuous assessment (portfolio), in whatever way the educator prefers it.

If there is just one educator that is touched by this article, then it has served its purpose.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

W.H.O. is the sole author of the research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, or the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Willem Oliver
wh.oliver@outlook.com

Received: 24 Apr. 2023
Accepted: 10 Aug. 2023
Published: 16 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. According to Gous (2022:215), '[t]he classroom of 2022 and the classroom of 1922 and 1822 looks disconcertingly similar, with the guiding pedagogies inside the classroom also fairly comparable'.
2. Ironically, the term 'serious game' is not a novelty, as it was first used by Abt (1970).
3. Cf. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) for an elaborated discussion on game flow.
4. Perna (2022:50) adds that the use of SGs results in positive effects with regards to numerous and diverse outcomes, such as knowledge acquisition, conceptual application, content understanding, action directed learning, affective and behavioural change, physiological outcomes, skill improvement, motivation, participation, engagement and improvements in both academic and work related tasks (also cf. Bai, Hew & Huang 2020).
5. This is called the transmittal model, assuming that the brain of a student (passive party) is like an empty vessel in which the educator (active agent) pours their knowledge (King 1993:30). This mistake posed by this theory is that the educator does not disseminate knowledge, but just information (King 1993:30).
6. According to Gous (2022:217), many educators at IHEs are still lecturing in line with Education 2.0, and not even with Education 3.0. This is mainly because they do not have the relevant digital competencies. Sandí-Delgado, Sanz and Lovos (2022) have written an article, addressing this subject, which is highly recommended.
7. These needs form part of the self-determination theory of Ryan, Rigby and Przybylski (2006).
8. The designer, together with the educators, are recommended to be well-informed on how to design a SG for Theology students. Many articles, like the one by Westera (2019) are focusing on how to properly design such a game, in order to keep the attention of the students. The dominant pedagogical paradigm in the design of an SG, is called learning from experience (Westera 2019:60), with related terms such as inquiry learning (cf. Papert 1980), discovery learning (cf. Bruner 1961), problem-based learning (cf. Barrows & Tamblyn 1980), constructivism (cf. Jonassen 1991), situated learning (cf. Lave & Wenger 1991), experiential learning (cf. Kolb 1984), and learning by doing (cf. Aldrich 2005; Schank 1995). All these terms refer to 'learning by active exploration and self-direction rather than learning from instruction' (Westera 2019:60).
9. Each scenario should be designed in the form of a narrative, as this is the best way to engage the student in the scenario and overall in the game. Naul has devoted an entire dissertation on this subject (Naul 2018). The three characteristics of game narratives that she focuses on, are endogenous fantasies (including challenge, curiosity [cf. Bjørner 2021:158], and control, coupled with fantasy), empathetic characters or virtual agents (characters to whom the student can relate), as well as adaptiveness or responsivity (cf. Naul 2018:vi; 24-35).
10. As indicated in my previous article (Oliver 2019:4-6 of 8), the game will obviously contain game features like awards, trophies, XP points, and rankings within the class (which will all form part of continuous assessment), complemented by a direct line to the educator and fellow students. It should also indicate when the student has successfully completed one level (scenario) and is ready to proceed to the next one.
11. Olejniczak, Newcomer and Meijer (2020) wrote a valuable article on the characteristics of advanced evaluation (cf. also Peetsma 2019:33-38). Moizer et al. (2022) have written an article on the evaluation of the experience of a SG. The team, specifically the academics, should read these articles to assist them in their process of assessment of the SG.
12. 'Scaffolding' refers to the difficulty level of a game. A game should be designed in such a way that it is just above the skill's level of a student (cf. Priyaadharshini et al. 2020:469). Jalongo (2007:401) puts it this way: 'The key is to set the level of difficulty at the point where the learner needs to stretch a bit and can accomplish the task with moderate support'. This will maximise the students' engagement, keeping them interested in playing further (Gros 2015:40; cf. also Maheu-Cadotte et al. 2021:2 of 10). McClarty et al. (2012:14 of 35) add that a game should contain the necessary elements 'to engage students and help them enter a state of flow where they are fully immersed in their learning environment and focused on the activity they are involved in'.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Perold de Beer: Reflecting on the theology of a missionary pioneer

 

 

Arnold M. Meiring

Department of Religion Studies, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Dr Perold de Beer was a missionary pioneer who contributed as both a church leader and a theologian to the Reformed Church in Africa (RCA). This research recorded his contribution to the RCA as this church navigated political issues during apartheid, multireligious positions and the challenges accompanying church unity; all of these ended up in the Laudium Declaration (LD) which De Beer drafted and was then accepted as the church's official position. In addition to De Beer's views, other, differing positions from his colleagues and contemporaries were used to reflect on the eventual decisions and theologies developed in the RCA. The article's social and scientific value lies in both recording and reflecting on the work of a missionary pioneer not yet investigated; it addressed and informed issues that are still relevant today (racism, pluralism and unity) and which are still heading the church's agenda. Both literature study and interviews were employed.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: While this article investigated missiology (mission theology, social justice and church unity), it also contributed to religion studies (interfaith dialogue), church history, and polity (the history and documents of the RCA) and systematic theology. It offered insight into the history of a specific segment of South African society during apartheid

Keywords: Perold de Beer; Reformed Church in Africa; Dutch Reformed Church; Laudium Declaration; politics; apartheid; deliverance; dialogue; church unity.

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Introduction

On 18 July 2022, Dr Perold de Beer passed on after a life dedicated to mission and ministry in the Reformed Church in Africa (RCA). Passionate about missionary work in the Indian community since his days as a young high school student, he felt a strong calling for this mission during an evangelistic service by the Canadian missionary advocate, Dr Oswald Smith, and he joined the Dutch Reformed Church's (DRC) outreach to the Indian community in 1956. In 1966, he was called to start a ministry in Pretoria, and after the formal establishment of the RCA in Pietermaritzburg in 1968, he was one of the founders of the Charisma congregation in Laudium in 1972. Between 1979 and 1991, he led two Durban congregations of the RCA (Emmanuel and Jeshurun), before returning to Laudium where he retired in 2004. During his 41 years of ministry in the RCA, De Beer was not only one of the early pioneers of the church, but he also became a national leader as secretary and later moderator of the RCA. He authored the document that became the Laudium Declaration (LD) which guided the RCA on important issues. De Beer's PhD thesis, completed in 2010, also recorded the planting of the RCA and its subsequent ministry and theological positioning (Crafford 1982:450; De Beer 2010:83; Orbituary 2022; Pillay 2022:1; Swanepoel 2008:208-209).

While the history of the RCA is recorded thoroughly elsewhere,¹ it is the purpose of this study to investigate De Beer's contribution to the church's theological stance and vision. He was an important leader while the RCA was formulating its theology amid an apartheid South Africa and its racist policies, being a church 'between temple and mosque' which had to deal with a multireligious setting, and taking part in the healing and restoring of relations through reunification processes in the DRC-family. As De Beer drafted the LD² as a theological answer to the questions of the time, this will be used alongside his own comments and motivation for the various positions and subsequent developments are also recorded.

De Beer's voice was not the only one in the RCA. As the church faced its times and issues, some of his contemporaries differed significantly from his theological positions and the decisions that the RCA ended up making. This article will briefly sketch the background for each of the issues, describe other possible positions (as taken by colleagues in the RCA) and record De Beer's reaction and its eventual conclusion and acceptance in the church.

 

Politics

Given the South African context of racial segregation, politics affected the RCA from the very beginning of its existence. The apartheid policies restricted the movement of the RCA's ministers and members and made it difficult for people of different racial groups to meet and worship together. The RCA vocally addressed the injustices of the day by petitioning the then Minister of Community Development to amend the apartheid laws and regulations that hindered its ministry. It also changed its name from 'Indian Reformed Church' to 'Reformed Church in Africa', not wanting to perpetuate the racist divisions forced upon society by the state. Within the DRC family, the RCA spoke against apartheid and sought structural unity with the other DRC churches in opposition to the dictates of the government (more about the name change and unity below) (De Beer 2010:188-189; Sukdaven 2009:60; Verster et al. 2008:361).

By the 1970s, the racially structured society revealed its injustice around the discrepancies between the benefits received by white and Indian ministers in the RCA. When the DRC synod of 1975 and the RCA synod of 1976 agreed that white RCA ministers should become full members of the RCA, the salary differences between the white ministers (on the white DRC scale) and Indian ministers (on the much lower RCA scale) highlighted this racism. This led to three white RCA ministers³ choosing to become tentmakers instead, in order to eliminate this injustice and preferring to raise their own income through outside work, rather than simply being paid a higher salary than their Indian colleagues for doing the same job; in addition, they were not prepared to accept subsidies from the DRC as long as it gave its theological support to apartheid (which it did at the time) (Lubbe 2014:215-216; Kritzinger 2001:255).

Soon afterwards, two other events confronted the RCA and its position towards the politics of the day.

World Alliance of Reformed Churches in Ottawa, Canada 1982

The World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) was an ecumenical body that represented more than 200 Reformed churches worldwide. When the WARC assembly took place in Ottawa, Canada, in August 1982, the meeting was to open with the celebration of the Eucharist (as was the custom). Before this could take place, the sitting president, Dr James McCord, allowed Rev K. Moodley,⁴ representing the RCA (along with Dr Charl le Roux), to read a declaration stating that he, as well as other Christian delegates from South Africa, could not with a clear conscience partake of the Lord's Supper together with representatives of the white South African Reformed churches, since they were not allowed to do that in South Africa, and because of their support of the heretical Apartheid policies (Lubbe 2014):

Dear sisters and brothers,

There are some South Africans who have participated with pain up to this point in the service, and who now feel constrained not to take part in the Lord's Supper, which is the essence of Christian fellowship (Mt 5:23-24). The reasons for this refusal are threefold:

In our country, by custom and by church decision which are defended theologically, black people are not permitted to partake of the Lord's Supper in the NGK and the NHK.

The theological heresy which undergirds apartheid racism finds its origin in separate communion. Our refusal to participate is a choice for righteousness and a refusal to reinforce the Christian roots of our oppression. These churches, which are members of WARC, have consistently refused to have genuine reconciliation with us black Christians, through a confrontation with the evil of apartheid and by participating in the search for justice and peace and true humanity. To share communion with those who represent this disobedience of the gospel would mean eating and drinking judgement upon ourselves. 'For if he does not recognise the meaning of the Lord's body when he eats the bread and drinks from the cup, he brings judgement upon himself as he eats and drinks' (1Cor 11:29).

Our refusal to participate anticipates the day of our freedom when we shall all - black and white - drink from one cup and eat from one loaf. (pp. 222-223)

This statement was to set the tone for the rest of the meeting. Dr Allan Boesak, famous South African anti-apartheid activist, was elected as the new president of the WARC, and the meeting declared a 'status confessionis' in respect of apartheid, meaning that apartheid was seen as an issue on which it was not possible for member churches to disagree without compromising the integrity of the Reformed confession. The assembly concluded that the scriptural justification for apartheid was a theological heresy,⁵ and also suspended the membership of both the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk (NGK/DRC) and the Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk (NHK) for its support of apartheid⁶ (De Beer 2010:191; Gous 1993:360-361; Lubbe 2014:221-222; Kritzinger 2001:255-256).

The decisions taken by the WARC and actions of the RCA's delegates at Ottawa led to tension within the church. Ministers such as Gerrie Lubbe, Klippies Kritzinger and Charl le Roux were enthusiastic about the events and following the direction of Ottawa, they proceeded to distance themselves from the DRC. Kritzinger (2001) records that after Ottawa, the RCA's synodical committee (which acted on behalf of the church between synodical sessions), discussing the implications of Ottawa, realised that licensing DRC ministers for service in the RCA, now became problematic and determined that a congregation of the RCA could only call a DRC minister to the RCA if '…he was willing to declare that the theological support of Apartheid was a heresy and be willing to be (re)licenced by the RCA' (Kritzinger 2001:256). The three ministers, Gerrie Lubbe, Klippies Kritzinger and Charl le Roux, also relinquished their own ministerial status in the DRC⁷ (Lubbe 2014:232; Kritzinger 2001:255-256).

Others in the RCA, De Beer being one, disagreed with this interpretation of Ottawa. De Beer recalled that while the RCA's Synod supported Ottawa's strong rejection of the theological justification and moral defence of apartheid, it reasoned that even though the WARC suspended the DRC, '… it did not 'excommunicate' the DRC from the alliance' (De Beer 2010:191). In addition, the RCA Synod (1994) refrained from calling apartheid a heresy and did not align itself with the Ottawa decision on this. De Beer (2010:191)explained that the RCA understood heresy as '… the rejection or denial of the central and essential doctrines of the Bible, e.g., the inspiration of the scriptures and the divinity of Christ,' and in his view apartheid did not deny these.

Tricameral parliament

The South African government launched the so-called tricameral parliament in 1983-1984, which was to include Coloured and Indian representatives in two separate chambers of parliament. This was controversial as it still excluded Black people from parliament and was also seen as a hollow appeasement that distracted (and undermined) real democracy. Still, some within the RCA supported this and Rev Edward Manikkan even stood as a candidate in the elections; according to the church's rules, he was expected to step down as minister when he entered public office. This was also seen as a support of the apartheid government (Lubbe 2014:218-219).

In response, the RCA's Presbytery of Transvaal, that included pro-Ottawa ministers and was seen as more politically active, issued a pastoral letter calling on RCA members not to vote in the elections, as '…voting in the tricameral elections would amount to open support of racism, since the black majority were left out altogether' (Kritzinger 2001:257-258). In March 1983, the Presbytery of Transvaal submitted their pastoral letter to the Synodical Commission for discussion and (if accepted) for distribution to the whole RCA. Kritzinger (2001:258) believes that this was the final straw that set a process in motion to defrock them, the three tent-making ministers of the Transvaal Presbytery, as well as not recognising Alex Bhiman of the East Rand congregation.

The details of the defrocking⁸ of the three Transvaal ministers do not fall within the scope of this study, but their defrocking in 1984 was experienced by them as an attempt to marginalise their views through the use of church law. During the defrocking saga, De Beer represented the view of the RCA synodical committee, and he justified its position over and against the three. He was also part of the process in 1986 that offered them the possibility to have their status restored, but according to Lubbe, De Beer did not share their conviction, in fact he ' … appeared to ridicule⁹ the fact that our consciences dictated that we were not allowed to accept financial support from the NGK any longer' (Lubbe 2014:237-238, 245).

De Beer also recounted these events and conceded that there were strong differences of opinion amongst RCA leaders; while some believed that the RCA had to take a stand against apartheid, others felt that this could hinder the evangelical thrust of the RCA. Thus, the crises that Ottawa and the tricameral parliament brought about, forced the RCA to re-evaluate its theological identity. According to De Beer, the RCA was from the outset an evangelical church, focussing more on sharing the gospel than on participating in local politics. At the same time, apartheid and South Africa's racial politics severely affected the Indian community, and the RCA also shared in the lives of its members. De Beer (2010:192) described the story of the RCA as '… a walk on a tight rope (sic) between the preaching of the Gospel and living the life, between sharing faith and offering life'.

He himself believed that the 'evangelical voice', which he believed was typical of the RCA, should not be compromised: 'Evangelism … was the RCA's first priority, the heart of the RCA', and he feared that a strong political response to apartheid would make the RCA into an 'activist church'. The politics and activism of the day diminished the church's evangelical fervour. He strived rather to hold on to the early pietistic and evangelical theology of the DRC that would not allow any political issues to eclipse the calling to spread the gospel (De Beer 2010:129; 2012:113).

Kritzinger (2001) agreed that the aftermath of the defrocking of himself, Gerrie Lubbe and Charl le Roux, positioned the RCA as a strictly evangelistic church. The '… new-look RCA developed a very strong ideological stand: it identified itself as aggressively evangelical and as totally opposed to liberation theology' (Kritzinger 2001:259).

Laudium Declaration on politics

The RCA's evangelical stance was cemented through the LD. As mentioned, it was De Beer who drafted this document. He recalled struggling to discern the RCA's theological place and role in these trying times and he sought God's face in prayer for guidance. Inspired by the Lausanne Declaration, he became convinced that the evangelical position should be strongly espoused. To recapture this evangelical spirit, he drafted a document (subsequently accepted by Synod and labelled as the 'Laudium Declaration') that clearly restated the identity of the RCA as an evangelical church (De Beer 2010:v,193; 2012:113).

Thus, addressing evangelistic witness and compassionate service, the LD (1990) affirms that the church '… must demonstrate God's love visibly by caring for those who are deprived of justice, dignity, food and shelter', but also warns that:

[G]overnments, religious bodies and nations will continue to be involved with social responsibilities but should the church fail in her mandate to preach the Gospel no other body will do so' (LD of the RCA 1990). The apolitical position is stated sharper in section 3.5 on Prophetic witness:

We affirm that the proclamation of God's kingdom of justice, peace and holiness demands the denunciation of all injustice, oppression and immorality. We will not shrink from this prophetic witness.

We affirm the freedom in Christ of the church of Jesus Christ and refuse the alignment of the church to any ideology or current political trend, power or movement.

We affirm our solidarity with those who suffer for the Gospel and will seek to prepare ourselves for the same possibility.

We affirm the right of the believer to conscientious objection. In our demonstration and witness against evil we determine not to use carnal weapons but to act in the spirit of Christ and through spiritual warfare and constant prayer enter into Christ's victory over the principalities and powers of evil. We affirm that the proclamation of God's kingdom of justice, peace and holiness demands the denunciation of all injustice, oppression and immorality. We will not shrink from this prophetic witness. (section 3.3.)

The RCA's approach in dealing with the political tension and the perceived threat of liberation theology, according to the LD calls Christians to demonstrate God's love for all, caring for those deprived of justice, dignity, food and shelter, calling the church to transcend barriers such as race, class and gender, and rejecting racism as a denial of the gospel. But it also sees social justice as the primary mandate of the government, while evangelism is the primary mandate of the church. Thus, the church must not align itself with any political programme or action.

Appraisal of the Laudium Declaration on politics

De Beer considered the adoption of the LD to be significant for the character of the RCA which '… despite a flood of liberal theological thinking, (held) … zealously to her Reformed Evangelical position'. In addition, he believed that it strengthened the hearts and minds of members, leading to numerical growth, enhancing unity among members, and strengthening their faith (2012:113).

The current leadership of the RCA agrees. Maniraj Sukdaven (2009:60) explains that the RCA was always vocal against racism and apartheid as it hindered the proclamation of the gospel to Hindus and Muslims. Yet, the RCA tempered its reaction to apartheid as it feared that a social and liberation gospel could compromise '… the evangelistic thrust of the gospel …'. The LD then restated the RCA's evangelical reformed approach (2009:60-61).

Kritzinger fears that the RCA's apolitical stance might, in contrast, have played into the hand of racism, as the RCA singular focus on evangelism, obstructed its role among all races in South Africa: 'Should racially constituted denominations such as the RCA be regarded as legitimate churches or as illegitimate sects with no theological right of existence?' (2001:259). Fortunately, the RCA is (now) addressing this concern, aiming its mission to all demographics of South Africa as recorded by the research of Verster et al. (2008:373).

Recently, Sukdaven also developed a theology on the 'twofold mandate' of mission for the RCA that seeks to respect both the social and evangelistic mandates and works towards the total liberation and restoration of humans (2009:65-70).

 

Between deliverance or dialogue

De Beer (2010:87) took 'The Church between the Temple and the Mosque', the title of a book by Dutch missiologist J.H. Bavinck, as an apt depiction of the RCA missionary work among Muslims and Hindus in the South African Indian community. It was certainly the case.

Exclusivist position

The RCA's evangelical theology gave rise to an exclusivist theology of religions, in which other religions were not only seen as insufficient but also as contrary and in conflict with Christianity. Hinduism was seen as occult, and its adherents first needed to be delivered: '… (ignoring) the existence of Hindu spirits and gods would be tantamount to adding Christ to the Hindu pantheon' (De Beer 2010:175).

De Beer noted that the ministry of deliverance (exorcism) was initially ignored by the white ministers in the RCA. The Indian workers, in turn, made them aware of the important role that the occult and spirits played in Hinduism, and the ministry of deliverance became an important part of the RCA's missionary work. Klippies Kritzinger stated in an interview on 17 July 2023, that De Beer himself experienced a radical conversion - influenced by the then theological student, Gregory (Greg) Denysschen who performed exorcisms in the Charisma congregation in 1977-1978 - in which he turned from the traditional reformed theology to a more evangelical theology of deliverance. De Beer recalled that he and his fellow workers often experienced spirits that tried to disrupt their services and preaching, but that prayers of deliverance could bring about breakthroughs in the hearts of Hindus. This, De Beer maintains, is in keeping with Calvin's¹⁰ own views who accepted the existence of demons and devils, and the calling to stand against them (2010:178).

Evangelism in the RCA thus typically included prayers of deliverance from demons, prayers for breakthroughs, prayers for divine healing, and prayer walks aimed at delivering Muslims during Ramadan. Contact with other religions was apologetic, as when Rev D.J. Pypers publicly debated the truth of the Gospel with the Muslim apologist, Ahmad Deedat in 1961 (De Beer 2010:176-178, 294-296).

In contrast, the ministers who were defrocked for their political activism and liberation theology, ended up at UNISA, where (according to de Beer and the RCA)¹¹ they discovered and developed pluralist views on other religions. Lubbe, for example, became a leader in the interfaith movement in South Africa, and Kritzinger and Le Roux shared his sentiments in their academic careers. This was not well received among many in the RCA - as Lubbe (2014:331) recalls that his colleagues were distrustful of his interfaith work and even questioned whether he was still a Christian.

Laudium Declaration on pluralism

Addressing the question of pluralism, the LD (1990) then rather echoed De Beer and other more evangelical church leaders' views, and took a strong stand against a pluralist appreciation of religions:

We AFFIRM that men are born in sin and guilty, and lost without Christ and totally depraved.

We AFFIRM that other religions and ideologies are not alternative paths to God, and there is no other name given among men whereby we can be saved but the name of Jesus.

We reject as derogatory to Christ and the gospel every kind of syncretism and dialogue which implies that Christ speaks equally through other religions and ideologies. To proclaim Jesus as the saviour of the world is not to affirm that all men are either automatically or ultimately saved. (section 1).

According to Sukdaven (2009:61), the LD rejects any dialogue which implies that Christ speaks equally through other religions, and holds that proclaiming Jesus as the Saviour of the world does not mean that all humans will be ultimately or automatically saved.

The LD (1990) then offers a passionate call to witness in order to address the sin of humanity and the inadequacy of other religions:

We AFFIRM that the congregation of believers should turn itself outward to its local community in evangelistic witness and compassionate service.

We AFFIRM that God has committed the whole Gospel to the whole Church and to every member the task of making Christ known throughout the world.

We long to see all lay and ordained persons mobilized and trained for the task. We determine to proclaim the Gospel faithfully, urgently, passionately and sacrificially, until He comes. (section 1)

Dialogue?

De Beer's own position seems to be more complicated. He claimed to follow the Dutch Theologian, Prof Jo Verkuyl, when he granted that God is also working with people of other religions and that only God knows how this happens in a specific religion, situation or person. Simultaneously, De Beer rejected any notion that other religious systems can offer as a means of salvation. He concurred with Barth that any attempt to bring salvation through human beings or their religions have failed, so that God gave his Son to restore the relationship (2010:300-301).

De Beer added his voice to the debate on pluralism in the (DR) church, when in 2002 he rejected the proposal in front of the DRC Synod that 'the God of the Jews and Muslims is the same as the God of the Christians, which can only be known and worshipped in Christ',¹² arguing that this belief diminished the uniqueness of Christ (Base 2002:303). De Beer (2010) explained his rejection of pluralism clearly:

Die oomblik dat die geloof in Christus as die enigste Verlosser op losse skroewe begin staan, bly daar min van die Christelike geloof oor, en staar jy 'n toekoms sonder hoop en sonder God in die gesig.¹³ (p. 303)

Interestingly, De Beer also ventured on the dialogue path. He followed the global reconciliation walk of 1996-1998 (which remembered the Crusades a 1000 years before) to apologise for atrocities committed in the name of Christ during the Crusades. De Beer (2010) echoed this initiative locally, presenting such a statement of reconciliation to the Imam of the Jewel Street Mosque in Pretoria:

Nine hundred years ago, our forefathers carried the name of Jesus Christ in battle across the Middle East. Fuelled by fear, greed and hatred, they betrayed the name of Christ by conducting themselves in a manner contrary to His wishes and character. The Crusades lifted the banner of the Cross above your people. By this act they corrupted the true meaning of reconciliation, forgiveness and selfless love.

On the anniversary of the first Crusade, we also carry the name of Christ as we wish to retrace the footsteps of the Crusaders in apology for their deeds in demonstration of the true meaning of the Cross. We deeply regret the atrocities committed in the name of Christ by all our predecessors. We renounce greed, hatred and fear, and condemn all violence done in the name of Jesus Christ.

Where they were motivated by hatred and prejudice, we offer love and brotherhood. Jesus the Messiah came to give love. Forgive us for allowing His name to be associated with death. Please accept again the true meaning of the Messiah's words:

The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because He has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim the year of the Lord's favour. (pp. 297-298)

De Beer (2010:298) remembered that the Moulana's reaction '… was extremely positive'.

Likewise, in August 1999, De Beer participated in a symposium on faith and tolerance at the Rand Afrikaanse Universiteit (now University of Johannesburg). He described it as a meeting with a difference, where the participants sought out ways to work together rather than debate their respective beliefs. De Beer felt that this kind of conversation (perhaps dialogue) was conducive to faith sharing.

De Beer (2010) seemed to try holding onto both deliverance and dialogue; adding that while many theologians tend to play the proclamation of the gospel off against dialogue as if these are opposites, this '… is useless and idolatry' (De Beer 2010:300-301).

 

Unity

Unity on the agenda

The RCA is part of the Dutch Reformed family of churches. It was established through the mission work of the DRC - first in the Cape and subsequently by missions throughout South Africa. The RCA's first synod was convened in 1968 with four congregations and 360 communicant members. At that first synod, a church order was adopted, and the Indian Reformed Church was born (Verster et al. 2008:361).

The RCA early on envisaged a united Reformed church, referencing unity already in 1970. This was also part of the reason for the name change (as mentioned above) from 'Indian Reformed Church' to 'Reformed Church in Africa', believing that the connotation 'Indian' would turn the church into a church only for Indians. Such a racial connotation, the Synod of 27 August 1968¹⁴ decided, '… would be unacceptable and damaging to the work of the RCA'. Again, at the Synodical Committee of 1978, the church reconfirmed itself to be an open church ministering to all the people of South Africa (De Beer 2010:161; also Verster et al. 2008:262).

Laudium Declaration on unity

The LD boldly follows this non-racial stance. It states that: 'We AFFIRM that we who claim to be members of the body of Christ must transcend within the church the barriers of race, gender and class' (LD, Section 4.2). Verster et al. (2008:370-372) more recently emphasised this inclusivity of the LD as a call on RCA churches to extend their ministry beyond the scope of only Indian people, but rather to minister to all.

The LD (1990) also strives towards structural unity within the Reformed family:

We AFFIRM our God given unity at the deepest level with all born again blood washed believers. We determine to foster such unity across all denominational barriers. In the immediate circle of our church we will foster structural unity with those who share the same confession provided that such structural unity will not stifle the evangelical witness of the Reformed Church in Africa. (section 4.1)

According to Sukdaven (2009:62) the LD calls the church to foster unity across denominational barriers and among the DRC family to also foster structural unity ' … provided these churches share the same confession and evangelical witness as the RCA', which I will show below, all do not.

Options for unity

De Beer (2012) argued that the LD contributed greatly to unity within the RCA. It was unanimously accepted at the 1990 Synod and this consensus bound members and congregations together. It also gave the RCA a 'new impetus … and a fresh understanding of (its) ministry' (De Beer 2012:116). Conceding that LD did not solve all problems in the RCA, De Beer nonetheless believes that this document strengthened unity in the RCA by providing a united calling for its members. On the contrary, the LD and the theology behind it did not restore the already broken relationship with the erstwhile more ecumenically minded ministers and members who had by this time joined the URCSA (Lubbe).

Within the family of DR Churches, De Beer (2012) recorded the view of the former General Secretary of the DRC, Dr J.J. Gerber, who was apparently very enthusiastic about the contribution of the LD. They agreed that evangelism - boldly proclaiming the gospel in word and deed - was more important than unification: 'Would it not perhaps be more viable to launch a gigantic ministry of evangelism instead of having numerous meetings on unification' and they concluded that no structural unity be allowed to harm the RCA's evangelical worship (De Beer 2012:115-116).

It seems that De Beer was seeking alternative ways for the DRC family churches to cooperate without structural unity. The qualification in the LD - that structural unity 'not stifle the evangelical witness' - meant that the LD inhibited the reunification process in the DRC family of churches. While it was widely lauded by the other churches and appreciated for its strong testimony on evangelism, it represented a specific theological emphasis that did not accommodate other, more ecumenical views in the bigger family - especially the concurrent Belhar Confession that followed a more politically aware, social justice type of theology (which LD opposed). The Belhar confession is seen by the URCSA as an indispensable part of any unification process. Within the RCA, the gains made through the LD, strictly emphasising the evangelical dimension, was feared to be jeopardised by reunification. Perhaps concerned that unification may diminish its evangelistic character, De Beer (2012:117) explained that for the RCA, being '… the smallest and youngest member of the DRC family, there is some apprehension that with church unity it may lose its character encapsulated in the Laudium Declaration …'.

Ambiguous on unity

The role of the LD in unifying the DR Churches is then quite ambiguous. Commenting on the LD, De Beer (2012) urged the fellow DR Churches to put their fears aside and to move towards a union that confesses and celebrates Christian unity. He also believed that the LD could become a basis for unification, a confession around which these churches could find one another and unite structurally. This would make the RCA '… the proverbial small child that would lead us all' (De Beer 2012:115-117).

Simultaneously, De Beer contended that any unity would depend on the other DR Churches' acceptance of LD (and the evangelical theology behind it), leaving little room for compromise and negotiation - or appreciation of the other theologies within the DRC family.

De Beer (2010:209) finally hinted at a way forward. He understood that the Belhar Confession encapsulated the URCSA's deepest convictions, and posited the LD as a balance to that, seemingly allowing the different partners' theological convictions. He ultimately advocated a structural unity in which the RCA's 'evangelical credo and unique spirituality' could be accommodated in a separate presbytery or regional synod within a united church (De Beer 2010:225).

 

Conclusion

Dr Perold de Beer played an important role as church leader and theologian in the RCA and in doing so contributed to the theology in the wider DRC family of churches (Smit 2003:9-10). His passionate evangelical orientation - as espoused in the LD - withdrew the RCA from issues of social justice and activism and complicated the unity in the DR Churches. De Beer's convictions also highlight those of his contemporaries in the RCA who disagreed with him and whose voices and opinions were eventually overshadowed by the uncompromising stance of the LD.

The chapter on church history, recorded in this article, once again raises the questions of social justice, interfaith dialogue and church unity, as well as how these interact to one another. Kritzinger (2001:259) asks, for example, whether politics (taking a stand against racism) justifies division (which threats unity)?

Verster et al. (2008:373) hoped that the LD would be widely used, taught, and developed within the RCA. A more critical reflection of the LD by both its supporters in the RCA and its critics in the DRC family may be even more useful in divining a path for the future.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that no financial or personal relationships exist that may have inappropriately influenced the writing this article.

Author's contributions

A.M. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author and the publisher.

 

References

Algemene Sinode van die Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk, 1982, Handelinge van die Sesde Vergadering van die Algemene Sinode van die Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk te Pretoria, 12-22 Oktober 1982, Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Base, S.C., 2002, 'Onderhoud met PJP de Beer', in Van Reformatorisch Dagblad.         [ Links ]

Calvin, J., 1909, Institutes of the Christian Religion, vol. 1 transl. J. Allen, Presbyterian Board of Publication, Philadelphia, PA.         [ Links ]

Crafford, D., 1982, Aan God die Dank: Geskiedenis van die sending van die Ned. Geref. Kerk binne die Republiek van Suid-Afrika en enkele aangrensende Buurstate Deel 1, NGKB, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

De Beer, P.J.P., 2010, 'Church planting in the South African Indian community. With reference to the Reformed Church in Africa, PhD., University of Pretoria.         [ Links ]

De Beer, P.J.P., 2012, 'The Reformed Church in Africa's Laudium Declaration. A gift to the ecumenical community', in NGTT Deel 53, Nommers 3&4, pp. 109-119.         [ Links ]

De Gruchy, J. & Villa-Vicencio, C. (eds), 1983, 'Apartheid is a Heresy', in D. Philip (ed.), Nederduitse Gereformeerde Teologiese Tydskrif, Department of Systematic Theology of Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch.         [ Links ]

Gous, A.G.S., 1993, 'Die Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk en die Ekumene 1652-1993', in D. Crafford & G. Gous (eds.), Een liggaam - baie lede: Die kerk se ekumeniese roeping wêreldwyd en in Suid-Afrika, pp. 271-405, Verba Vitae, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Kritzinger, J.N.J., 2001, 'Becoming aware of racism in the church', in M.T. Speckman & L.T. Kaufmann (eds.), Towards an agenda for contextual theology: Essays in honour of Albert Nolan, Cluster Publications, Pietermaritzburg.         [ Links ]

Ladium Declaration (LD), 1990, 'The Laudium Declaration of the Reformed Church in Africa 1990', in The Reformed Church in Africa manuscript, n.p., viewed 24 February 2023, from http://www.rcashalom.co.za/LD.html.         [ Links ]

Lubbe, G., 2014, Embraced by grace: The story of a white ant, Potlaka Books, Honeydew.         [ Links ]

Orbituary, 2022, Celebrating the life of Perold Beer 1939-2022, Reformed Church in Africa, Laudium.         [ Links ]

Pillay, V., 2022, 'In Memoriam: Dr Perold de Beer (1939-2022)', Die Kerkbode, viewed 24 February 2023, from https://kerkbode.christians.co.za/2022/08/19/in-memoriam-dr-perold-de-beer-1939-2022/.         [ Links ]

RCA Synod, 1994, 'The Belhar Confessions', viewed n.d., from https://www.rca.org/about/theology/creeds-and-confessions/the-belhar-confession/.         [ Links ]

Smit, N., 2003, 'Die Konvent van Reformatoriese kerke in Suider-Afrika na vyf jaar', in Woord en Daad / word and action, pp. 8-12.         [ Links ]

Sukdaven, M., 2009, 'The Laudium Declaration: A missiological statement reaffirming the reformed evangelical character of the Reformed Church in Africa', in Tydskrif vir Christelike Wetenskap - 2009 (Spesiale uitgawe 1), pp. 59-73.         [ Links ]

Swanepoel, F., 2008, 'De Beer, Petrus Johannes Perold', in F. Gaum, A. Boesak & W. Botha (eds.), Christelike Kernensiklopedie, pp. 208-209, Lux Verbi, Wellington.         [ Links ]

Verster, P., Van Vuuren, S. & Sukdaven, M., 2008, 'Inclusive or exclusive? An analysis of the missiological response of the Reformed Church in Africa (RCA) towards inhabitants of informal settlements' in NGTT (Deel 49 Nommers 3 & 4 September en Desember 2008), pp. 360-375.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Arnold Meiring
arno@unio.co.za

Received: 16 Aug. 2023
Accepted: 21 Sept. 2023
Published: 19 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. For example Crafford (1982:443-463) and Verster et al. (2008:360-363).
2. While parts of the LD are quoted in this research, the full text is available at the website of the RCA Shalom in Durban http://www.rcashalom.co.za/LD.html.
3. Klippies Krtizinger, Gerrie Lubbe and Charl le Roux. This synod followed shortly after the Soweto uprising where school children were massacred while protesting apartheid policies.
4. According to De Beer (2010:191 & 2012:112) Rev Manikkam headed the RCA's delegation; Lubbe (2014:221-222) remembers that Manikkam was not at Ottawa but at the time in India and that Reverends Moodley and Le Roux represented the RCA. I follow Lubbe's recollection in this study.
5. 'We declare with Black Reformed Christians of South Africa that apartheid ("Separate Development") is a sin, and that the moral and theological justification of it is a travesty of the Gospel, and in its persistent disobedience to the Word of God, a theological heresy' (De Gruchy & Villa-Vicencio 1983:170).
6. '… the General Council, reluctantly and painfully, is compelled to suspend the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk (in the Republic of South Africa) and the Nederduitse Hervormde Kerk in Afrika from the privileges of membership in the WARC' (AS Handelinge 1982:1023; De Gruchy & Villa-Vicencio 1983:171-172).
7. As mentioned above, they also believed it was not justifiable to enjoy privileges not available to their Indian colleagues. While they did not have status in both DRC and RCA, their initial licensing by the DRC gave them the right to belong to its medical and pensions funds, from which other RCA ministers were barred since they were not licensed by the DRC. By doing so they were taking '… a concrete and visible stand against structural racism at the time' (Kritzinger 2001:257).
8. After the pastoral letter, the Actuary (Dr Fourie) of the DRC suggested to the RCA's synodical committee that by relinquishing their status as DRC ministers, these three had also lost their status in the RCA. This view was accepted by the synodical commission, and they were urged to reapply for their status in the RCA by undergoing a colloquium doctum, which they, in turn, refused as they were not accused of any wrongdoing and were also not prepared to be examined by the RCA ministry commission, which contained 50% members of the DRC (which had been found guilty of heresy at Ottawa). In 1986, they were again invited to regain their status by only signing the RCA's oath of legitimisation, but then learned that they were also expected to become full-time ministers subsidised by the same DRC - which they refused. They eventually joined the (African) Dutch Reformed Church in Africa, later URCSA (Lubbe 2014:235-238).
9. Kritzinger remembers De Beer saying they were '…tilting at the windmills' with reference to Cervantes' Don Quixote (Interview on 17 July 2023).
10. Institute 14 January 2019 shows that De Beer states, 'we must refute those who pretend that the devils are nothing but evil affections or perturbations, which our flesh obtrudes on our minds …' (Calvin, 1909:166-167).
11. While these views were held by De Beer and others in the RCA, they are not necessarily accurate and they remained ministers of local congregations, preaching the gospel from Sunday to Sunday, even baptising converts from other faiths from time to time … (Interview with Kritzinger 17 July 2023).
12. In 7.3 AANBEVELINGS: GODSBESKOUING - die Algemene Sinode aanvaar dat die God van wie die Jood praat as JHWH en vir wie die Moslem Allah noem, nie 'n ander God as die lewende God is nie, maar handhaaf sy belydenis dat God net in Christus reg geken en gedien kan word (Algemene Sinode van die NGK 2002:2019).
13. When faith in Christ as the only Saviour is being questioned, little remains of the Christian faith, and then you face a future without hope and without God (author's own translation).
14. While De Beer dated the name change to the Synod of 1968, Verster et al. (2008:362) places it at the Synod of 1976.

^rND^sBase^nS.C.^rND^sDe Beer^nP.J.P.^rND^sDe Gruchy^nJ.^rND^sVilla-Vicencio^nC.^rND^sGous^nA.G.S.^rND^sKritzinger^nJ.N.J.^rND^sSmit^nN.^rND^sSukdaven^nM.^rND^sSwanepoel^nF.^rND^sVerster^nP.^rND^sVan Vuuren^nS.^rND^sSukdaven^nM.^rND^1A01 A02^nAku S.^sAntombikums^rND^1A01 A02^nAku S.^sAntombikums^rND^1A01 A02^nAku S^sAntombikums

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Are Religious Experiences Immediate Revelations? A Study of Pentecostal Hermeneutics

 

 

Aku S. Antombikums^{I, II}

^IDepartment of Beliefs and Practices, Faculty of Religion and Theology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
^IIDepartment of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Religious encounters are essential to every religious tradition in which the worshipper encounters the divine. Although religious experiences have been reported in many religious traditions, they occupy a premium place in Pentecostalism. Given the ontological distinction between humans and the transcendent, the Abrahamic religions speak about revelation, where the divine is revealed to the worshipper. This article explores the Pentecostal understanding of religious experiences, particularly in relation to whether religious experiences are immediate revelations. The article examines prophecies, words of knowledge and testimonies from personal encounters to ascertain whether they constitute immediate revelation. In other words, what is the epistemological relevance of such experiences? Further, if such expressions or personal encounters can be equated to immediate revelation, how should such revelations be understood in the broader context of divine revelation? This article argues that religious experiences are subjective and can only be valid if they do not contradict biblical teachings. Lastly, the article argues that religious encounters in Pentecostalism raise many theological questions and objections because they have been overemphasised, overgeneralised and inform its hermeneutics.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article contributes to the current discussion on discerning divine presence using the methods of analytic theology. The article looks at how Pentecostalism biblicised and appropriated its current spiritual experiences into redemptive history, especially with respect to the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the book of Acts of the Apostles

Keywords: Pentecostalism; religious experiences; charismatic gifts; Holy Spirit; sanctification; revelation and epistemology.

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Introduction

It is argued that religious experience, when considered as '… rational-existential engagements with realities, is cognitive-affective¹ experience' (Veldsman 2019:3). Religious worshippers experienced the transcendent differently. Because of these differences, narratives of divine encounters produce different religious experiences depending on context. Because of its personal and variant nature, religious experiences, although they seem part of religious epistemology, have been doubted to produce objective knowledge in relation to the divine.²

Because of the ontological distinction between humans and the transcendent, many religious traditions, especially the Abrahamic religions, speak about revelation, where the divine is revealed to the worshippers. In Christianity, the purpose of God's revelation is for relationships and unveiling what ordinarily would have been hidden except for revelation (Davis 2019). The term revelation has a general and extraordinary sense. In the former, the creation is considered a revelation declaring the wonders of God. Calvin (1540) called creation the theatre of God's glory. However, God is said to appear to specific individuals extraordinarily in the latter. The Hebrew Bible is replete with this form of extraordinary instances. This unique sense is further divided into the spoken Word and the incarnate Word, the climax of divine revelation in the Bible. Revelation is the (Payne 1992):

[D]isclosure of some hidden truth, or the manifestation of some secret or mystery, as when God imparts [an] understanding of some truth to the intellect, or discloses one of His past, present, or future deeds. (p. 176)

Those who have religious encounters in contemporary times believe that their experiences are the same: a continuation or a test of what saints of old experienced. New spiritual encounters and the possibility of contradicting earlier revelations in the Judeo, Christian faith led to the close of the Canon to distinguish between authoritative religious encounters, which through the leadership of the Holy Spirit led to the composition of holy text from other ones which did not have the same authority. Although Christians receive the Holy Spirit through their union with Christ and, therefore, have unique spiritual encounters, such encounters, both personal and communal, are regarded as a fellowship of the Holy Spirit. Today, such encounters produce various effects in the lives of Christians in the form of prophecy, vision, discernment, dreams and healing. Because contemporary spiritual encounters seem to produce effects that are not always congruent with the written Word, it raises questions and objections regarding the sources of such encounters.

Further, given that the reception of the Bible is conceived under the inspiration of the Spirit of God, we need to emphasise the catalysing power of the Holy Spirit in hermeneutics, the science of Bible interpretation. Of course, rationalism believes that since the Bible contains several forms of genres, it should be read and interpreted as every other book.

In what follows, I will discuss religious encounters in Pentecostalism while considering the following questions:³ How does a Christian community or a nation know that the prophet is speaking through the Holy Spirit's power and not a foul spirit? Is it appropriate to consider Charismatic gifts valid evidence for genuine spiritual encounters? What is the purpose of religious experience or charismata to the community, and what epistemic authority do such experiences exert on the community with respect to biblical interpretation and the Christian life?

 

Pentecostalism

Pentecostalism today has a massive followership in Africa. Approximately 15% of African Christians are Pentecostals. Everything in Pentecostalism revolves around its understanding of the Holy Spirit, who empowers believers and grants them spiritual renewal. Pentecostals argue that the dramatic experience of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in Acts of the Apostles has not changed. Taking Jesus's discussion in John 3 seriously as a point of departure, Pentecostalism emphasises being born again by water and the Spirit. Spiritual birth, in other words, sanctification and the notion of a second blessing, is a critical ingredient in the believers' lives. Every believer is expected to have this second blessing. The primary signs of being born or spiritual regeneration in Pentecostalism are speaking in tongues and prophecy. In other words, without these early signs, a Christian is not considered a Christian yet (Magbadelo 2004). It means every Christian today must experience the Holy Spirit personally. Apart from prophecy and speaking in tongues with which the devil is chased away, testimonies are another critical practice in Pentecostalism that climaxes spiritual experiences and the demonstration of faith (Anderson 2014).

The last and possibly the highest level of spiritual experience in Pentecostalism is the ability to perform miracles. As reiterated below, it is the fact that anointing breaks the yoke that marks one as a genuine man of God. Pentecostal pastors take it upon themselves that the proof of one's calling is the demonstration of power. Such pastors are dubbed 'miracle-working pastors'. These miracles are the centre of the Gospel in Pentecostalism. Some pastors specialise in delivering people from demons' possession, breaking generational curses and receiving word of knowledge and prophecy. Most Pentecostal pastors can boldly say, 'If I be a man of God' when prophesying or performing deliverance to demonstrate the authenticity of their pastoral calling to the extent that the emphasis is on the man or woman and not God. Beginning from Benson Idahosa,⁴ many pastors see themselves as embodying God's power. Today, most of these powerful men of God are tele-evangelists showcasing their powers (Magbadelo 2004). There have been many rumours that the so-called miracles and prophecies are staged to give credence to the pastor's authority. Some critics challenge the men of God to extend their gracious hands of healing to sick people in hospitals. However, to my knowledge, none have ever dared to do so. Of course, this does not discredit the authenticity of such dramatic religious experiences. However, it raises a few questions and objections.

Another medium through which the presence of the Holy Spirit is demonstrated is collective worship. During worship services, worshippers participate in lively singing and spontaneous prayers, eventually leading to speaking in tongues, prophecy, deliverance and testimonies. During deliverance, worshippers may exhibit dramatic signs like shaking uncontrollably and falling under the influence of the anointing. This explains the notion that anointing breaks the yoke in Pentecostalism. Ultimately, when the yokes are broken during deliverance, testimonies and thanksgiving become inevitable. Loveth (2011) argues that:

[T]elling of stories - the giving of testimonies - is central both to the tradition of black theology on the one hand and to Pentecostalism on the other…testimony…attests to the power of grace, healing, and transformation in the midst of adversity. (p. 153)

Pentecostal order of service, according to Pentecostal worshippers, is spirit-led and not mechanical as done in most mainstream Christian denominations. They believe that such things as the liturgical order of service hinder the operation of the Holy Spirit. The revolving factor in Pentecostalism is the notion of the spirit of liberty. This notion leads to egalitarianism in worship, gives rise to spontaneity, and, in the end, the emphasis seems to be on feelings. The music, singing loudly, and the outpouring of joy are the heart of the worship. Without the aforementioned dramatic experiences, which are often absent in some mainstream Christian denominations, especially during worship, those churches are considered spiritually dead churches by Pentecostal preachers (Robbins 2004).

 

Pentecostal hermeneutics

As an essential wing of mainstream Christianity, Pentecostalism emphasises emotions, affection and ecstatic worship. The 'Holy Spirit possessed people ecstatically and gave them the inner strength and self-affirmation to survive' (Turner 2011:169). Associating hermeneutic as a science of biblical interpretation to Pentecostalism raises a few objections, given that Pentecostalism holds that the Bible contains the answers to every question humans can imagine and, therefore, was to be read, believed and obeyed without any need for serious exegetical interpretation because of their emphasis on perpetual spiritual encounters (Fee & Stuart 2004). However, the role of experience, when carefully observed, shapes how Pentecostals understand the meaning of a biblical text and how the whole of life is lived under the ever-present power of the Holy Spirit. 'The experience is formed by the expectation that what people in biblical times experienced with God is to be repeated in the contemporary experience' (Nel 2018: XI).

From the foregoing, one can deduce Pentecostal hermeneutics. This hermeneutics stems from the interpreter's personal experience with the Holy Spirit. Therefore, it is correct to refer to this hermeneutics as a Spirit-led Hermeneutics, which reads the Bible from '… the vantage of the day of Pentecost and the experience of the Spirit and Spirit baptism…' (Nel 2018:3). This Hermeneutic is different from the traditional science of interpretation because it is not rationally reflective, but a product of lived experience (Ellington 1996). Though not finely written in authoritative works of literature, there seems to be a universal consensus among Pentecostals that they read the Bible within a 'faith community that acknowledges the revelatory activity of the [Holy] Spirit' (Nel 2018:6).

Although one of the characteristics of the Bible is perspicuity, contemporary readers face tensions while reading it: the eternal relevance and its historical particularity. As such, hermeneutics as a science is valuable in understanding the message of the Bible. However, Pentecostalism, because of its insistence on the role of personal experience in understanding the message of the Bible, collapsed the author - context distinction with the now. In so doing, authorial intention and how the original audience understood the message are overlooked. Pentecostals are right to take the message of the Bible at a firsthand value, but the Bible seems to teach various dispensations of God's relationship with humans. In that case, the dispensations need to be taken seriously in biblical interpretation (Fee & Stuart 2014).

Reuben Abati (2001) is believed to have stated that in Pentecostalism, the pastor:

[D]oesn't need to have attended any Bible College, as long as he can quote passages from the Bible and report to a bewildered congregation about what his Daddy told him in the night.⁵ (n.p.)

This conclusion has a serious theological implication. The centrality of the message is not about what the Bible says but what the pastor received in the night. In other words, it is about the pastor's spiritual encounter with God. These pastors argue that one only needs to terry in the presence of the Lord to receive counsel from him on what to do or say. In what follows, I will analyse a few of these sayings in line with some biblical passages to see whether such experiences are epistemologically relevant to the Body of Christ.

 

Pentecostal religious experiences

Bishop David Oyedepo: Prosperity mandate

David Oyedepo is undoubtedly one of the most influential tele-evangelists of the 21st century. The Nigerian-born Bishop has this to say about his calling, especially the task of making people rich. Oyedepo (1992) argues that:

Specifically in the early hours of 26 August 1987, while getting out of bed to begin my morning devotion, the Spirit of the Lord spoke clearly to me, saying: 'Arise, get back home [talking of Africa] and make my people rich. (p. 7)

He has undoubtedly made himself rich because he is the second richest pastor in the world after Kenneth Copeland, according to Forbes.⁶ Oyedepo's worth is $ 200 million. However, whether he has made people rich is a complex subject not explored through this article.

Oyedepo is said to have performed uncountable miracles, including raising at least three or so people from the dead. From the prosperity mandate, Oyedepo argues that no one is supposed to be poor, sick or suffer any loss when they are born again (Antombikums 2022). For instance, Oyedepo (2004) argues that:

You have been redeemed by the blood of the Lamb. The same mosquito that bits you, bits a sinner who lives in the kingdom of darkness, and he doesn't have malaria. Why is it then you that is born again, redeemed by the blood, that is suffering from malaria? That means it's an oppression. It's not [the] mosquito that has given you malaria, but the devil that is oppressing your health, so as to make you a victim of life. (p. 16)

As far as Oyedepo is concerned, sickness is a curse from the devil and/or a lack of faith. After being born again, everything related to the believer has to be positive. There are no hypothetical statements; the believers are expected to declare with faith that all is well, and it will certainly be so. It is a matter of 'name it, claim it' (Oyedepo n.d.). As shown below, there is no doubt that Christianity can only be lived by faith because it is impossible to please God without it. However, the prosperity mandate raises a few questions and objections. For instance, was there an actual rise from the dead? Are people as wealthy as Oyedepo believed to be his mandate? Are sickness curses from the devil? Why does the Christian community believe God is making it prosperous financially and healthwise through Oyedepo? We shall attempt to answer these questions towards the end of the article.

Prophecies: the state of nations

Between 2014 and 2022, Rev. Fr. Ejike Mbaka,⁷ a popular Nigerian Catholic Cleric of the Adoration Ministry (a charismatic wing of the Catholic Church), made many headlines for his prophecies concerning the nation's state. He argued in early 2015 that the then-presidential flag bearer of the All Progressive Congress (APC), Muhammadu Buhari, was God-sent to deliver Nigeria from the failure of the past administrations, especially Dr Goodluck Jonathan. He argues that Buhari was the Cyrus of our time and, therefore, was the only one qualified to lead Nigeria (Ezeamalu 2015).

Mbaka's rejection of Jonathan, a Catholic and his endorsement of Buhari, a Muslim, was one of the most shocking actions one would expect of a priest, given that Nigeria has been heavily polarised along religious lines. Why did Mbaka endorse Buhari and not Jonathan? It looks pretty obvious that God had probably spoken to Mbaka to reject a Southerner and Christian but to endorse a Northerner and a Muslim. Of course, his prophecy and campaign for Buhari yielded positive results, and Buhari became the President of Nigeria in 2015. However, a few years into Buhari's regime, Mbaka called for President Buhari's impeachment on security grounds (Njoku 2021:1).⁸ Buhari administration has come and gone, and people still wonder whether God spoke to Mbaka. In what way was or is Buhari a saviour of Nigeria? It is generally agreed that since the formation of Nigeria, it has never witnessed division as it did in the past 8 years under Buhari's administration. More Nigerians have become poor and lived below the poverty level since the inception of Nigeria (World Bank 2014).⁹ The country's security challenges deteriorated to the extent that it is estimated that about 15 Nigerians, especially Christians, died daily because of religious persecution, according to Open Doors 2021 (World Watch List 2023). The foregoing challenged Mbaka's understanding of salvation in the light of Christianity and all religions in Nigeria.

In the just-concluded Nigerian presidential elections, many prophecies also came up. Every presidential candidate had a prophecy favouring them. Each prophet claimed to have spoken as they heard from the Lord during a spiritual encounter. Oyakhilome (2023) argued that he had no choice but to bring God's message to the people as God directed him. He asserted that he saw one of the presidential candidates with a biblical name who was doubtful about winning the election, and he prayed for him in the vision to win the election.

Another pastor gave a contrary prophecy. He argued that it was Atiku Abubakar who was going to win the election. This pastor has been known by the name onye ruo uka ofu nanya, which means, if you doubt it, you will see it with your eyes. Such a name indicates that every prophetic utterance made by this prophet must come to pass. However, the current reality negates this assertion (Jungle Journalist Media 2023).

On another side, a Kenyan pastor named Wiseman Daniel prophesied the outcome of the Kenyan presidential election, which turned out accurately. Daniel argued that he does not speak if God has not spoken; as a result, he was hesitant to speak but in riddles. He stated that he saw the Kenyan flag flying in a new dimension. On one side of the flag, there was a gap between the alphabet's V and X; on the other, there was a gap between the alphabet's Q and S. The interpretation is that William Ruto was to win the election, and he won. Is the fulfilment of the prophecy an indication that God spoke to Daniel? Probably yes and no. The devil also performs miracles. The only difference is the source and the prophet's relationship with God.

Prophets and pastors in Africa: strange instructions

Through the reception of the word of knowledge, many prophets and pastors in Africa can now tell what is one's mobile number and bank account, mention names of relatives or friends and reveal much personal information that ordinarily should not be known to the prophets. In addition, they started to give strange instructions to their community or congregation recently. For instance, Legeso Daniel (Lesego 2014a), a South African pastor, asked his church members to drink petrol and, on another occasion, asked them to eat grasses since God said that all herbs were given as food for human consumption (Lesego 2014b). One cannot deny that different grasses mean different things to different people. However, asking someone to eat what was traditionally given to goats is objectionable, not minding the medical implications of such an act. As for drinking petrol, that is a different issue entirely.

Further in the list of strange commands is the call by a Ghanaian pastor (Kansiime 2022, 07:00-11:45), to female congregants to strip naked during cross-over service for him to bathe them in preparation for the new year, and they did, and he bathed them at the altar. Another Ghanaian pastor also asked his members to make room for the Holy Spirit by stripping themselves of all their clothing and praying naked in the church (2022). Further, a Nigerian pastor sucked women's breasts during deliverance in the church because that was the only way to deliver them from demonic possession. He sucks out the demons through their breasts (Wayua 2023).

Although the three pastors seem to portray the Holy Spirit as incapable of operating where humans are appropriately dressed, others seem to demonstrate the contrary, as seen above. One Zimbabwean pastor, Paul Sanyangore (2017), called God during Church worship through a mobile phone, and they were seen conversing with God, while another pastor, sold tickets to members so that he could take them to Heaven (Egypt Today 2018). Why are the pastors giving conflicting prophecies in the case of Nigeria? Are different spirits speaking to them, or are they speaking by one Holy Spirit? In the case of the other prophets, why are they also giving us conflicting impressions about the Holy Spirit and God's power? In other words, is there unity in the Spirit? Before answering these numerous questions, let's start with critical observations.

 

Critical observations

One aspect of Pentecostalism is the notion of the progressiveness of divine revelation. Notwithstanding one's position on the notion of progressive revelation, we cannot deny the fact that 'Scripture [is] available to address each new generation with promises, warnings, exhortations, laments, and so on that can count as continuing divine speech' (Green 2021:25). In that case, religious experiences are a continual aspect of the Christian faith because every time a believer reads the Bible, she is expected to hear God speaking to her as it was the case in when such speech was made to the earlier recipient in a new illocutionary act. The Spirit has always been part of communicating God's word to humans. This explains the notion of biblical inspiration (understood differently today), which insists that the Bible has two authors: divine and human. The nature of the relationship between these two authors is a different subject altogether. According to Davis (2019), inspiration is:

[T]hat influence of the Holy Spirit on the writing of the Bible that ensures that the words of its various texts are appropriate both for the role that they play in Scripture and for the overall salvific purpose of Scripture itself. (p. 48)

Pentecostalism is right to hold that every believer can experience the Holy Spirit personally because he exists dynamically in the world. The argument that the Holy is active is true and aligns with biblical testimony. However, the problem arises when certain gifts and not the fruit of the Spirit, as referred to by the apostle Paul in Galatians 5, are chiefly viewed as the early and continual signs of spiritual regeneration. Signs of the Baptism in the Holy Spirit in Pentecostalism are limited to speaking in tongues, prophecy and healing (Anderson 2014).

It is more meaningful to see the Holy Spirit's role in the Christian life and the interpretation of the Bible as that of a map-maker, remapping an ancient Library of God's work in the world (Green 2021). Our experiences of the divine in secret or corporate worship should guide us into the biblical text's meaning. They are not meant to be a stand-alone revelation. When this happens, our experiences tend to undermine the revealed Word, which the Incarnate Word promised to send the Map-maker to provide a new illocutionary role.

Notably, prophecy in the New Testament is viewed from a subjective point of view and, therefore, the subjectivity of the prophet's spirit to the prophet. In I Thessalonians 5:19-22, Romans 12:6-8 and I Corinthians 12:28;14:1, prophecy was discussed in the context of unity because spirituality or being filled with the same spirit means unity in the spirit. Prophecies in Paul are associated with intelligibility, wisdom, knowledge, discernment and testing because the prophet's spirit is subject to the prophet (Hogeterp 2018). Further, the notion of second blessings or doctrine of consequence and subsequence extrapolated from the dramatic experience of the Acts of apostles (Ac 2:4), the testimony of the Samaritans (Ac 8:4-19), Cornelius (Ac 10:44-8) and the Ephesian disciples (Ac 19:1-7) do not present a normative model of the charismata for all Christians in all generations. This assertion is over-generalised and has led to falsifications. After all, there were also those who used familiar spirits, and the apostles could differentiate between such spirits and the Spirit of God.

John Locke (1975, IV, 19) argues that 'the doxastic gifts (e.g. prophecy, dreams, visions, words of knowledge and wisdom) required further evidence from publicly available gifts (healings, miracles)' (Leidenhag 2021:290). Every religious adherent would want this to be the case, just as Pentecostalism insists that true signs of Christianity are miracles. However, what about the message of the cross? Christianity is not always about the demonstration of power. God also demonstrates himself in weakness and subtlety. Paul argues in 1 Corinthian 1:18 that the message of the cross is foolishness to the Greeks and a stumbling block to the Jews who demanded miraculous signs. We may need to ask ourselves if we are better than the Jews in the time of Jesus for demanding miraculous signs to authenticate our faith.

Although Pentecostalism believes in spontaneity in church worship because the Holy Spirit is leading and, therefore, tends to be flexible and rejects any mechanical form of worship, there seems to be a negation to this notion. A few contemporary preachers dictate how the Holy Spirit should work during deliverance. They decide when people should fall to the ground under the influence of the anointing.

The foregoing has presented us with a conflict: Is it a cooperation between the Holy Spirit and the man God? Alternatively, is the Holy Spirit leading or the man of God? It seems the answer is probably the latter, given that Pentecostalism emphasises freedom of expression in worship. Encountering the Holy Spirit in Pentecostalism is a source of knowledge. In other words, since Christianity is a revealed religion and the Holy Spirit is the greatest teacher as promised by Christ, a Pentecostal notion of epistemology has the Holy Spirit as its point of departure. Because religious experiences in Pentecostalism are essentially the basis of knowledge, they are more than merely subjective emotions or feelings but genuine encounters with God, the giver of all knowledge. In that case, such religious experiences are immediate revelations from God (Robbins 2014).

The Christian community: the validity of a prophet's communication by the Holy Spirit

It is obvious that although religious encounters are personal, they do not belong to the one who experiences them. The Holy Spirit is the primary agent of charismatic gifts; as seen above, the human agent is not always wholly passive. It is a cooperation between the Holy Spirit and the human whose faculties are fully functioning (Leidenhag 2021). As argued above, the Spirit guided the human authors of the Bible to ensure truthfulness and faithfulness to the will of God. It seems this is not the case, as seen in the spiritual experiences mentioned above.

With the recent studies in psychology, especially in autism, which revolves around the notion of shared or joint attention, we can imagine how a community can, as a single organism, listen to the voice of the Spirit and, therefore, determine when the Holy Spirit speaks. Analytic theologians have begun to rely on such proposals to develop second-person epistemological accounts of religious experiences (Leidenhag 2021):

In the case of charismatic gifts, attention may be shared dyadically with the Holy Spirit, such that the congregation becomes aware of the Spirit's presence, love, or voice, or triadically as the Spirit may prompt a person's attention toward a third object, such as, a person in need, the persistence of a certain sin in one's life, or a passage of scripture. (p. 282)

As stated above, Paul emphasised the unity of the Spirit in his discussion on prophecy and charismatism. Further, one of the characteristics of the written Word is perspicuity and congruity. Therefore, when the prophet whose spirit is subjected to him speaks unintelligibly, and his prophecy contradicts a vast amount of the testimony of the Scripture, their prophecy is questionable. However, a community that believes such a prophet without testing the prophet's spirit is not less questionable than the prophet. For instance, the conflicting prophecies of the Nigerian Church and the acceptance of such prophecies raise many questions and objections. Further, obeying the instructions of striping naked for the Holy Spirit to indwell the believer or sucking the demons out of the worshipper through her breast and commanding the worshippers to eat grass and drink gasoline are unintelligible and incongruent with common sense. One has no reason to doubt that such faith communities are either unknowledgeable about the scriptural teachings or do not possess the Holy Spirit to discern when the prophet is speaking by a strange spirit.

Biblical interpretation and Christian life: purpose and epistemic authority of religious experiences in the community

Undoubtedly, religious experiences, especially revelatory forms of experiences, have epistemic values to those with such experiences. Such experiences could enhance the affectivity of worshippers, like having peace of mind and absolute dependence on the transcendent. However, such experiences will likely not provide valid grounds for the existence of the transcendent for those who do not have such encounters. For instance, that the risen Lord appeared to his disciples and spent many days with them before ascending to Heaven has been considered hallucinatory (Wiebe 2006). Notwithstanding, if such experiences do not contradict the written word, they could be complementary in biblicising our current experiences into salvation history.

There is no doubt that apart from the epistemological significance of religious encounters, the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on every individual has present and teleological significance to the Body of Christ. This is the case when Paul argues that:

There are different kinds of gifts, but the same Spirit distributes them. There are different kinds of service, but the same Lord. There are different kinds of working, but in all of them and in everyone it is the same God at work. Now to each one the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good.¹⁰ (I Cor 12:4-7 [NIV])

Paul argues that prophecy, wisdom and knowledge, including tongues, are eschatologically limited because they will pass away, and only love is eternal (1 Cor 13). In other words, love is the litmus test of the charismata because their overall purpose is to build, encourage and console members of the body of Christ (Hogeterp 2018). No matter one's level of building the Body of Christ, such effort might be in vain without love because love is the litmus test of charismatism. Further, since the gifts are for building the Body of Christ, they must agree with each other and the Bible, intelligible and clear enough for everyone to understand.

Further, Paul stated that: 'But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control. Against such things there is no law' (Gal 5:22-23). In that case, when a Christian community is short of the fruit of the Spirit but exhibits a high level of the other charismatic gifts, one wonders if such a community has learned anything from Christ. Calvin (1965) argues that:

Christ washes us that we may live a holy and unblameable life before God and not to return to the rolling of our pollution but that we may retain through our life the purity which we once received; the true beauty of the Church consists in this conjugal chastity that is, in holiness and innocence; not in the opinion of men but in the eyes of the Lord. (p. 207)

This follows that, through regeneration, the Church as a community of Christ followers should differ from a decaying and perversive society.

However, this seems to be the contrary in our society today. Moral decadence and the African climate of corruption are negative indicators against the said multiple religious experiences. Is there true revivalism in the African Church? In my interaction with some businessmen who are themselves members of Pentecostal and Charismatic Churches, I was shocked to find out that when Church members buy items, the buyer determines what is written on the receipt. In most cases, the figures are always highly inflated. This way of corruption is not limited to Church members but pastors. Many Christians in Nigeria will always want to cheat. In his book, The Trouble with Nigeria, Achebe (1983) argues that 'stopping an average Nigerian from being corrupt is like stopping a goat from eating Yam'. Firstly, corruption is not food, so an average Nigerian should be able to live without it. Secondly, is the statement exaggerated? I do not think so. The level of corruption, despite multiple religious encounters and prophetic voices, reveals that those experiences are probably not genuine. This is because, as seen in Acts 2, after the dramatic experiences, the timid disciples became bold to intimidate tyranny, darkness and all forms of abnormality. One of the greatest signs was that they acted like Christ; they loved each other and shared everything in common. In other words, they died in the flesh and lived for Christ and their neighbours. Whether this is the case in Africa is left for the reader to decide.

 

Conclusion

No doubt, religious encounters are essential to the Christian faith, and it is impossible not to witness them in Christianity, however subjective they may be. Further, charismatic gifts, which are products of religious encounters, are essential for building the Body of Christ. In fact, spiritual encounters are revelatory and constitute immediate revelation and part of God's divine providence. In other words, spiritual encounters have epistemic relevance when appropriated congruently to the Bible. However, we have argued that, obviously, they cannot stand alone. They have to complement the written Word because the Holy Spirit, who acts as a Map-maker, does so to provide a new illocutionary act. These gifts are meant to edify the Body of Christ and not to promote the interest of the one possessing them. In the end, these gifts must be tested by love and holiness. The Christian community is justified in believing in spiritual gifts, especially prophecies, words of knowledge or wisdom, only when the foregoing are considered.

 

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to the Head of the Department of Systematic and Historical Theology at the University of Pretoria for appointing me to the position of Research Associate, including paying the APF for this article.

Competing interests

The author declares that no financial or personal relationships exist that may have inappropriately influenced the writing this article.

Author's contributions

A.S.A. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or non-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing does not apply to this article because no new data were created or analysed.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Aku Antombikums
antombikums@gmail.com

Received: 08 June 2023
Accepted: 28 Sept. 2023
Published: 20 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. The subject of affection in relation to religious encounters was central to Jonathan Edwards. According to Edwards (1957:96), 'the affections are no other, than the more vigorous and sensible exercises of the inclination and will of the soul'. Strobel (2020:298) argues that 'An affection, for Edwards, is not an emotion, but is a certain kind of willing (i.e. a vigorous and sensible willing)' towards God.
2. In this regard, Herman Bavinck argues that spiritual experiences are subjective and, therefore, must be authenticated by the written Word. He argues thus: 'The Holy Spirit is the great and powerful witness to Christ, objectively in Scripture, subjectively in the very hearts of human beings' (Bavinck 2003:503).
3. These questions are shaped by Leidenhag's (2021) chapter on 'Toward an Analytic Theology of Charismatic Gifts: Preliminary Questions', in James M. Arcadi and James T. Turner Jr., T&T Clark Handbook of Analytic Theology, pp. 281-294, London: Bloomsbury.
4. Arch Bishop Idahosa is arguably one of the earliest televangelists in Africa. He founded the Church of Misson International around the 1960s and started his televangelism around the 1980s. He performed many miraculous signs, including raising people from death. He is a pace-setter for contemporary televangelists in Africa.
5. See Magbadelo Olushola (2004:22 [author's own emphasis]; cf. Abati 2001). Abati is not the only that has this impression about Pentecostal pastors in Nigeria. Except for recent developments, most Pentecostal preachers referred to the Seminaries and Bible Colleges as Cemeteries where the Holy is quenched and buried. A senior minister in my denomination who attended one of the Pentecostal Bible Colleges cautioned me against attending the premium Theological Institution in my context because he felt I would lose my spirituality in the pool of rigorous and rational academic debates.
6. Currently, there is no report on the richest pastors in the world in 2023. The last previous one, connected to Forbes, was in 2011. In that year, Oyedepo's worth was to be $150 million. Whatsoever is his actual worth at the moment, there is no doubt that Oyedepo is a prosperous pastor.
7. Fr. Ejike Mbaka is an exception in the list because he is not a Pentecostal but a Catholic priest. However, Mbaka's views on charismatism, prophetism and emphasis on personal religious encounters, the fulfilment of prophecies as marks of true prophetism (of course, this is biblical) as argued by the Pentecostal pastors to authenticate their calling, are the same. The only difference between Mbaka and the Pentecostal pastors in Nigeria is denominational and not theological. See #Nigeria2015: Catholic priest, Ejike Mbaka, attacks Jonathan; wants President out (Ezeamalu 2015).
8. There is another claim that Mbaka turned against Buhari because he requested a contract, but Buhari refused to award, nor did he give any monetary gift to the ministry (Enugu 2021).
9. Between 2013 and 2014, because Boko Haram intensified its efforts and other challenges, the poverty rate was as follows: South: 16%, West: 28%, North West: 45% and North East: 50%. There was also a slighter increase in the economy before the end of Goodluck Jonathan's administration (cf. Worldbank 2021).
10. Emphasis added. A host of spiritual gifts have been associated with the Bible, and the list may not be exhaustive. Some of these gifts include: Serving, hospitality, administration, apostle, discernment, evangelism, prophecy, preaching, exhortation, comforting, giving, healing, knowledge, teaching, speaking in tongues, mercy and the like. Emphasising a few of these gifts without emphasising the fruit of the spirit (love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control Gal 5:22-23) is reductionistic.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Contextual Christology in the phrase 'apo isa elmaseh' and the word 'opo'

 

 

Jekson Berdame^I; Denni H.R. Pinontoan^II; Christar A. Rumbay^III

^IFaculty of Theology, Institute Agama Kristen Negeri, Manado, Indonesia
^IIDepartment of Sociology of Religion, Faculty of Theology, Institute Agama Kristen Negeri, Manado, Indonesia
^IIIFaculty of Theology, Sekolah Tinggi Teologi Pelita Bangsa, Jakarta, Indonesia

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This study examines the Christological meaning of the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmaseh' and the word 'Opo' referring to as the 'Lord Jesus Christ' in catechesis books and Bibles in the Minahasa language with Tontemboan and Tombulu dialects. A translation model approach in contextual theology was used to show that the translation process is a way of determining the contextual theology that occurs dialogically between zendeling missionary, translators and indigenous teachers living in Minahasa culture. The result shows that these phrases and words are used in the Minahasa religion to express the Divinity of Christ, who is believed to be Apo Kasuruan Wangko (God of Origin of Life), Apo/Opo and the Great Ancestor, who is always close to the community and the universe. This finding has broad implications to other contexts in Indonesia where with a serious contextual approach, genuine theological knowledge could be explored.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article supplies a new contribution to the cultural, anthropological and theological discussion of Apo Isa Elmaseh to Minahasan-Christian. 'apo' or 'opo' and 'Apo' or 'Opo' expresses the spiritual appreciation of human existence in the continuity of history and community life in this region. Furthermore, the finding encourages other disciplines to investigate any issue that relates to culture, religion and theology

Keywords: Apo; Christology; Minahasa; Opo; translation.

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Introduction

Theology of Christ is not only a doctrine but also part of the way Christian communities with certain cultural backgrounds express their faith in Jesus Christ. The 'Good News' about Jesus as God and saviour of the world should be communicated and translated because of various histories, cultures and languages. According to David J. Bosch (2006), the Christian faith never exists except as something 'translated' into a culture.

The activity of translating the scriptures has been carried out together with efforts to understand and 'give a meaning' to the content since the time of the Old Testament (OT) (Loba-Mkole 2008). Bosch stated that the transition from the Jewish world to the Gentiles during the early days of Christianity was born from a cross-cultural environment (Bosch 2006).

The strategy used to translate the Bible is not a one-way process but an intercultural phenomenon, which achieves biblical mediation through a give-and-take strategy. Bible translation aims to share information and foster fellowship between senders, messengers and recipients (Loba-Mkole 2008).

Words or phrases in the language system reveal all kinds of emotional and cultural connotations (Bevans 2002). Therefore, based on this understanding, the activity of translating the Bible or Christian books into a particular language is also a process of broad cultural encounter and dialogue, which is a theological attempt. According to Bevans (2002), translation is the first contextual theology model related to efforts to adapt or accommodate a content or message into a culture.

This study examines the reconstruction of Christology in the Minahasa religious-cultural encounter with Christianity introduced by the Europeans through the translation of catechism books and the Bible into Tontemboan and Tombulu languages.¹ It translates the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmaseh' and the word 'Opo' and reveals the contextual meaning of Jesus Christ in Minahasa.

Data were collected through the document study method from several translated texts, such as catechism books and Bibles in Tontemboan and Tombulu languages. Furthermore, to determine their Christological meanings, a contextual theological approach was used to translate the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmaseh' and the word 'Opo'.

In terms of reading and translating Tontemboan and Tombulu language texts, one of the authors of this article is a Minahasa speaker. The author found two difficulties in reading these ancient manuscripts: (1) The Tontemboan and Tombulu languages are spoken languages where each word and sentence usually occurs in conversation. However, the manuscripts studied are in written form, so they require careful reading to understand and interpret them. (2) The Tontemboan and Tombulu language manuscripts were written following the writing rules of that time, which were very different from contemporary Indonesian language rules. However, these two difficulties can be overcome by reading carefully and also using the help of a dictionary.

Regarding the Dutch language document, which provides much information about the history of evangelisation and the process of translating the Bible, we, the authors, use the help of translation technology. There are three difficulties that we found in reading these Dutch language documents, namely: (1) We writers are not Dutch speakers; (2) The Dutch language used in these documents follows their era, which may differ from modern Dutch; (3) This can be experienced by all researchers of classical documents, regarding the social and cultural context of the past. Firstly, we overcome this difficulty by using translation technology to obtain text information and understand the meaning and message; we, of course, interpret it by paying attention to context. Secondly, the hermeneutical element that helped us understand the information and message from the Dutch language manuscript was that the narrative was about history and culture that is close to us as writers.

 

Minahasa contextual Christology in the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmaseh' and the word 'Opo'

The history of the encounter of Christianity with Minahasa

The Minahasa people had had several encounters with the West since the 16th century when the Spaniards and Portuguese first came into this area. In the 17th century, Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) also visited this area, and even though they brought Protestant priests from the Netherlands, evangelism was mostly conducted in the mountains.

However, evangelism became significant after the mission agency Nederlandsch Zendeling Genootschap (NZG), based in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, sent its envoys to the Dutch East Indies, including Minahasa, in 1797. During this period, priests were occasionally sent on non-permanent visits to this area; therefore, baptised Christians were not served effectively.

In 1817, Joseph Kam visited Minahasa and the Sangihe Islands and stayed for several months. After Joseph's visit, Jan Gerrit Hellendorn was placed in Manado City as the residency centre and only occasionally visited Christians in the mountains.

Protestant Christianity was introduced to the Minahasa people with the arrival of two German NZG zendeling missionaries, namely Johann Friedrich Riedel and Johann Gotlieb Schwarz, in 1831. This was followed by the visit by several other zendeling missionaries until the early 20th century. They opened schools and introduced simple modern medical treatment methods during that time. The Nederlands Bijbelgenootschap (NBG) translator envoy carried out translations of certain Bibles and religious teaching books into Malay and the Minahasa mother tongue.

The NZG is more responsible for sending the zendeling missionary while the NBG, a Dutch Bible Society founded in 1814 tasked with translating and distributing the Bible. Although NBG is only concerned with the Bible translation process, in Minahasa, this activity is inseparable from evangelism.

Apo or Opo in Minahasa ancestral religion

Before discussing the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmesëh'² in translating the Bible into Tontemboan and the word 'Opo' to refer to Jesus as God in Tombulu, it is important to describe and reveal the meaning of 'Apo/Opo', which originated from the old Minahasa religion.

The word 'Apo' is mainly used in the Tontemboan area, while 'Opo' is mostly utilised by speakers of Tombulu, Tonsea and Tolour. The linguistic understanding of the word 'Apo' is found in the Tontemboan language dictionary compiled by Johannes Albert Traugott Schwoarz. In this dictionary, this word is synonym to 'pu', 'mpu', 'ipung' and 'mpung' in Malay, which means 'grandfather, grandmother, sir, and madam'. Schwarz further stated that 'Apo' with a capital 'A' means a title for 'god', human, lord and leader. Saruan (1991) defined it as the 'ancestor with ties to several families or clans'. It is also used to refer to the Supreme Power in greetings: Apo Kasuruan, Opo Wailan Wangko and Empung Renga-rengan (Saruan 1991).

In Minahasa religion, 'apo-apo' is especially present in every rite, myth, poem or proverb, song, dance, prayer, relief and symbol in the form of a soul or spirit (Saruan 1991). According to Saruan, 'Apo' in Minahasa religion means the following: (1) The complete and harmonious relationship with the Supreme Power, ancestors (Opo-opo/Empung-empung/Kasuruan-kasuruan), the family, community, kinship and the surrounding environment. (2) It is an operative acknowledgment used to define the role of guards, defenders and protectors of humans as a reflection of the Supreme Power (Saruan 1991).

The word 'apo' is related to the belief in the Minahasa religion that all elements existing in this nature reside in the spirits of the ancestors, especially those who are respected for their good and bad deeds during their lifetime. Walian or priest can understand the ancestors' language and perform rituals for them. The ancestors as opo or supernatural figures are believed to have the highest power known as Kasuruan, which is etymologically formed from the word suru, meaning the source of life (Supit 1986).

Apo religiously and spiritually means the ancestor or suru of each individual, family and community. In the typical cosmology of a communal society, this word also reflects the belief in the Divine as Apo Kasuruan, Opo Empung and Opo Wailan Wangko. The religious concepts of apo and Apo are expressed in the structure and elements of the Minahasa religion, especially in rites (Pinontoan 2019).

'Apo Isa Almasih' and 'Opo' (Jesus) in translated texts

The encounter of Minahasa religion and Christian theological concepts through zendeling missionary from Europe can be traced in the Bible translated into Tontemboan and Tombulu languages. The translated texts indicate a theological dialogue between the two religious-cultural concepts, which is also a method of contextualisation.

Regarding translation as contextualisation, Emanuel Gerrit Singgih stated that

[H]umans are concerned with three phases of searching for the meaning of words. These are the meaning referred to in the Scriptures, formed in the development of systematic teachings, and understood by the local context. (Singgih 2012)

The translators, especially the NBG envoys, always try to scientifically study the meaning of the text from the Scriptures (first phase). However, zendeling missionary, as Christians, should interpret the text systematically as a church teaching or dogma (second phase). To translate into the local language, part of the scientific work is to understand the context of the target (third phase).

In the translation of the Matthew Gospel into Tontemboan compiled by Karl Traggott Hermann, NZG zendeling missionary, who works in Amurang (southern Minahasa region), the word 'apo' originally refers to 'ancestor'. In the Tontemboan translation, it appeared in the sentence in chapter 1, verse 1, which reads 'Si papatiken e apo i Jezuz Christusm Anak tuama i David, anak tuama i Abraham' (Hermann 1852). Its literal translation into Indonesian is 'the writings about the ancestors of Jesus Christ, the son of David and Abraham'.³

The word 'maapo' in worship is found in Matthew 4:10, entitled 'The Experiment in the Desert' by the Indonesian Bible Society (LAI). In Matthew 4:1-11, the translation sentence is written as 'Andoro itu kumuaam si Jezus assia: rumesso, e Seitan! Ka aiptekem: 'karengan ko kumundu sumiri asi Tuhan Allahmu, wo maapo ai Siake'. In Indonesian, this means literally, 'Then Jesus said to him [the devil]: Get out of the way, you Satan! It is written, "You should kneel and honor the Lord God, and worship Him alone"'.

In the catechism book compiled by Hermann in Malay and Tontemboan, published in 1848, the word 'apo' is defined as 'ancestor' in the original meaning of the teachings and practices of the Minahasa religion. This implies Christians should not give up irrespective of trials and tribulations. In the teaching section on baptism, the book reads as follows:

Sa kamu anpápa itu kai meen karápi in ka rondoran, ja kamu nisumia wo sumia pakása se waja paemánen wo kanarámen e apo -apo mio kele raitja wána katoróan, wo karápi in sapa si ngaran i llah iparaike? (Malay: Kalu-kalu kamu sebab itu lagi mengakaw dengan kebenaran, bahuwa kamu sudah bowang da nada bowang sa'kali-kali segala kepertjajaan dan kabejasaan teteh mawjang kamu sama barang jang tijada berguna dan jang awlehnya nama Allah dehinakan djuga?) Translation: What happens when someone who is walking with the truth, is blasphemed, will God's name also be dishonored?. (Hermann 1848)

In these two translated texts, the use of the word 'Apo' was not found, which refers to the title or address of Jesus as God. However, these translated texts suggest an attempt to have a dialogue about the Holy Spirit or the supernatural in the old Minahasa religion. The phrase 'apo-apo' in the book of Matthew translated into Tontemboan by Zendeling missionary, Hermann uses the concept unilaterally to define Western Christian zendeling, who view Minahasa religious practice from numerous perspectives. However, in another section, the word 'apo' refers to God's word in chapter 5, verse 27, which in Tontemboan is written as 'Pinalinjamaam-Mio JA aipakuaam ase apo: "siaam ko gumogar - gogar si pamalean!"' (LAI: You have heard the words: 'Do not commit adultery!').

In the Tontemboan Bible translation published in 1907 with the title 'Koekoea An Ta'ar Oere wo n ta'ar Weroe', the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' refers to 'Lord Jesus Christ'. For example, the preface to the Bible reads as follows:

Janta'an en oepoesna nimakawangko-wangko', ja in Sia nimë'ë-mai an itjita si Anakna, si Apo Isa Elmesëh. Am pa'pa' i Isa kita inakaterang tambisa wo kita ro'na itjawekar en a mesëa' wo tambisa en atëta ro'na male'nas wo tambisa kita en do'na pakamangen. Awoja waja së itoe kailekanta an Elkitab. (Adriani-Gunning 1907)

(Translation: Because of His great love for humanity, He gave us His Son, Lord Jesus Christ, who came into the world to free His followers from guilt and make their hearts pure to be blessed. All these can be found in the Bible).

The word 'Apo' in this expression refers to the 'Divine One' (God), and it is related to the choice of words that have a meaning equivalent to the understanding in Christian teachings about God or Allah. However, when the translation process is part of contextualisation, the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' becomes theology about Christ from a dialogue between two religious systems. Therefore, based on this explanation, in the Minahasa religious system, this word does not only refer to ancestors but also to 'the Divine being'.

In the New Testament books in the Tontemboan Bible, the phrase 'Apo Isa' appeared 28 times, which translates to 'Lord Jesus'. Meanwhile, for the word 'God', 'Allah' or 'Lord Allah', the word 'Tjasoeroean' was used (Kasuruan or Casuruan).

The translated book of Matthew Gospel into Tombulu entitled 'Toetoeroe' Lenas Ni Isa Linomei Meikiit Oem Pinantik Ni Matioes' published in 1933, does not use the phrase 'Opo Isa' to refer to 'Lord Jesus.' However, the word 'Opo', which means 'Lord' or 'God', is consistently used in dialogues to greet Jesus. The word 'Opo' is also used to refer to 'Lord Allah' with the phrase 'Opo Wangko Empoeng' (Tulaar 1933).

The description of the word 'Apo' (Tontemboan) or 'Opo' (Tombulu) in teaching and Bible books indirectly reveals Minahasa culture-based Christology. Therefore, those interested in the translation process need to be able to convey their religious messages because it does not occur in space, monolithic and or static manner but dialogical and continuous.

This is shown by the involvement of Minahasa teachers who, even though they are Christians, still inherit the values and culture of the region. Hence, in accordance with Bevans' opinion, contextualisation occurs meaningfully during the translation process. Since the beginning of NZG's zendeling mission presence in Minahasa, local teachers have been recruited through the 'custodial' system of education. According to the Tontemboan translation, J. Regar, a Bible teacher in Sonder, worked with M. Adriani-Gunning. The translated book of Matthew Gospel into Tombulu is written by B. Tular, a Minahasa teacher.

Since the translation of religious teaching books by Hermann in 1848, these activities have been supported and intended to achieve the vision and mission of the NBG. Nederlands Bijbelgenootschap's knowledge and skills in translating have continued to grow, which explains why the use of 'Apo' or 'Opo' in the translation of catechism books or Bibles in both languages from 1848 to 1933 also developed.

An important figure in the NBG, Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp 1819, explained the purpose of translation and distribution of the Bible during a board meeting. Gijsbert stated that Java should be the centre of NBG activities, from where it is spread throughout the Dutch East Indies. Van Hogendorp further stated the following:

We just want everyone who longs to use the Bible to be able to do that easily… Let Christians, Jews, Muslims, pagans, scholars, philosophers, and everyone utilize the Bible effortlessly… In the world, the trick that hinders the spread of the Goodnews is an overt effort to convert people to Christianity… Therefore, it is important to pass on the Bible to all nations in all languages, regardless of whether it will be used to preach the word or to disprove faith, … with the belief that the use of the Bible to disprove the Christian faith can ultimately be a tool for instilling our teachings. (Swellengrebel 2006)

Based on Van Hogendorp's understanding, it is known that for NBG, Bible translation is primarily for the agenda of developing civilisation. This is because it carries messages and values for the renewal of civilisation. In other words, Bible translation is primarily a scientific activity used by religious institutions to carry out evangelism. Therefore, its translation benefits religion, society and civilisation (Swellengrebel 2006).

Van Hogendorp's understanding clearly shows a European perspective in analysing cultures. In 1819, Gerrit Jan Hellendoorn as pastor or preacher was the only Christain living in Manado and only occasionally visited the Minahasa people in the mountains. At that time, the NBG, which was only established for five years, had yet made contact with people in the Dutch East Indies, let alone Minahasa, hence the perspectives of the institution leaders were very monolithic.

In 1914, N. Adriani⁴ an NBG employee stated that Bible translation was first conducted by a linguist 'associated' with the missionaries (Swellengrebel 2006). Adriani, who had been in contact with people from Poso and Minahasa, realised from field experience that in practice, a translator for the NBG delegation cannot work without the help of the zendeling missionary and vice versa. This is because the zendeling missionary possess extensive knowledge of the local community's culture and have recruited young people in the area to become teachers. The opinion that continues to be held institutionally by the NBG, which considers that Bible translations should be carried out by missionaries equipped with linguistics, is different from The British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) (Swellengrebel 2006).

Nederlands Bijbelgenootschap always strives to be scientific, especially regarding linguistics and national science or ethnology, even though the activities of evangelism and Bible translation are interrelated in practice. Furthermore, when searching for translated books, especially in Minahasa, the teachers' names are listed as part of the compilers of the translation. Therefore, NBG practically uses scientific means and works with missionaries and local people during translation.

Based on the perspective of NBG, this translation project is part of evangelism and the history of Minahasa teachers' involvement. According to the local culture, the text produced from this process, which contains words, phrases, expressions and language logic, is also a theological process. Lourens de Vries of the United Bible Societies, Amsterdam, explained the relationship between the purpose of translation and culture as follows:

The issue of translation always includes making various decisions to solve the problems of selectivity and 'uncertainty' inherent in the process and skopos. The intended or expected social and cultural functions of a text in the target congregation play a decisive role in the patterns of choice made by translators. (Vries 2009)

The translation is the encounter of two cultures through language. Therefore, this process is not only associated with determining the 'substitutes' for words or phrases but also with finding out how a message can be constructed together with readers of different languages. The original text is usually created from a cultural context, including language. This relates to historicity, which is closely related to the message meaning of the text. For example, Andrew Brake (2019) used the word 'no' to find the right words that could replace 'lamb' in the phrase 'Lamb of God' from the Papuan language. However, not all words or phrases in the original language of the Bible can be translated because 'lamb' is not only a figure of speech but textually already contains meanings understandable from the cultural context of the text's writing. Therefore, replacing it with the word 'pig' will lead to confusion between one party and another and a shift in theological meaning. The word 'mount Sinai' needs to be replaced with 'mount Lokon', the name of a volcano in Tomohon - North Sulawesi, to bring the Bible closer to readers in Minahasa.

Therefore, translation is not a simple process because a word selection process does not only consider the literal 'fitness' but the substantial meaning of suitability. It is understandable why the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' in Tontemboan refers to 'Lord Jesus Christ' or 'Opo' in Tombulu as a title or greeting, which means 'Lord' or 'God'. Although this was not directly used in the first translations, it later appeared in books published in 1907 and 1933. This is in line with the NBG principle regarding the translation process carried out scientifically from 1848 to 1907 with a lot of input from Minahasa teachers.

The teachers conclude that the word 'God' refers to Jesus and can be translated as 'Apo' or 'Opo'. There is strong evidence that the determination is based on a mature theological study carried out in a three-phase process as stated by Singgih. This is a theological dialogue process between zendeling-translators and Minahasa teachers who conducted the translation process, especially in the old religious system. Therefore, it can be concluded that the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' refers to 'Lord Jesus Christ', and the word 'Opo' is a title or greeting to Jesus as 'Lord' in the Tontemboan and Tombulu.

'Apo Isa Elmaseh' and 'Opo' (Jesus) as Minahasa Christology

Mkole asserted that historically, Christianity owes its debt to translation, which ceaselessly mediates the salvation of Jesus Christ from one culture to another, expanding the open meaning of the incarnation and resurrection (Loba-Mkole 2008). Singgih stated that contextualisation is not just applying one pattern to the local situation but is primarily concerned with having '… a point of contact (Anknupfungspunkt) with a life perspective' (Singgih 2012).

With emphasis on different points, these two opinions agree that culture is important for constructive theology. It is a continuous process that never stops because of its complex and dynamic context. According to Anthony P. Cohen, as quoted by Stanley Grenz, culture is something that gathers people and processes (Grenz 2000).

The above opinions help provide an adequate understanding of the history between Christianity from the West and Minahasa culture, especially regarding Bible translation. Minahasa encountered by translators and zendeling missionary consists of cultural and theological space. Therefore, the 'encounter' is a dialogue and a joint process in constructing meaning. Based on this perspective, it can be stated that the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' refers to 'Lord Jesus Christ' while the word 'Opo' refers to a title or greeting to Jesus as 'God' in the Tontemboan and Tombulu translations.

In the Minahasa religious system, the idea of the Divine is related to the belief in the existence of a Power as the Originator of everything called Apo Kasuruan Wangko. As the one who transcends, the Divine is known as Opo Wanananatas. Meanwhile, as someone who is worshipped and respected, it is called Opo Empung, and as the richest and most powerful person, it is called Empung Wailan or Opo Wailan. Furthermore, the Divine life is directed to obtain blessings, protection, care and longevity (Renwarin 2012).

There is also the idea of a supernatural human (tou), namely 'apo' or 'opo' in the sense of an ancestor who is respected and has a religious, spiritual relationship with the generation. This relationship is mainly revealed in implementing rituals through trance communication between leaders known as walian or tonaas with ancestors who spiritually have important positions in religious systems and practices (Renwarin 2012).

These ideas later met with Christianity introduced by Westerners, such as zendeling missionary and translators. However, it was associated with the occurrence of a dialogue, which is not just a conversation of two ideas but a difficult discourse. When these Western Christians came to Minahasa, they did not bring the original Bible text but also the theology from their locality. The text used as a reference for translating the Bible is Hebrew, Greek or Latin. This implies that the writers of books who have received inspiration from God have tried to 'translate' the divine messages into written form to be conveyed to the people. Therefore, in the end, it can be stated that what happened in the process of translating the Bible into Tontemboan and Tombulu in the 19th century was a theological dialogue.

The encounter between Christianity and the local culture is called an uncomplicated dialogue because it contains a multi-layered context. There are different time and space contexts for the Bible texts, with varying writing, collections and editions by early Christian readers in European contexts. Therefore, the text about 'Jesus' has also been multi-layered until it crystallised in the formulation of the Trinity, which later became the 'official' belief of the European Catholic and Protestant Churches. This was then constructed as European Protestant Christian Christology to become a belief in evangelism. It also becomes the Christology of the zendeling missionary and translators in encounters with people of different traditions and cultures.

The first four gospels of the New Testament, consisting of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, tell about the historical Jesus. These include his birth, ministry, inspiring people about the Kingdom of God and miracles, before he was judged, punished, tortured, crucified, died and rose again.

John's theology of Jesus is the God who created life. 'In the beginning was the Word with God. All things came into existence through him, and without him was nothing'. (Jn 1:1, 2). The word became flesh in Jesus Christ. This statement also confirms the cosmic significance of Jesus in all divine purposes (Hurtado 2003). The Jesus whom John believed in is God and has existed even before the world was created. Jesus, in such a formulation, is very close to the Minahasa religious conception of the Divine as the Originator of everything known as Apo Kasuruan Wangko.

In the New Testament, such as Mark 6:4, Luke 4:24 and John 4:44, he is called a prophet (Eckardt 2006). Prophets in the Jewish tradition are not God or Angels but humans who accept God's call to deliver messages. Furthermore, other titles, such as Jesus is Lord, the Messiah and Son of God, reveal Christians' beliefs or responses of faith. In this case, it can be stated as a Christology according to the Bible or testimony of faith about Jesus Christ.

Minahasa Christians in the 19th and 20th centuries received the gospel of Jesus from joint evangelism work between zendeling missionary and Bible translators with local teachers. They accepted Jesus Christ as God who became man, as in the conception of 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' and 'Opo'. These locals entered into a process of religious transformation and Western Christianity by proceeding into a dialogue by all parties to a joint process of seeking and finding Jesus in the true nature. This is in accordance with the Bible, which has been read and studied dialogically through the process of contextualisation with the translation of words and meanings.

From the concepts of 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' and 'Opo' as a result of this interpretation, several contextual Christological meanings were distinguished, which can be named:

1. Holistic Christology: Jesus is the Originator of life, and in Minahasa culture, he is regarded as Apo Kasuruan Wangko, meaning the 'ancestor of life'. He is the Empung renga-rengan, referring to God who always accompanies humans while living with the universe. He is Opo Empung, the Almighty God on whom all movements of life are based to achieve the vision of living together, namely pakatuan who pakalewiren comprising strength, health and long life. The same idea can be found in the conception of shalom as a vision of the Kingdom of God. Salvation occurs holistically and applies to humans and all creation based on this meaning.

2. Christology for Liberation: Jesus is God who became man, and in his humanity, he was tormented, crucified, died and rose from the dead. In Minahasa culture, the concept of 'opo' or venerated ancestors is not the Divine but is believed to be a wise human being who has started community life. Tonaas is the quality of human life that has wisdom, fully committed to life and faithful to the truth that manifests in liberation praxis.

3. Christology in the Spirit of Life: The Trinity, consisting of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, indicates that Jesus is spiritually lived in oneness. The conception of 'apo' or 'opo' contains the idea of the spiritual presence of the Transcendent. This implies that Jesus is not an ancestral soul but with the conception of 'opo' or 'apo' as an 'ancestral soul' in the Minahasa religion. This allows Christians in this region to appreciate the existence and presence of the Holy Spirit for a sustainable joint life.

The formulations of Christological reconstruction enable the church to understand its presence in a complex context with dynamic problems and changes. They proclaimed Jesus or Christology does not need to be a conquering ideological power, but an Apo/Opo who liberates and calls everyone to enter into a mutually reinforcing fellowship while conducting mapalus messianik (Roeroe 1990),⁵ a life of sharing and mutual solidarity for peace among all creation. The proclaimed Christology is a reflection, an action, theology and praxis-oriented towards the integrity of human life with nature and all that supports life to achieve God's vision among the Minahasa people in the vision of Pakatuan wo pakalewiren.

This historical fact refutes opinions regarding modern Christological reconstruction (theology about Christ), which understands the process as if it only happened in one direction. If dialogue occurs, it is understood to only occur in academic spaces conducted by theologians. The narrative regarding translating the Bible and teaching books in Minahasa in the 19th century shows that the process of theological dialogue has occurred in the unique Minahasa cultural space, resulting in a contextual-constructive model of Christology as the theology of indigenous Christians.

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the encounter between Minahasa culture with European Christianity, through the translation of catechism books and the Bible into the Tontemboan language, is known as contextualisation. This study discussed the selection and determination of the phrase 'Apo' or 'Opo' in the translated texts. Therefore, based on the process that has taken place in a dialogical manner, the phrase 'Apo Isa Elmesëh' and the word 'Opo' refer to 'Lord Jesus Christ', thereby forming a typical Minahasa Christology.

This formulation is an appreciation of Jesus in the Minahasa context, as a religious-cultural understanding preached by the European zendeling missionary. 'apo' or 'opo' and 'Apo' or 'Opo' mean ancestors and the Divine and are very important in expressing the spiritual appreciation of human existence in the continuity of history and community life in this region. Furthermore, there is a religious and spiritual appreciation for the existence of the Divine in the cosmic life.

 

Acknowledgements

We extend our thanks to Brenda Yeyen Abuno who support the references software.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

J.B. engaged with the original draft, methodology and conceptualisation, while D.P. worked with the conceptualisation, formal analysis, supervision and validation and C.R. helped with the software, validation, editing and reviewing, including funding acquisition.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors, and the publisher.

 

References

Adriani-Gunning, M.L., 1907, Koekoea An Ta'ar Oere wo n ta'ar Weroe, transl. J. Regar, Firma P. W. M. Trap, Leiden.         [ Links ]

Bevans, S.B., 2002, Model-model Teologi Kontekstual, Ledalero, Maumere.         [ Links ]

Bosch, D.J., 2006, Transformasi Misi Kristen, Sejarah Teologi Misi yang Berubah dan Mengubah, tranl. S. Suleeman, BPK Gunung Mulia, Jakarta.         [ Links ]

Brake, A.S., 2019, 'The Christology of Ho Amnos tou Theou in the contextualization of Yohannine theology: Domba and Adomba in the history of translation in Indonesia', Jurnal Jaffray 17(2)157-170. https://doi.org/10.25278/jj.v17i2.300        [ Links ]

Eckardt, A.R., 2006, Menggali Ulang Yesus Sejarah: Kristologi Masakini, BPK Gunung Mulia, Jakarta.         [ Links ]

Grenz, S.J., 2000, 'Culture and spirit: The role of cultural context in theological reflection', The Asbury Theological Journal 50(2), 37-52.         [ Links ]

Hermann, K.T., 1848, Pengadjaran Agama Mesehhij Jang Pendekh Didalam Bahasa Malajuw Dan Alifuru, Tertara, Batavia.         [ Links ]

Hermann, K.T., 1852, Si Indjil in Lennas itu, Kele Aipatikem i Mattheus, Nederlands Bijbelgenootschap, Amsterdam.         [ Links ]

Hurtado, L.W., 2003, Lord Jesus Christ devotion to Jesus in earliest Christianity, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Loba-Mkole, J.-C., 2008, 'History and theory of scripture translations', HTS Teologiese Studies 64(1), 255. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v64i1.20        [ Links ]

Pinontoan, D.H., 2019, 'Agama (Tua) Minahasa dalam Mitos, Ritus dan Kultus', in S.A. Kholiludin (ed.), AGAMA DAN KEPERCAYAAN NUSANTARA, pp. 73-100, Lembaga Studi Sosial dan Agama (eLSA) Press, Semarang.         [ Links ]

Renwarin, P.R., 2012, Opo-Empung: Yang Ilahi dalam Lirik Tembang Minahasa, Kanisius, Yogyakarta.         [ Links ]

Roeroe, W., 1990, Menghidupkan Yang Remuk: Khotbah Pembukaan Sidang-sidang Sinode Gereja Masehi Injili Minahasa 1970-1990, tt, tt.         [ Links ]

Saruan, J.M., 1991, Opo dan Allah Bapa: Suatu Studi Mengenai Perjumpaan Agama Suku dan Kekristenan di Minahasa, The South East Asia Graduate School of Theology, Jakarta.         [ Links ]

Singgih, E.G., 2012, Dari Israel ke Asia: Masalah Hubungan Antara Kontekstualisasi Teologi dengan Interpretasi Alkitab, BPK Gunung Mulia, Jakarta.         [ Links ]

Supit, B., 1986, Minahasa: Dari Amanat Watu Pinawetengan hingga Gelora Minawanua, Sinar Harapan, Jakarta.         [ Links ]

Swellengrebel, J., 2006, Mengikuti Jejak Leijdecker: Satu Setengah Abad Penerjemahan Alkitab dan Penelitian Bahasa dalam Bahasa-bahasa Nusantara, Jilid 1 (1820-1900) terj. Sonia Hummel-Parera dan Th. Van den End, p. 30, transl. S.H.-P. End, Lembaga Alkitab Indonesia, Jakarta.         [ Links ]

Tulaar, B., 1933, Toetoeroe' Lenas Ni Isa Linomei Meikiit Oem Pinantik Ni Matioes, Nederlandsch Bijbelgenootschap, Amsterdam.         [ Links ]

Vries, L.d., 2009, 'Ikhtisar Sejarah Penerjemahan Alkitab di Indonesia', in H. Chambert-Loir (ed.), Sadur: Sejarah Terjemahan Di Indonesia Dan Malaysia, p. 459, Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, Jakarta.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Christar Rumbay
christar.indotec@gmail.com

Received: 21 Apr. 2023
Accepted: 30 Oct. 2023
Published: 23 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. 'Tontemboan' and 'Tombulu' are names for two sub-ethnics in Minahasa, which although both identify themselves as Minahasa, the first thing that distinguishes them is the dialect of the language and region. There are many common vocabularies between the two, but there are also many differences in spelling or pronunciation. It is culturally recognised that there are nine sub-ethnics in Minahasa Land, including Tontemboan, Tombulu, Tonsea, Tolour, Pasan, Batik, Ponosakan, Tonsawang and Babontehu.
2. The phrase 'Isa Elmaseh' comes from two Arabic words to refer to Jesus Christ. The use of Arabic is closely related to contextualisation efforts through translation. The context of the archipelago was a dominant society with Islam in the past. Therefore, to respect the Muslim-majority context, the translators use the word 'Isa Almasih' to refer to Jesus Christ. cf. Gerrit Singgih, Two Contexts (Singgih, Emanuel Gerrit. Dua Konteks: Tafsir-Tafsir Perjanjian Lama Sebagai Respons atas Perjalanan Reformasi di Indonesia. Jakarta: BPK Gunung Mulia, 2009), 93.
3. Compared with the LAI translation, which reads, 'This is the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham'.
4. Dr. N. Adriani is the husband of M. Adriani-Gunning who, together with J. Regar, a Minahasa Bible teacher who translated the Bible into Tontemboan, published in 1907.
5. 'Mapalus' from the Minahasa language, 'ma' meaning 'mutually' and 'palus' meaning 'to share', is a practice of working together with the Minahasa people.

^rND^sBrake^nA.S.^rND^sGrenz^nS.J.^rND^sLoba-Mkole^nJ.-C.^rND^sPinontoan^nD.H.^rND^sVries^nL.d.^rND^1A01^nYeremia Y.^sPutra^rND^1A02^nYohanes K.^sSusanta^rND^1A01^nYeremia Y.^sPutra^rND^1A02^nYohanes K.^sSusanta^rND^1A01^nYeremia Y^sPutra^rND^1A02^nYohanes K^sSusanta

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Karl Barth's theology of the Trinity in conversation with Christian theology of religions

 

 

Yeremia Y. Putra^I; Yohanes K. Susanta^II

^IFaculty of Theology, Amanat Agung Theological Seminary, West Jakarta, Indonesia
^IIFaculty of Theology and Sociology, Institut Agama Kristen Negeri Toraja, Tana Toraja, Indonesia

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article attempts to discuss Karl Barth's Trinitarian theology with two Christian theologians of religions, John Hick and Raimundo Panikkar. To acknowledge the presence of other religions, Hick conceived of The Real, a universal God worshiped by all people of all religions. About this concept, Hick considers the Trinity to be nothing more than a penultimate symbol or a conceptual construction for Christians to respond to The Real. Meanwhile, Panikkar abstracts the Trinity into a 'Theandric' structure so that it can be universally accepted by people of other religions. Using the research library method, this article reveals that Barth's Trinitarian theology is still relevant in terms of providing theological inputs to remain faithful to the orthodox trinitarian faith in all the constructive endeavours of Christian theologians of religions.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: For the discipline of systematic theology, especially the doctrine of the Trinity, the conclusion of this article emphasises that any attempt to reconstruct the doctrine of the Trinity in the context of the theology of religions must not abandon the trinitarian grammar, which is in accordance with the testimony of the Bible, as stated by Karl Barth himself

Keywords: Barth; revelation; Trinity; unity; Threeness; theology of religion.

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Introduction

The 20th and early 21st centuries were periods of significant changes in theological direction, with the rediscovery and repositioning of the theology of the Trinity within the Christian faith. Baik (2018) expressed:

[T]his contemporary rediscovery not only restores the importance of the doctrine of the Trinity from its eclipse but also goes further to approach every theological locus in the perspective of trinitarian theology. (p. 298)

Christoph Schwöbel called this new interest in Trinitarian theology as 'the renaissance or revival of Trinitarian theology' (Baik 2018:298). One of the main issues driving contemporary discussion about the Trinity is the relationship between the theology of the Trinity and the theology of religions. Kärkkäinen (2004:1) reveals that at the turn of the millennium, there were two significant developments in Christian theology at the ecumenical and international levels that continued to shape numerous new publications, conferences, and debates: the revival of the theology of the Trinity and the explosion of research into the theological relations between religions. McDermott and Netland (2014:47) argue that this revival of interest in the Trinity should become normative for future reflections on religion. This new movement is a type of resistance to the view that Trinitarian theology is an impediment to interreligious dialogue. In contrast, Trinitarian theology is currently seen as a theological framework for comprehending religious diversity.

One of the theologians who initiated the revival of the theology of the Trinity was Karl Barth. Barth contributed to rousing the theology of the Trinity from its 'spirit of inactivity' since Immanuel Kant, Friedrich D.E. Schleiermacher, and Albrecht Ritschl, who all deemed the Trinity not only secondary but also a superfluous addendum to Christian theology (Kärkkäinen 2004:4). Barth claims that what distinguishes Christian theology of God from the gods of other religions is the Trinity. Although Barth is known as a theologian who revitalised the theology of the Trinity, he did not make a specific theological discourse on Christian religious theology. However, this does not imply that Barth made no contribution to the formation of theology of religions in his Trinitarian theology.

This article seeks to demonstrate Barth's theology of the Trinity and its significance for the contemporary development of Christian theology of religions. To achieve this goal, we will first explain how Karl Barth understands and places the position of Trinity theology in all his theology. In this section, we will discuss two important dimensions, such as the Trinity and Revelation; and on unity, Trinity, and the Triunity. After getting an overview of Barth's Trinitarian theology, in the next section, we will involve Barth's thoughts in the theology of religions, especially with the thoughts of John Hick and Raimundo Panikkar. The focus of this section is on how Barth's theological thinking about the Trinity can contribute to the development of Christian theology of religions. After that, a conclusion at the end of this article will be provided.

 

The theology of the Trinity in the thought of Karl Barth

Barth explained the theology of the Trinity explicitly in Church Dogmatics I/1. Heltzel and Winn (2011) stated:

Barth placed the doctrine of the Trinity at the very beginning of the Church Dogmatics, arguing that it constituted the internal dynamic of God's speech to humanity and as such functioned as the basic grammar of Christian discourse. (p. 173)

Barth (1957) acknowledges that the doctrine of the Trinity, which is a church formulation based on biblical testimony, cannot be found explicitly in the Bible.

To know God in Jesus Christ as He is revealed in the Bible, according to Barth, is to know God as he is. The form and content of revelation, according to Barth (1975:390), are inextricably linked: the biblically verified life history of Jesus and his status as the incarnate Word. Therefore, it is necessary to acknowledge the fundamental assumption that underpins the New Testament proclamation of Christ's divinity: Jesus Christ is the Son solely on the grounds that He is the Son. This must not be attributed to any particular attribute or deed that we perceive Him to be, but rather on the grounds that He is God. Based on this assumption, all contemplation regarding Jesus, which simultaneously encompasses all contemplation regarding God, must commence and conclude with (Molnar 2020:24):

Barth (1975) made a firm statement:

The doctrine of the Trinity is what basically distinguishes the Christian doctrine of God as Christian, and therefore what already distinguishes the Christian concept of revelation as Christian, in contrast to all other possible doctrines of God or concepts of revelation. (p. 301)

This statement shows the priority of Trinitarian theology in Barth's theology. Barth (1975) explained:

In giving this doctrine a place of prominence our concern cannot be merely that it have this place externally but rather that its content be decisive and controlling for the whole of dogmatics. (p. 303)

Johnson (2011:27) stated, based on Barth's assertion, that Barth's interest was not merely chronological, but that the theology of the Trinity must shape all theological reflections.

The Trinity and revelation

In relation to the theology of revelation, Barth constructed his theology of the Trinity. According to Grenz (2001:35), Barth provides what could be described as overarching theological revelationism. This has two implications. Barth contends, on the one hand, that we can only know the Triune God through God's self-revelation in Christ and nowhere else. On the other hand, it also situates the study of the Trinity in systematic theology within the context of revelation theology (Kärkkäinen 2007:63).

Barth (1975:304) refers to Scripture to explain that 'the Christian concept of revelation already includes within it the problem of the doctrine of the Trinity'. Therefore, we cannot talk about revelation properly without discussing the doctrine of the Trinity from the very beginning:

God's Word is God Himself in His revelation. For God reveals Himself as Lord. This key assertion contains the seeds of trinitarian doctrine within itself. It refers to God Himself in unimpaired unity yet also in unimpaired distinction as Revealer, Revelation, and Revealedness. (Barth 1975:295)

God is subject, action, and goal. As Barth (1975:296) explains, 'God reveals Himself [as the Father, supra nos]. He reveals Himself through Himself [as the Son, extra nos]. He reveals Himself [as the Holy Spirit, in nobis]'.

According to Barth, the Triune God stands behind in the actual events of revelation. That is, the revelation of God and God are identical. God is a revealed God (Grenz 2001:35). Three questions are raised by Barth: Who is the God who reveals himself? How did the revelation happen? And what is the result of revelation? For Barth, the answer to these three questions is 'God reveals Himself. He reveals Himself through Himself. He reveals Himself' (Barth 1975:296). This means that God's self-revelation is 'the root of Trinitarian theology', in other words: God is the Revealer, Revelation, and Revealedness (Kärkkäinen 2017:192). For Barth, God is the subject of revelation, the act of revelation, and the object of revelation. God as a subject who opens Himself and gives Himself to be known by humans, and the mediation of this process of presenting Himself is Himself. Himawan (2016) explained this further:

God is the subject of revelation (i.e. the initiator and agent of the process of revelation), and He is also the object or content of that revelation (what is revealed and what is presented to mankind is not mere information about Himself but is Himself). And at the same time, He is the medium of this revelation (the medium of this revelation is not a natural instrument, but is Himself, namely God who became man). (p. 133)

The revelation of God is founded on God's existence. God is actually present in the revelation; therefore, it is God who discloses, God who is revealed, and God who is the result of the revelation (Heltzel & Winn 2011:175). Barth synthesises the revelation events and the Trinity doctrine by associating the three kinds of revelation with the three individuals of the Trinity: God the Father is the revealed one, the Son is the revelation, and the Holy Spirit is the revealed one. The triadic conception of God as Revealer, Revelation, and Revealedness represents the patristic notion that revelation is thought to originate from the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Heltzel & Winn 2011:176). Each person of the Trinity plays an active role in the process of the revelation of God's Love to all of His creation.

Trinitarian theology, according to Barth, is an attempt to analyse and decipher truths that are Biblically derived about 'God reveals Himself as the Lord'. The revelation of God's lordship (i.e. Kingdom of God) is related specifically to Jesus Christ (Heltzel & Winn 2011:175). Barth's argument begins with a theo-epistemic concern about what it means for God to claim to be God. It is very important for Barth to emphasise that where we meet, or are found, in revelation is none other than God, that there is no God behind God's back who presents Himself in Jesus Christ (Heltzel & Winn 2011:175).

The theology of the Trinity in Barth's thought is integrally connected with Jesus Christ, the Word. Barth (1975) revealed:

The Word is the one Lord. The Word is spoken by the Father before all time. The Word is light of light, very God of very God. The Word is spoken by God, not made. Alongside the statement that Jesus Christ is the eternal Son of the eternal Father one may thus put the statement that He is the eternal Word of the Father who speaks from all eternity, or the eternal thought of the Father who thinks from all eternity, the Word in which God thinks Himself or expresses Himself by Himself. (p. 436)

Jesus Christ as God's self-revelation is identical with God. Kärkkäinen (2003:177) quotes Barth, 'the reality of Jesus Christ is that God Himself in person is actively present in the flesh. God Himself in person is the Subject of real human being and acting'. Christ plays the role of mediator between the fully transcendent God and humanity. According to Barth, Christ is the agent of revelation and reconciliation (Kärkkäinen 2003:177). In His divinity Christ represented God to man, and in His humanity Christ represented man to God. In His incarnation, Christ made it possible for humans to share in the covenant that God has made. In that covenant, God acts on our behalf through and in Christ (Kärkkäinen 2003:177).

What about the position of the Holy Spirit in the Trinity? According to Kärkkäinen (2007:70), Barth emphasised that the Holy Spirit is not only the Spirit of the Father and the Spirit of the Son who works ad extra and for us, but that He exists forever, the Spirit of the Father and the Spirit of the Son. Barth's way of introducing the Holy Spirit is by emphasising that the Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Christ. Quoting Barth, Kärkkäinen (2007) says:

[I]ts intention was to recognize the fact that in God's revelation the Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Jesus Christ, that he cannot be separated from him, that He is only the Spirit of Jesus Christ. (p. 70)

Barth's way of trying to unite the Spirit and Christ in revelation is by addressing both the subjective and objective realities of God's revelation. The Incarnation of the Son is an objective reality and in this sense is independent of human appropriation (Kärkkäinen 2007:71). The Holy Spirit, nevertheless, is a subjective reality that enables mankind to experience God's revelation in Christ. In other words, according to Barth, revelation in Christ cannot be acknowledged or received by people apart from the Holy Spirit's intervention. Hart (1993) clearly illustrates this point:

[P]recisely because revelation is an event, a relationship that 'straddles objectivity and subjectivity' and in which we are effectively drawn into the triune life of God, knowing the Father through the Son in that koinonia which is created by the Spirit. (p. 135)

The revelation of the Trinity cannot be grasped or controlled by human minds. 'We know only as we are in turn known by a God who draws us into relationship with himself' (Hart 1993:135). Hart (1993) stated, according to Barth:

[T]he truth of God is known only from within what he describes as 'a self-enclosed circle,' namely, the triune circle of God's self-knowing, into which humans are drawn in the event of revelation. (p. 135)

Continued Hart (1993):

[T]his revelation, therefore, is not universally known or knowable, and humans have no natural aptitude for it. It is an act of sovereign grace on part of God himself when anyone finds himself drawn into it. (p. 135)

Unity, Threeness, and Triunity

Barth argues that God is singular. Baptism is performed in the One name of God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and not in His three names. This demonstrates that the Christian faith does not recognise three objects, or three Gods, but only one (Torrance 2000:80).

Barth (1980:205) rejects any kind of tritheism, insisting that the early church refused to place any value on tritheism, 'three different personalities, three self-existent individuals with their own special selfconsciousness, cognition, volition, activity, effects, revelation and name'. In this regard, Barth (1975:355) famously prefers to talk about 'modes [ways] of being' (Seinsweisen) in God, by which he meant to convey what Augustine did when Augustine used the term 'person' for lack of a better term to speak of the three persons in God, namely Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, without falling into tritheism or modalism.

Because he consistently asserts that God is eternally Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in and of Himself, this terminology does not imply that he supports modalism. A Triune God who loves freely would exist, notwithstanding His lack of activity as a creator, reconciler, or redeemer. According to Barth, the triune nature of God in history, which is a modalistic concept, is not the only reason for the existence of the living and eternal God; the distinctions within the Trinity are vital to this end. For Barth (1975:382), 'modalism finally entails a denial of God'.

Barth emphasised the unity of the Trinity, but he did not neglect the Threeness of the Trinity. Alan Torrance (2000:80) cites a statement by Barth, 'far from being abrogated by the "threeness" of the persons, the unity of the essence of God consists in the Threeness of the persons'. Regarding the discussion for the term 'person', Barth raises a point that is both interesting and controversial. For Barth, God can only have one personality. According to Barth, if Jesus Christ is another personality distinct from the Father, He cannot be the personal revelation of the Father (Grenz 2001:37). This consideration made Barth reject the term 'person' to refer to members of the Trinity, because in modern eras the word must imply 'personality'. Furthermore, he also does not regard God as a threefold subject, as this would incline to Tritheism (Grenz 2001:37).

The modern concept of the person as the centre of self-consciousness obscures it even further, for Barth sees in this that, when applied to the Trinity, it can be a recipe for Tritheism, with three separate beings, each as an 'I' (Letham 2004:276). Because of this, Barth chose the German term Seinsweisen, which translates in English as 'mode of being' (Letham 2004:276). This term was favoured by Barth to translate the word hypostasis, the term used to describe the three 'persons' of the Trinity. With the term, he hoped to express the same thing as 'person' in classical Trinitarianism, while avoiding the problems posed by modern usage. Because of the use of the term 'mode of being', Barth was accused of being an adherent of modalism (Letham 2004:275). Barth (1975) shows the use of the term:

[T]hus to the same God who in unimpaired unity is the Revealer, the revelation and the revealedness, there is also ascribed in unimpaired differentiation within Himself this threefold mode of being. (p. 299)

McCormack (2012:97) asserts that Barth's fundamental understanding of the Trinity is that God is a single subject with three modes of existence. God is the one subject three times - not 'three divine I's', but the 'one divine I' three times. Barth (1975) stated:

The name of Father, Son and Spirit means that God is the one God in threefold repetition, and this in such a way that the repetition itself is grounded in His Godhead, so that it implies no alteration in His Godhead, and yet in such a way also that He is the one God only in this repetition, so that His one Godhead stands or falls with the fact that He is God in this repetition, but for that very reason He is the one God in each repetition. (p. 350)

The term 'repetition' (Wiederholung) that Barth meant is a metaphorical term. The names Father, Son and Spirit mean that God is one God in three repetitions and He is one God in every repetition (Torrance 2000:80). Torrance (2000:81) stated, 'This "repetition" is what he terms an "eternal repetition" that exists from all eternity; that is, it implies no alteration or change in the Godhead'. McCormack argues that the term 'repetition' aims to secure the 'substantial equality' of the three persons of the Trinity. This was Barth's way of ensuring that no subordinationism could creep in. The concept of 'repetition', in other words, performs the same function as the traditional concept of homoousios (McCormack 2012:98).

The point regarding the 'mode of being' is further elaborated by Barth by discussing the concept of perichoresis. Barth (1975) said:

[T]he communion of the three modes of being along the lines of the doctrine of 'perichoresis,' according to which all three, without forfeiture or mutual dissolution of independence, reciprocally interpenetrate each other and inexist in one another. (p. 396)

God is a communion of love in which the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit live in their indwelling relationship with one another. Therefore, God's existence is relational, and perichoresis is an abbreviation for 'dialectical union and distinction' of the one God who in intimate communion is irreducibly triple (Heltzel & Winn 2011:176). Barth (1975) refers to perichoresis as:

[T]he final sum of the two factors under discussion, namely, the doctrine of unitas in trinitate and trinitas in unitate. It must in fact be regarded as an important form of the dialectic needed to work out the concept of 'triunity'. (p. 370)

Regarding the concept of the Triunity, Barth (1975) says:

The triunity of God obviously implies, then, the unity of Father, Son and Spirit among themselves. God's essence is indeed one, and even the different relations of origin do not entail separations. They rather imply-for where there is difference there is also fellowship-a definite participation of each mode of being in the other modes of being, and indeed, since the modes of being are in fact identical with the relations of origin, a complete participation of each mode of being in the other modes of being. Just as in revelation, according to the biblical witness, the one God may be known only in the Three and the Three only as the one God, so none of the Three may be known without the other Two but each of the Three only with the other Two. (p. 370)

 

Barth's Trinitarian theology and Christian theology of religions

The important emphasis of the theology of the Trinity in Barth's thought is 'the doctrine of the Trinity is what basically distinguishes the Christian doctrine of God as Christian'. This belief is a fundamental starting point for starting a theology of Christian religions. Kärkkäinen (2005:166) said, 'for Barth the doctrine of the Trinity served as a criterion for distinguishing the God of the Bible from other gods'. Trinitarian Christian theology that builds on the parameters of biblical and classical theology maintains that talks about the Father, Son, and Spirit are the only possible ways of identifying the God of the Bible. This means that the only way to speak of God is to refer to the Father, the Son, and the Spirit. If so, then the vague 'mythological' talk about God is problematic (Kärkkäinen 2005:166).

When opposed to the prevalent pluralistic perspective on religion, which asserts that all religions are essentially different ways of worshipping the same God, the distinctiveness of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity becomes apparent. Similar perspectives can be found in John Hick's thinking. According to Hick, all religions should be considered as culturally and historically conditioned human responses to:

[A]n ultimate ineffable Reality which is the source and ground of everything, and which is such that in so far as the religious traditions are in soteriological alignment with it they are contexts of salvation/liberation. (McDermott & Netland 2014:48)

According to Hick, religion is an understanding of the universe, including a way of life consistent with that understanding, which involves reference, beyond the natural world, to God or to gods or to the absolute or to some transcendent order or some transcendent process (Hick 1973:33).

Hick believes it is more appropriate to refer to God as the Real, because the term the Real is not laden with theistic connotations and, consequently, the concept is not the exclusive domain of any particular religious tradition, despite the fact that every religious tradition is familiar with the concept (Hick 1989:10-11). The Real is so beyond human comprehension that all religions are inadequate in relation to it. Consequently, a religion is merely an experience with God that is constrained by the cultural conditions of human geography (Hick 1973:101). According to Hick, this form of religious experience is described as 'experiencing-as'. In other words, our experience of the world is also 'experiencing-as'. Therefore, according to Hick, all religions cannot be completely true; perhaps none are completely true, and perhaps they are all partially true. Religious experience, according to Hick, is a valid basis for religious belief. Hick (1995:50) states, 'an ultimate divine reality which is being differently conceived, and therefore differently experienced, from within the different religio-cultural ways of human being'.

'The Real' is John Hick's term for referring to the ultimate reality in religions (McDermott & Netland 2014:49). For Muslims, the highest ontological is Allah; for Christians, it is God the Most Holy Trinity; Hindus speak of Brahman; Buddhists refer to Emptiness or Nirvana; among others. According to Hick, these terms are actually penultimate symbols or conceptual constructions through which various religions respond to The Real, in which various religious languages such as Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, each refer to divine phenomena or configurations of divine phenomena (McDermott & Netland 2014:49). From Barth's perspective, Hick's thesis is so inconsistent that it doesn't even reflect what the Bible says about the Trinity. According to Barth, the Trinity is God who makes Himself known to humanity. When Barth refers to God as a Trinity - Father, Son, and Spirit - he implies that the Trinity God is the highest ontological self-disclosure, and not only a symbol or concept, as Hick suggests.

Most theologians of religions are reluctant to use the Trinity in their assessments of other religions. They prefer to use abstract concepts derived from the Trinity and not the Trinity itself. One of them is Raimundo Panikkar, who provides a very clear example of this. Panikkar writes that the Trinity is the Christian word for a 'theandric' structure of reality 'permeates all realms of being and consciousness' (McDermott & Netland 2014:77). These represent three ways of thinking about the ultimate union between the divine and the human. The first way is 'iconolatry', whereby the divine is translated in human form; the second is 'personalism', where a personal love relationship is placed between the two; the third is Advaita mysticism, where one contemplates the Absolute as the basis of all things (McDermott & Netland 2014:77). In other words, it can be said that the Father represents nihilism and apatheticism, the Son represents theism, and the Soul stands for monism. For Pannikar, the Trinity is a symbol for a deeper ontological pattern of non-duality (the idea that there is no ultimate difference) (McDermott & Netland 2014:77). Furthermore, according to Panikkar, the Trinity is 'the junction where the authentic spiritual dimensions of all religions meet' (Kärkkäinen 2003:305). Panikkar firmly believes that the idea of the Trinity is not exclusively Christian, but can be found in all religions, though in various forms (Kärkkäinen 2003:305).

Panikkar (1978:2) calls what he experienced an 'existential adventure', a 'human pilgrimage' whose difficulty is reflected in what he says, 'I "left" as a Christian, I "found" myself a Hindu and I "returned" a Buddhist, without having ceased to be a Christian'. Panikkar discusses his religious consciousness not as monistic or dualistic but cosmotheandric. The 'cosmo-the-andric' religious experience encompasses the World, God, and Man in a unity. This is also called advaitic. In his book, Panikkar (2004:33) says 'Neither monism nor dualism, reality is advitiyan, non dualist'.

Panikkar proposes, through the lens of the Trinity, a theological paradigm of religions. Cosmotheandric places himself at the centre of his Trinity and religious pluralism-related reasoning. According to Panikkar (1993:60), the divine, the human, and the world, regardless of what we refer to them as, are three irreducible dimensions that comprise the real, extant reality. For Panikkar (1996:276), there is no God without man and the world. There is no man without God and the world. No world without God and man.

Panikkar employs the term perichoresis, which is traditionally used to characterise the intra-Trinity (immanent) relationship, because the three elements are intricately interconnected and interdependent. Panikkar coined the term to describe his cosmotheandric vision, in which the world (cosmos), God (theos), and man (aner) constitute the overall structure of reality. He believes that Christianity or the Divine cannot monopolise the Trinity. Every aspect of reality bears the imprint of the Trinity (Panikkar 1982:128). Panikkar (1996:276) interprets and transcends the traditional language of Trinitarian perichoresis through his cosmotheandric lens.

Meanwhile, Barth's firmly believed that the Christian God can only be recognised as Father, Son, and Spirit, contrary to popular thinking. The biblical God cannot be understood apart from historical events and time as an abstraction. The only way to know the Triune God who became one of us in the Incarnation of Jesus of Nazareth and who poured out His Spirit, the Spirit who raised the Son from the dead, is via His actions in history and time (Kärkkäinen 2005:162).

Still related to Panikkar's thoughts, Johnson provides a sharp analysis of Panikkar's thoughts. According to Johnson (2011), Panikkar reinterprets Trinitarian theology in the light of non-Christian religious experience:

First, he identifies three spiritualities that are said to arise purely from an 'empirical assessment' of religious experience (independent of any particular religious tradition). Then he offers a novel interpretation of the doctrine of the Trinity, on the basis of these spiritualities, as constitutive ground for them. By reinterpreting the doctrine on the basis of non-Christian religious experience, Panikkar violates the basic theological grammar of the vestige tradition that involves reading the 'book of the world' in light of the 'book of Scripture'. (p. 167)

In this case, Johnson sees Barth's thinking as helping to explain Panikkar's trinitarian grammatical problems, 'Barth insists that the root of the doctrine of the Trinity is 'the threefold yet single lordship of God as Father, Son, and Spirit' (the biblical concept of revelation) (Johnson 2011:167). Barth (1975) said:

When we say that the doctrine of the Trinity grows from this root we are saying critically and polemically that it does not stem from any other root. It is the fact that it does not stem from any other root which we must now consider specifically. (p. 334)

Based on Barth's language, Panikkar implicitly puts forward the second root of the theology of the Trinity (non-Christian religious experience), which ultimately shallows the real root (God's self-revelation in the Scriptures) (Johnson 2011:168). If so, all talk about God is about the 'alien God'. To garner support for his theology of religious experience, Panikkar subtly replaces the persons of the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) with a trinity of transcendence (or emptiness, relationality, and immanence) (Johnson 2011:182).

 

Conclusion

Based on what has been written in the previous sections, we can see that Barth's Theology of the Trinity makes a real contribution to the contemporary Christian theological discussion of religion. This theological framework offers a means of critically evaluating Christian theological endeavours aimed at redefining the concept of the Trinity within the context of interreligious cooperation. Barth asserts that the Trinity serves as a distinctive attribute of the Christian deity, setting it apart from the notion of divinity found in other religious traditions. Barth's theological perspective on the Trinity prompts a re-evaluation of Christian theology, emphasising the necessity of adhering to trinitarian linguistic structures that align with the biblical witness.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Y.K.S. for proofreading this article.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

Y.Y.P. and Y.K.S. are the authors of this article. The main idea and the main contribution of the script was carried out by Y.Y.P. Meanwhile, Y.K.S. contributed in terms of strengthening the part of Karl Barth's thought dialogue in particular with Raimundo Panikkar and John Hick.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Center for Research and Community Service of Amanat Agung Theological Seminary, Indonesia.

Data availability

Data sharing does not apply to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Yeremia Putra
yeremia.putra@sttaa.ac.id

Received: 13 Feb. 2023
Accepted: 28 Nov. 2023
Published: 24 Jan. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

A comparative study of eschatology in Christianity and African traditional religion

 

 

Emeka C. Ekeke^{I, II, III}; Ekpenyong O. Ekpenyong^I

^IDepartment of Religious and Cultural Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
^IIDepartment of Religion Studies, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIIDepartment of the Study of Religions, University of Religions and Denominations, Qom, Iran

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The concept of eschatology remained a captivating theological subject that theologians dedicated substantial time and resources to comprehend. Contrary to popular belief, some Christians may not prioritise theological discussions about eschatological details. Eschatological discourse - the fate of the universe, including humans and the physical world - may also be prioritised. Death, the second coming of Christ, judgement, rewards, heaven and hell are some of the eschatological themes that fascinate and disturb people because of limited understanding about the afterlife. African tradition religion (ATR) has been criticised for omitting eschatology in its belief system which this study debunks. This study showed that Christianity and ATR have the concept of eschatology and identified the main points of convergence and divergence in their eschatologies to demonstrate that ATR's eschatology is well-established but different from Christianity's. This paper adopts theoretical research, often referred to as conceptual research, since it is aimed at advancing knowledge. Christianity and ATR agree that physical death ends life in the body, and death symbolises the afterlife. Earthlings have limited time to fulfil their duties. Both sides agree that the soul and spirit survive death and resurrection. Christianity and ATR share many beliefs and traditions across sects, ethnicities and regions. These factors influence the eschatology of each tradition. Both faiths agree that present decisions impact fate and eternity. They also agree that God opposes immorality, but the virtuous will inhabit a place of joy. Positive and negative conduct are punished differentially.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This work discusses end-of-life issues that strongly relate to systematic theology and African traditional religion, emphasising that while their eschatologies differ, they share a belief in life after death. African traditional religion should not be mocked as a religion without eschatology

Keywords: Christianity; African traditional religion; eschatology; systematic theology; comparative religion; religious studies.

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Introduction

The term 'eschatology' traditionally refers to the scholarly examination of ultimate or final events. Eschatology continues to be a compelling theological concept that theologians devote significant time and effort to understanding. Its significance lies in its potential to profoundly impact our understanding of the future. The issue pertaining to the completion of history, which involves the fulfilment of God's work in the world, has been resolved.

According to Bongmba (2020), it has been contended that certain Christians may not place a high emphasis on participating in theological discussions that pertain to significant elements or aspects, contrary to prevailing assumptions. Instead, they may choose to focus on eschatological discussions, which concern the destiny of the created order, including both humanity and the world. Themes commonly associated with eschatology, such as death, the second coming of Christ, judgement, rewards, heaven and hell, have a profound impact on individuals as they evoke a sense of fascination and discomfort. This is because of our limited understanding and imagination of what the afterlife truly entails (Bongmba 2020).

In recent years, there has been a significant shift in the global landscape of Christianity, with Africa emerging as a prominent player. This shift has led to the development of theological and Christological practices that aim to strengthen the field of theology, Christology and biblical scholarship in Africa. These practices utilise the unique tools and resources available within the African context, resulting in a multitude of implications for the field (Agboada 2023). Amevenku and Boaheng (2021:3) argue that the African belief system on end-time concepts encompasses the sequential stages of birth, the experienced experience of life, death, and subsequent return to the ancestral realm, thereby initiating a new cycle. The significance of this subject matter has been extensively expounded upon by scholars such as Mbiti, Bolaji, Nyamiti, Olupona, Dickson, Ukpong, Nyang and Mugambi, among others, including Mulago, Bediako, Gutiérrez and Wa Thiong'o.

Today, there is a greater interest on what the future holds for the human race both in a larger context and a cosmic context. Writing on what the future holds for the whole reality, Erickson (2001) is of the view that the rise of the Third World, which may currently face unfavourable conditions but holds great potential for the future, is a noteworthy contributor to the prevalence of eschatological discourse. The rapid dissemination of Christianity in developing nations, particularly in comparison to other regions, has generated heightened enthusiasm and anticipation for future events, resulting in a greater emphasis on eschatology rather than historical inquiry. He further asseverates that the current inquiry into what lies in store for humanity was spurred by the looming threat of extinction that hangs over humanity. The potentiality of a catastrophic nuclear event looms ominously over the entire global community (Erickson 2001:374).

While the impact of the current ecological crises is comparatively less than that of a nuclear war, it poses a significant threat to the future of the human race. The aforementioned circumstances unequivocally demonstrate that we cannot solely exist in the present moment, fixated on current events. It is imperative for individuals to ascertain or predict forthcoming events. The present study aims to investigate the concept of death and eschatology as it pertains to both African traditional religion (ATR) and Christianity to identify their point of convergence and divergence.

 

Methodology

This paper adopts theoretical research, often referred to as conceptual research. It is a type of study that aims to develop or refine theories, models or frameworks to explain and interpret various phenomena, in this case, death and eschatology. This research approach involves critically analysing existing literature, identifying gaps in current knowledge, and proposing new theoretical constructs or refining existing ones. Theoretical research is vital for advancing understanding and knowledge in academic disciplines, particularly in fields such as social sciences, humanities and natural sciences.

Theoretical study entails a systematic investigation of a set of principles, beliefs and assumptions. The basic aim of this endeavour is to enhance our comprehension of a certain topic such as the one under consideration - death and eschatology. The data obtained from this procedure is not directly employed for any immediate practical purpose, as the primary objective of this form of investigation is to further knowledge.

 

The concept of death and eschatology

Inquiries pertaining to eschatology are not exclusive to the Christian faith. According to Okon (2006), any profound contemplation of human existence, whether on an individual or societal level, will culminate in a nuanced comprehension of the universe and its evolutionary progression. Additionally, such reflection will necessitate a thorough exploration of the destiny of individuals following their demise. The topic of eschatology necessitates a differentiation between personal eschatology and cosmic eschatology. The former pertains to future experiences of the individual, while the latter concerns the destiny of the human race and, indeed, the entirety of the universe (Erickson 2001).

In his work titled 'Systematic Theology', Berkhof (1949) has undertaken the task of exploring various puzzling theological questions related to the nature of human existence. For ages, Christian eschatologists have been attracted and confused by these inquiries. Berkhof inquired about matters pertaining to the ultimate destiny or destination and the pursued objective. What is the trajectory of human progress? Does the cessation of human existence occur upon death, or is there a transition into an alternative state of being, which may potentially be marked by either bliss or suffering? Is it feasible for successive human generations to continuously arise and vanish in an uninterrupted sequence? Is the destiny of humanity predetermined towards a divine purpose, or is it only an evident consequence of the natural progression of events within the broader context of Creation, as intended by a higher authority? (Berkhof 1949:661). These puzzling questions are imperative for our understanding of death and eschatology.

 

The actuality of death

The incontrovertible and indisputable reality regarding the future of each individual is the inevitability of mortality. Humans have a finite amount of time to complete their tasks on Earth. It is expected that each individual assumes responsibility for their destiny and fulfils their purpose of creation within their allotted timeframe. The veracity of the inevitability of human mortality is confirmed in Hebrews 9:27, which unequivocally declares that each individual shall experience death once, followed by divine judgement. Despite the fact that individuals have cognitively acknowledged the existence and inescapability of mortality, there persists a recurrent reluctance to confront its veracity.

Funeral homes utilise a range of euphemisms that are distinguished by their benign or pleasant tone, aiming to divert attention from the acknowledgment of the inevitable truth of physical death. Each individual will inevitably confront the reality and inevitability of mortality. Paul acknowledges the inevitability of death and expresses his opinion that individuals are constantly at risk of dying for the sake of Jesus, in order to demonstrate his life in their mortal bodies (2 Cor 4:11-12). The aforementioned passage suggests that while mortality is actively present within us, vitality is concurrently present within us.

Speaking about the pain and uncertainty of death, Manning (2019) argues that the concept of the end of life evokes fear because of its inherent novelty, as individuals are confronted with an unfamiliar experience and the uncertainty surrounding the destination of their existence. When an individual is afflicted with an illness, the process of dying may involve the experience of physical pain and impairment. Under optimal conditions, individuals may encounter situations where they are unable to participate in fundamental physical tasks that were previously assumed to be effortless, or confront a decline in cognitive abilities (p. 1).

On the other hand, several secular scholars (Ebersole 2005; Feifel 1959; Kearl 1989) have posited that there exists a distinct connection between religion and death. Moreover, these scholars contend that religiosity significantly influences individuals' perspectives and attitudes towards contemplating mortality. They argue that religious institutions are responsible for introducing the concepts of salvation, reincarnation, heaven, hell, as well as symbols such as the cross and ceremonies aimed at addressing the topic of death. Ebersole (2005) posits that prominent anthropologists have contended that the genesis of religious ideas can be attributed to death, suggesting that religion would not have arisen in the absence of mortality. Feifel (1959) posits that conflict theorists, such as Karl Marx, have challenged and sought to eradicate religion because of its perceived function of providing an avenue for individuals to evade the challenges, pains and sufferings of reality. Veenat (2013) on his part argues that religion is just a compensation for these difficulties and constructs a deceptive alternate reality. According to Veenat (2013), the rise of modernity led to the widespread acceptance of the secularisation thesis. This resulted in various institutions, such as the economy, politics and education, becoming autonomous and secular. The process of secularisation also had an impact on the understanding and approach towards death and dying. To some extent, individuals began to approach the phenomenon of death and dying with principles of rationality (p.195).

 

Death as a natural phenomenon

Several scholars from different fields of study have defined death from their perspective. Tomasini (2017:7-8) argues that 'Biological death can be understood as: a final event, an absolute state (being dead), [and] part of the dying process'. Arnet (1973) sees death as the cessation of biological functions resulting in the permanent cessation of life. Physical death refers to the cessation of life and the separation of the corporeal and spiritual components. This refers to the disintegration of the human biotic community (pp. 221-222). Vine (1948) characterises death as the termination of the biotic entity known as 'man', resulting in the disintegration of its constituent parts. The constituents of human existence can be broadly categorised into three main components: the body, centrum vitae and spirit. The body, which is a composite of hylic units, is dependent on the presence of centrum vitae and spirit for its sustenance. In the absence of these vital components, the body undergoes a gradual or rapid breakdown into various hylic units, which subsequently become part of the natural cycle of decay and renewal. The spirit, on the other hand, is afforded the opportunity to gain experience and exercise its volition within this continuum. Upon completion of this stage, the spirit progresses to the next phase of its existence (Vine 1948:335).

The African perspective on death posits that it represents the separation of the soul from the physical body. Abbah (2010) asserts that among Africans, there exists a belief that the soul and body are inseparable while the body is still alive. According to him, the occurrence of separation is exclusively posthumous. The deduction made here is that apart from the corporeal aspect of an individual, the loss of a vital faculty or endowment required for sustenance results in the complete loss of the individual as a composite of both material and immaterial components, which cannot be restored to their original state. Cyprian (2012) argues that African traditional religious belief holds the perspective that the origin and ultimate fate of human beings are interconnected. According to Cyprian (2012:24), the commencement represents a derivative of antecedent being, while the termination denotes the inception of a distinct domain of existence. The process of growth and development within ATR is perceived as an ongoing manifestation of life, which is rooted in African eschatology. This indicates that ATR incorporates the belief that human existence persists beyond physical death as one of its fundamental principles. An examination of the African religious belief system shows mortality does not signify the cessation of existence nor does it terminate the human experience.

Within the context of Christianity, numerous scriptural passages address the concept of physical death, which refers to the termination of life in the physical body. In Matthew 10:28, Jesus distinguishes between the death of the physical body and the death that involves both the body and the soul. Specifically, he advises his followers not to fear those who are capable of killing the body but lack the power to harm the soul. Instead, he urges them to fear God, who possesses the ability to destroy both the body and the soul in hell. The Christian perspective regards death as the separation of the body and soul, as stated in Ecclesiastes 12:7. This passage elucidates that the human body will ultimately return to the earth's dust, while the breath of life will revert to its divine source.

The apostle James espouses a view of death as the division of the body and spirit, stating that 'For just as the (human) body without the spirit is dead…' (Ja 2:26). This passage focusses on the phenomenon of mortality, which is commonly observed or encountered in physical manifestation. The notion that life and death are distinct states of existence is a prevalent concept in scriptural teachings. It is important to note that the cessation of life does not signify the end of existence. According to Erickson (2001:376), death is a mere transition to an alternative mode of existence, and should not be misconstrued as a state of extinction, as is sometimes believed.

The scriptural text also references the concept of spiritual and eternal death as a corollary to the cessation of physical life. The term 'spiritual death' refers to the state of being disconnected from God, while 'eternal death' signifies a permanent state of separation from God, wherein an individual remains in a state of sinfulness for all eternity. The scriptural perspective regards spiritual deadness as a state characterised by an inability to respond or engage with matters of a spiritual nature, or a total and complete insensitivity to such stimuli (Berkhof 1949:739). Carr (2023) explains that the Apostle Paul's intention in Ephesians 2:1-2 is to show that the individuals who are lost possess a state of existence within this world. Such individuals inhabit, traverse, experience affection within, express amusement within, and pursue gratification inside this environment; nonetheless, they remain devoid of vitality despite their existence. Such individuals, Carr (2023) argues, are not perceived as being disconnected from society, but rather, they are perceived as being disconnected from a divine entity - the Almighty God. These individuals are unable to visually and physically perceive, comprehend, intuit or independently access the presence of the Almighty God. They lack any form of spiritual vitality. Similarly, Myers (2023) argues that Apostle John's emphasis on the second death in Revelation 21:8 pertained to the concept of eternal death. From his viewpoint, the individuals in question will be consigned to the lake that is characterised by combustion and sulfuric emissions commonly referred to as the second death. Myers (2023) argues further that in Revelation 20:6, the Apostle John asserts that individuals who participate in the first resurrection are deemed blessed and holy. This is in contrast to the second death, which entails eternal separation from God. It is noteworthy that the lake of fire holds no power or authority over those who partake in the first resurrection. Additionally, such individuals are designated as priests of God and of Christ, and are expected to reign with him for a period of one thousand years (p. 3).

Ilomo (2021) opines that in the last judgement, it is anticipated that the individual presiding on the judgement seat will be the one who was crucified for the sake of reconciling the world, and no alternative judge will be present. This implies that the eschatological final judgement does not serve as a precedent for the judicial systems of kingdoms or empires (p. 12). Moltmann (1996:250-251) places significant emphasis on the notion that this judgement pertains to God and his inherent sense of creating justice, thus distinguishing it from various manifestations of justice observed in earthly contexts. The term 'last judgement' refers to the universal manifestation of Jesus Christ and the culmination of his redemptive efforts. The conclusion reached at the end of a matter should not be seen as the final outcome, but rather as the initial stage. The objective of this endeavour is the reinstatement of all elements, with the purpose of fortifying the everlasting dominion of God.

The implications drawn from Revelation 20:6 suggest that the second death, commonly referred to as the eternal death, is distinguished by an interminable duration of punishment, agony, lamentation and separation from the divine presence. The consummation pertains to the state of the individual who is spiritually deceased during the moment of physical demise and serves as the ultimate affirmation thereof.

 

Eschatology in African traditional religion

The inquiry regarding the fate of humanity following the current existence is a matter of great pertinence to all religions. Amevenku and Boaheng (2021) argue that African eschatology should consider the existential conditions prevailing in the African continent. They explain that the conceptualisation and foundation of eschatology are situated within the framework of African traditions, culture and cosmological worldviews as observed in traditional religion and theology. Every religious tradition possesses a distinct eschatological perspective. It is a widely held belief that the essence of an individual, commonly referred to as the soul, endures beyond physical death. According to Ndemanu (2018), the interconnection between African religion and culture results in a profound influence of indigenous religious beliefs on the belief systems, worldviews, and cognitive processes of Africans. Masoga and Nicolaides (2021) add that the concept of eschatology within ATR can be understood as a manifestation of the religious and theological frameworks derived from Africa's indigenous civilisations and spiritual cosmology (Masoga & Nicolaidesy 2021). Shorter (2015) asserts that the process of indigenisation has significantly influenced African theology, Christology and biblical theology. This is because the indigenisation policy in Africa promoted cultural integration, contextualisation, social empowerment and the recognition of indigenous knowledge systems within the broader Christian narrative. It led to the development of a vibrant and diverse African Christian theology that continues to evolve and shape contemporary theological discourse in Africa and beyond. Nevertheless, because of the principles of cultural belief emphasising individual accountability for actions, the notion of punishment (judgement) and reward is an intrinsic aspect within traditional African religion. The concept of judgement in ATR is primarily based on the objective of penalising illicit conduct and rewarding socially acceptable behaviour, with the aim of upholding social harmony and averting divine retribution from the deities, who assume the role of guardians and observers of humanity.

According to Chukwuedo (2019), ATRs do not espouse the notion of a future bodily resurrection, which is a key aspect of eschatology from an African perspective. The adherents of this belief system demonstrate their convictions regarding human mortality and associated rituals through their belief in reincarnation and the existence of a 'village of ancestors'. In this village, individuals who have passed away virtuously come together and dwell, cherishing their perpetual existence as both individuals and as a collective entity. According to African belief, the human soul is considered to be ethereal and has the ability to evade death. As a result, it is difficult to ascertain a conclusive termination period for individuals. Onyewuenyi (1996) supports Iwe's (1979) proposition that the fundamental principle of African religious philosophy is the belief in immortality. Onyewuenyi (1996) contends that the traditional African perspective on death involves not only acknowledging the departure of the soul of the deceased to the spirit realm; but according to Okoro (2010:73), the entirety of man, rather than just a portion or soul, has transitioned to the realm of the spirit, albeit imperceptibly. This notion is supported by the statement made by Onyewuenyi (1996:37). According to Ikenga-Metuh's (1991) perspective, death does not represent the ultimate conclusion of an individual's existence in Igbo ideology. Rather, all individuals continue to exist in some manner or another following their passing. Onyewuenyi (1996:37-38) opines that individuals who have lived a life of high quality and have experienced a peaceful death are believed to transition to the spiritual realm, known as Alammuo (spiritual world), where they are able to continue living a life that is comparable to their earthly existence. Additionally, these individuals are believed to have the opportunity to be reincarnated into uwa, (world). Conversely, individuals who have lived a life of poor quality and have experienced a death that is considered to be evil are believed to be relegated to an intermediate state known as [land of spirits and humans], which exists between the spiritual realm and the realm of the living. The notion of this afterlife location corresponds to the Igbo belief system's conception of the underworld. According to Ikenga-Metuh (1991), the individuals residing within are perceived as agitated and malevolent entities who are unable to find peace.

Opoku (1978) has effectively demonstrated that eschatology in ATR is cyclical. The African perspective on death is that it signifies a transition from the current earthly existence to an afterlife in the realm of spirits. The aforementioned statement posits that in order for an individual to transcend into the afterlife and persist as a forebear, they must undertake a pilgrimage. According to Akan beliefs, the deceased do not remain interred in the earth, but rather transform into spirits and journey to the afterlife realm known as asamando.

It can be asserted that within the framework of ATR belief systems, the concept of an afterlife is firmly upheld, thereby signifying that the cessation of human existence is not synonymous with death. One crucial inquiry that necessitates exploration is the manner in which an individual persists beyond death, given the eventual decay and decomposition of the physical body. In response to this query, Penethum (1977) cites Coward's reply, which suggests that there exists a clear and straightforward solution. From Penethum's perspective, there exists an intermediary state between death and resurrection that maintains our identity until the time of resurrection. This intermediary state is commonly referred to as the soul or spirit (p. 45). This implies that the soul persists after death until it undergoes a transformational state at the culmination. In the ATR, it is widely accepted that individuals transition into a spiritual existence upon death. However, this transformation presents challenges in terms of functioning in a physical state, as the limitations of the spiritual form hinder the individual's ability to operate as the living do. Ugwu (2002) asserts that death serves as a barrier between the realm of human beings and the realm of spirits, as well as between the visible and invisible worlds. This statement highlights the significance of death as a transitional phase that separates the physical and spiritual planes of existence.

Ugwu and Ugwueye (2004) posit that the soul, which serves as the vital force of an individual, persists beyond the physical death and decomposition of the human body. They contend that both the spirit and the timeless essence of the soul endure beyond the expiration of the physical body, and ultimately revert to their initial state. African eschatological beliefs are predicated on the notion of an infinite universe. Therefore, the cosmology of Africa is characterised by cyclical patterns. The notion that an individual's conduct or ethical inclination during their lifetime has an impact on their spiritual disposition and ultimate abode finds its origins in this concept. Therefore, an individual's moral character plays a crucial role in determining their acceptance or rejection in the veneration of their forefathers in the afterlife or their banishment to a realm of agony. As per Olademo's (2008) assertion, the African perspective on eschatology is characterised by a dual submission, both of which are deemed to be valid. One belief posits that in the eschaton, subsequent to human mortality, the Creator will demand a reckoning of every action undertaken by each person on the planet. According to the other belief (Olademo 2008:48), it is believed that individuals who have performed commendable moral actions during their lifetime will return to the earthly realm from the abode of the ancestor festivals, such as the Egungun in Yoruba culture, upon their demise.

The concept of reincarnation possesses enduring personal and interpersonal implications and has exerted an impact on the community, as Olademo's (2008) suggests. According to Olademo (2008:104), the concept has historically functioned as a mechanism for enforcing social and ethical norms in traditional societies. The fundamental basis of this assertion is that within African societies, there exists a pervasive conviction in the concept of eschatology, which pertains to the afterlife and ultimate judgement. A prevalent notion among Africans is that human beings are composite entities comprising physical and metaphysical components, namely the body, soul and spirit. There exists a belief among certain African communities that upon death, the soul departs from the physical body, which subsequently undergoes decomposition within the earth. The soul is then believed to embark on a journey towards the spiritual realm, inhabited by entities commonly referred to as spirits. The Akan community holds a belief that upon death, the soul departs from the physical body and reunites with the divine entity, whereas the spirit transforms into an ancestor or a ghost and commences its existence in the netherworld (Amponsah 1974). Parrinder (1968) provides evidence for this claim by stating that Africans commonly hold the belief that deceased individuals are immediately transported to an underworld located beneath the earth's surface, resembling the Greek concept of Hades, characterised by darkness and low temperatures. There are individuals who hold the viewpoint that there exists a body of water that must be traversed, akin to the river Styx as depicted. The concept of fear-inducing judgement is undoubtedly articulated by individuals through the Igbo doctrine of reincarnation.

Onunwa (1990) posits that attestations are depicted as stemming from the conviction in reincarnation and the notion that there exists a reckoning shortly after an individual's earthly existence. Onunwa further explains that Africans hold the belief that the dispensation of justice, compensation and punishment occurs within the confines of the present world. This conviction instils in them a resolute faith that malevolent individuals will inevitably face retribution in this realm. However, it is noteworthy that a significant number of indigenous Africans have formulated a distinct and atypical eschatology, which encompasses the concept of ultimate judgement. A customary musical composition originating from Benin, formerly known as Dahomey, concerning divine adjudication portrays the Almighty as the ultimate arbiter, as follows (Uduigwomen 2006):

Life is like a hill Mamu, the creator made it steep and slippery. To right and left deep waters surround it. You cannot turn back once you start to climb. You must climb with a road on your head. A man's arms will not help him, for its trial. The world is a place of trial. At the gates of the land of the dead you will pass before a searching judge. His justice is true and He will examine your feet. He will know how to find every stain, whether visible or hidden under the skin. If you have fallen on the way he will know. If the judge founds no stains on your feet, open your belly to joy, for you have overcome. And your belly is clean. (p. 179)

According to Hawkins (1996), in the LoDagaa of Ghana beliefs, the deceased will be subject to judgement by elder spirits upon arrival in the World of Spirits, with the assessment being based on their conduct during their earthly existence. According to Yoruba tradition, individuals will be held accountable for their actions on earth upon their passing, and will present a record of their stewardship to God while kneeling in heaven (Awolalu & Dopamu 1979:272). According to Fatokun (2005), it is believed that individuals who are deemed righteous will receive a reward in the form of a heavenly abode characterised by refreshing breezes, known as Orun-rere. Conversely, those who are considered wicked will be relegated to a separate heavenly realm, Orun-apad i, which can be likened to a celestial dumpsite (p.136). Fatokun (2005) argues further that the inquiry that necessitates consideration pertains to the means by which the spirits of the deceased are allocated to either of the aforementioned abodes. The majority of Africans who maintain a steadfast adherence to their traditional belief system regarding the existence of positive and negative afterlife realms posit that the deceased gain access to said realms via the adjudication of a Supreme Being. He further explains that it is commonly acknowledged that following the completion of burial rituals subsequent to an individual's passing, the deceased are believed to appear before the Ultimate Deity to provide an account of their earthly actions. The deity then proceeds to pass judgement accordingly. As per Yoruba traditional belief, the character of an individual is the primary factor that the Supreme Being evaluates, because of divine judgement. According to Awolalu and Dopamu's (1979) perspective, an individual's moral character is directly linked to their afterlife experience. Specifically, those who exhibit virtuous behaviour are believed to be granted access to a positive afterlife, whereas those who exhibit immoral behaviour are believed to be relegated to a negative afterlife. It is widely held by some that individuals who have attained a state of grace experience a life characterised by serenity, tranquilly and contentment. According to popular belief, individuals who reside in a good afterlife are bestowed with an eternal existence of happiness, whereas those who reside in an unfavourable afterlife experience a state of misery or distress. Because of their lack of a permanent residence, individuals may experience a sense of purposelessness and restlessness in their lives.

 

Eschatology in Christianity

Eschatology is the theological term used to refer to the doctrine of the last things. The term in question has its origins in Western culture and was initially employed to denote concepts pertaining to end time events, encompassing beliefs held by adherents of Judaism, Christianity and Islam regarding the culmination of time, the existence beyond death, the final judgement, the era of the Messiah, and the theological predicament of reconciling God's justice (Landes 2023). The field of eschatology pertains to the examination and analysis of the theological concept known as the 'four last things' within Christianity. These four elements, namely the resurrection, judgement, heaven and hell, are believed to hold significant influence over an individual's ultimate destiny at the culmination of time (Landes 2016). Eschatology here is the study of what Christian scripture teaches about the end time. This shows that the teaching of eschatology is the need of the church since it has been the crown and capstone of systematic theology. This is because of the fact that eschatology serves as a reminder for Christians that this earthly realm is not their permanent abode. It enables them to anticipate and gain insight into the current events that pertain to heaven, the eternal dwelling where they will be united with Christ Jesus and fellow believers indefinitely.

It is an idea that has been given approval in Christian eschatology that after death, man's soul and spirit continues in a state of conscious existence between death and resurrection. Britannica (2021) argues that the eschatological anticipation within Christianity pertains not solely to the future of the ecclesiastical community, but also to the future of the individual's faith. The concept encompasses specific notions regarding the persistence of an individual's existence beyond physical death. This is why Christians believe that death does not bring an end to our existence.

Theological discussions on death and eschatology have long captivated the attention of Christian thinkers throughout history. A cursory look at the trends from the early church to the modern times shows the importance of death and eschatology in the discourses of theologians.

St. Augustine of Hippo, an influential figure in early Christian thought, approached the doctrine of death and eschatology from the perspective of original sin and divine grace. Augustine articulated the concept of death as a consequence of humanity's fallen nature, a result of the original sin inherited from Adam (Augustine, City of God, 426-427). He underscored the significance of divine grace as the means of salvation, highlighting the role of Christ's redemptive work in overcoming the spiritual death that plagued humanity. Augustine's emphasis on the resurrection of the dead and the final judgement resonated with his belief in the ultimate triumph of God's righteousness and the eternal fulfilment of the redeemed in God's presence (Augustine, City of God, 426-427).

On the other hand, Martin Luther, the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation, approached the doctrine of death and eschatology through the lens of a 'theology of the cross'. For Luther, the experience of suffering and the inevitability of death were inherent to the Christian journey, emphasising the transformative power of faith in God's redemptive plan (Luther 1518). His theological framework accentuates the importance of relying on God's grace amid human weaknesses and vulnerabilities, fostering a deeper trust in the divine providence that overcomes death itself.

Karl Barth, a renowned 20th-century Swiss Reformed theologian, approached eschatology through the lens of Christocentrism. For Barth, the focal point of eschatological hope resided in the resurrection of Christ, signalling the promise of redemption for humanity (Barth 1932). He emphasised the anticipation of the consummation of God's kingdom, where the eschaton represents the fulfilment of God's ultimate purposes. According to him, the Christian's hope is grounded in the assurance of God's redemptive plan and the eventual victory over death (Barth 1932). Barth's theological framework underscores the centrality of Christ's resurrection in shaping Christian eschatological perspectives, pointing to a future reconciliation with God and the triumph over mortality.

In his other book, Church Dogmatics: The Doctrine of the Word of God, Part 3, Karl Barth's theological viewpoint about death and eschatology is founded upon his Christocentric framework, which underscores the significance of Jesus Christ in comprehending these notions (Barth 1968). Barth's work emphasises the profound importance of human mortality as a direct result of sin, while also emphasising the inescapable nature of death as an inherent element of human beings (Barth 1968). Nevertheless, Barth (1968) places significant emphasis on the Christian hope that arises from the eschatological assurance of God's redemption and the physical resurrection of deceased individuals. Barth (1968) advises against inordinate speculative readings and emphasises the significance of permitting the Scriptures to interpret themselves in his critique of specific eschatological perspectives. Moreover, Barth posits that the resurrection of Jesus Christ serves as the fundamental basis for the subsequent resurrection of all believers in Christ, hence playing a pivotal role in forming his comprehension of eschatological doctrine (Barth 1968).

In the modern and contemporary times, the theological landscape has been significantly shaped by the contributions of various modern theologians who have offered compelling insights into the doctrines of eschatology and death. One of such scholars is Jurgen Moltmann, a prominent figure in modern theology, who has presented a unique perspective on eschatology, emphasising the theology of hope as a central theme. Moltmann's theology underlines the significance of eschatological hope as a transformative force that not only offers solace in the face of mortality but also instils a sense of anticipation for the realisation of God's redemptive purposes (Moltmann 1996). He posits that the eschatological hope serves as a source of strength and resilience, enabling individuals to confront the existential challenges of life and death with unwavering faith in the ultimate triumph of God's kingdom (Moltmann 1996).

Furthermore, Pannenberg (2004), another influential modern theologian, has contributed to the discourse of eschatology by emphasising the concept of a future-oriented faith. Pannenberg's theological framework centres on the idea that the hope for the future resurrection of the dead is intricately linked to the historical reality of Jesus Christ's resurrection, thereby underscoring the significance of the eschaton as the culmination of God's redemptive plan (Pannenberg 2004). His emphasis on the historical credibility of the resurrection not only reaffirms the foundational tenets of Christian faith but also serves to establish a robust theological framework that resonates with the modern sensibilities of believers.

Moreover, Elizabeth A. Johnson has contributed to the conversation on eschatology by emphasising the notion of a cosmic Christ. Johnson's theological reflection expands the traditional understanding of eschatology by highlighting the interconnectedness of all creation in the salvific work of Christ (Johnson 1993). By emphasising the cosmic dimension of Christ's redemptive mission, Johnson offers a compelling vision of eschatological hope that encompasses the entirety of creation, thereby fostering a renewed sense of responsibility towards the preservation and restoration of the natural world.

In summary of Christian eschatology and death, therefore, despite their differing historical contexts, Barth and Augustine share a common theological thread in their emphasis on the pivotal role of Christ's redemptive work in the context of eschatology and death. Both theologians underscore the significance of the resurrection in shaping the Christian understanding of life beyond death. While Barth's Christocentric approach places the resurrection at the heart of eschatological hope, Augustine's focus on the implications of original sin and divine grace enriches the theological discourse on salvation and the afterlife. Their contributions to the doctrine of eschatology and death continue to influence contemporary theological discussions, offering profound insights into the transformative power of Christ's redemptive work and the hope for eternal life in the presence of God.

While Luther's emphasis on the theology of the cross underscores the transformative potential of suffering and death, Moltmann's theology of hope accentuates the anticipatory joy of redemption and the triumph over mortality within the eschatological framework. Both perspectives offer profound insights into the Christian understanding of death and the ultimate hope for eternal salvation. Their contributions to the doctrine of eschatology and death continue to resonate within contemporary theological discourses, inspiring reflections on the transformative power of faith amid suffering and the anticipatory joy of redemption found in the hope of the resurrection from dead at the coming of Christ.

On the part of the modern and contemporary theologians discussed above, the insights provided by these modern theologians have enriched the theological discourse on eschatology and death by offering diverse perspectives that not only affirm the foundational tenets of Christian faith but also resonate with the contemporary sensibilities of believers, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of the transformative power of eschatological hope in the face of mortality.

One could posit, based on Christian Theology, that death is a mere passage towards an existence in communion with Christ. Paul asserts in his letter to the Philippians that it is preferable to be in the presence of the Lord in the hereafter than in the flesh (Phlp 1:23).

 

Comparative study of eschatology in Christianity and African traditional religion

In comparing the two religions' eschatology, it is clear that eschatology pertains to the scholarly examination or belief structure concerning the final fate of both humanity and the world. Inquiries pertaining to eschatology concerns, the concept of the afterlife, and the ultimate telos or objective of being. Divergent eschatological convictions are evident among diverse religious systems, such as Christianity and ATR which we have expressed above. The following is a synopsis of eschatology within the aforementioned religious frameworks.

In Christianity, eschatology holds a prominent position, particularly with respect to the teachings of Jesus Christ and the literature of the New Testament. Several fundamental convictions comprise the core of this ideology:

• Death: Christianity believes and teaches that death is an appointment everyone has.

• Second Coming of Christ: Christians anticipate the return of Jesus Christ to Earth at the end of time. This occurrence is commonly perceived as a precursor to the ultimate reckoning and the inception of an everlasting divine realm.

• The Christian faith upholds the belief in the resurrection of deceased individuals. It is widely held that all individuals will experience resurrection and subsequently undergo divine judgement. Those who are deemed righteous will attain eternal life in the presence of God, whereas those who are deemed unrighteous will experience eternal alienation from God.

• Christianity posits the notion of heaven as a divine abode for God and the sanctified. Additionally, the religion acknowledges the existence of hell. The state being referred to is one of perpetual bliss and spiritual union with the divine. On the contrary, the concept of hell is commonly perceived as a realm of perpetual retribution and detachment from the divine.

• The concept of the millennium as described in the Book of Revelation is subject to varying interpretations among different Christian denominations. The aforementioned perspectives, namely premillennialism, postmillennialism and amillennialism, offer varying viewpoints regarding the reign of Christ on Earth prior to the ultimate judgement.

On the other hand, ATR is a comprehensive term that refers to a wide range of indigenous belief systems that are prevalent throughout the African continent. The eschatological beliefs within ATR exhibit significant variation as a result of the diverse cultural and regional distinctions that exist. Nevertheless, certain recurrent themes and concepts can be discerned:

• Ancestral veneration is a significant aspect of ATR, which underscores the importance of ancestral spirits and their function in the afterlife. It is widely held that forebears persist in the metaphysical domain and possess the ability to impact the experiences of their progeny who are still alive. The appropriate reverence of forebears holds significance for the welfare of the society.

• The notion of a Supreme Being is a fundamental concept within ATR, as it generally recognises the presence of a High God or Deity. The perception of this divinity differs among diverse African societies; however, the Supreme Being is frequently linked with the genesis of the universe and the paramount origin of potency and supremacy.

• Afterlife and Spirit Realms: ATR acknowledges the existence of various spiritual realms beyond the physical world. These realms can include a realm of the ancestors, a realm of spirits, and possibly other realms associated with different deities or natural forces. The concept of afterlife is frequently perceived as a perpetuation of existence, wherein the departed become a part of the domain of forefathers.

• Rituals and Offerings: ATR emphasises the importance of rituals, sacrifices and offerings to maintain harmony with the spiritual realm. It is widely held that these rituals and customs serve to enhance connectivity with forebears and ethereal entities, solicit their counsel and secure their safeguarding and benedictions.

It is noteworthy that Christianity and ATR are multifaceted religious frameworks that exhibit differences in their beliefs and practises across various denominations, cultural groups and geographical locations. The preceding synopsis offers a comprehensive comprehension of the eschatological viewpoints present in these respective religious systems.

Points of convergence

Both the Christianity and ATR eschatologists agree on physical death, which is cessation of life in our physical body. They all see death as transition to the next world. They also agree that the human being has an abrupt time to finish his or her work on earth. The idea of judgement, as expressed by both religions, has been the crown and capstone of their eschatological teachings. Both have agreed that after death, a person's soul and spirit continue in a state of conscious existence between death and resurrection. The two religions also subscribe to the idea of heaven and hell as well as eternal punishment. Some ATR scholars, such as John S. Mbiti, E. Bolaji Idowu, Jacob K. Olupona and Mercy Amba Oduyoye, have not concerned themselves with the concept of eternal punishment in ATR, which could be a literary gap or outright non-recognition of the idea among Africans. For example, Mbiti emphasises the communal and life-affirming aspects of ATRs, highlighting their focus on maintaining harmonious relationships with the spiritual realm and the community; while Idowu emphasises the ethical and communal dimensions of ATRs, underscoring their emphasis on maintaining balance and social cohesion rather than on eternal punishment. Olupona on his part highlights the dynamic and diverse nature of ATRs, emphasising their emphasis on ancestral reverence, rituals, and maintaining a harmonious relationship with the spiritual world; while Oduyoye advocates for women's rights, and her work often focusses on the empowerment of women within the context of ATRs and highlights the communal and spiritual dimensions of these traditions. These scholars, among others, have shed light on the nuanced and multifaceted nature of ATRs, challenging the portrayal of these religions as emphasising eternal punishment. They have highlighted the communal, ethical and spiritual dimensions of ATRs, focussing their emphasis on maintaining balance, harmony and social cohesion within the community.

However, the authors of this present work do not subscribe to this notion, because eternal consequences of the final judgement also form a part of the Traditional Religion.

Point of divergence

The notion of resurrection is found only in Christianity while in ATR it is not so pronounced. The second coming of Christ is an idea found only in Christianity and not in ATR.

 

Conclusion

When comparing the eschatology in Christianity and ATR, several distinct differences and similarities emerge:

Ultimate destiny

• Christianity: Christians believe in a final judgement where individuals will be resurrected and face God's judgement. The righteous will enter eternal life in heaven, while the unrighteous will face eternal separation from God in hell.

• ATR: ATR views the afterlife as a continuation of life, where individuals join the realm of the ancestors. The emphasis is on maintaining a harmonious relationship with ancestors and spirits rather than a judgement-based system.

Central figure:

• Christianity: Jesus Christ plays a pivotal role in Christian eschatology. His second coming is anticipated as the event that will inaugurate the final judgement and establish God's eternal kingdom.

• ATR: ATR lacks a central figure in eschatology. The focus is on ancestral spirits, who play a significant role in the afterlife and are venerated for their guidance and protection.

Salvation and redemption

• Christianity: Christians believe in salvation through faith in Jesus Christ and his redemptive work on the cross. Salvation is seen as the means to eternal life and reconciliation with God.

• ATR: ATR's emphasis is on communal well-being and maintaining harmony with the spiritual realm through rituals, offerings and veneration of ancestors. The focus is less on individual salvation and more on community welfare.

Concept of heaven and hell:

• Christianity: Heaven is portrayed as the dwelling place of God and the blessed, where believers experience eternal joy and communion with God. Hell is depicted as a place of eternal punishment and separation from God.

• ATR: ATR does not have a specific concept of heaven or hell. The afterlife is associated with the realm of the ancestors, where deceased individuals continue to exist and influence the lives of their living descendants.

Prophetic tradition

• Christianity: Christianity has a strong prophetic tradition, with biblical prophecies and teachings about the end times. Many Christians look to these prophecies for insight into the signs and events leading to the final judgement.

• ATR: ATR does not have a centralised prophetic tradition. Eschatological beliefs and teachings are often based on oral traditions, cultural practices and the experiences of individual communities.

The above comparisons are comprehensive, and both Christianity and ATR have a wide range of beliefs and customs across sects, ethnicities and regions. These factors may affect each tradition's eschatology. Both religions agree that current choices determine a person's fate and eternal state. Immoral people are exiled from God. Virtuous people will enjoy eternal life in the divine presence. Virtues and vices will be rewarded or punished.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

E.C.E. is responsible for proofreading and editing, data arrangements, visualisation, methodology and data analysis and formatting aspects of this article. E.O.E. conceptualised the idea, gathered data and contributed in the literature review for this research. E.E.N. supported the work by proofreading and editing part of the literature and financial support for the research. E.O.A. contributed to part of the literature review, data curation and supervision of this research article. G.M.M. contributed to part of the literature review, data curation and financial support for the research.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the University of Calabar.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available due to confidentiality, except on permission upon reasonable request from the corresponding author, E.C.E.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Emeka Ekeke
emekacekeke@unical.edu.ng

Received: 01 Aug. 2023
Accepted: 31 Oct. 2023
Published: 30 Jan. 2024

^rND^sAbbah^nW.^rND^sAgboada^nE.^rND^sArnet^nW.F.^rND^sBongmba^nE.K.^rND^sChukwuedo^nM.U.^rND^sEbersole^nG.L.^rND^sFatokun^nS.A.^rND^sHawkins^nS.^rND^sIkenga-Metuh^nE.^rND^sIlomo^nF.^rND^sMasoga^nM.A.^rND^sNicolaides^nA.^rND^sMyers^nJ.^rND^sNdemanu^nM.T.^rND^sOkon^nE.E.^rND^sOkoro^nK.N.^rND^sVeenat^nA.^rND^1A01 A02^nMarcus^sGrohmann^rND^1A01 A02^nMarcus^sGrohmann^rND^1A01 A02^nMarcus^sGrohmann

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

From celebration to utilisation: How linguistic diversity can reduce epistemic inequalities

 

 

Marcus Grohmann^{I, II}

^IJena Centre for Reconciliation Studies, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
^IIBeyers Naudé Centre for Public Theology, Faculty of Theology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Working towards reconciliation, the undoing of structural inequalities and segregation often means transforming 'white spaces' into less white spaces, including but not restricted to Christian communities. However, it is often overlooked that greater representation of people of colour does not automatically challenge the epistemic authority that tends to rest with white people and/or Eurocentric knowledge systems.
This was the backdrop of a study carried out in a multi-'racial' South African congregation. The purpose was to understand how white people conceptualised and worked for reconciliation in a context they were culturally dominating. A constructivist grounded theory approach was used to generate and analyse data through ethnographic methods and relationship-based learning of isiXhosa.
This article presents the problem identified - the 'coloniality of knowledge' in 'reconciling' Christian communities. To challenge it and to render theologising more relevant in the intercultural contact zone, several concrete suggestions are subsequently made. They are focussed on creating environments favourable to embracing cultural-linguistic differences and to harnessing them for increased gospel relevance and epistemic equality. The value and the cost of such transformation will be discussed in the end with reference to the South African context.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: Seeking relationships on the terms of the 'other' enables more profound ways of sharing different experiences of the gospel. This approach of decolonising theology can increase cultural and epistemic justice with implications for practical and systematic theology, mission and reconciliation studies, and research in general in cross-cultural settings

Keywords: epistemologies; coloniality of knowledge; reconciliation studies; mission studies; multicultural church; REACH SA; decolonising theology; cultural linguistics; linguistic diversity; chosen vulnerability.

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Introduction

With the advent of democracy, South Africa opted for a strategy of reconciliation to deal with the societal consequences of the colonial and particularly the apartheid era (Wüstenberg 2014). Ideals were - and mostly still remain - a 'non-racial' society (Alexander 2001) as well as increasing inclusion (Du Toit 2017:180). According to Grohmann (2023:5), many churches today - particularly in middle-class urban areas - regard it as their duty to contribute to the transformation of South Africa by following this vision.

Of course, such congregations would be experienced as more multicultural than others that have remained ethnically and culturally more homogeneous. Whether such lack of transformation is because of choice, location or capacity is another question. And yet, this integration-based 'reconciliation' in churches says little of the quality and the depth of transformation when it comes to what Kwenda described as 'cultural justice', that is a form of 'co-existence [which] is predicated on a degree of interaction that invokes the cultural worlds of the players, in essence, what they, in their distinctive ways, take for granted' (Kwenda 2003:69).

A case can be made for the 'coloniality of knowledge' (De Sousa Santos 2016) - an ongoing 'Western' dominance in the realm of epistemologies - to underlie much multi-ethnic togetherness in South African churches (Grohmann 2023:206; 40 f.). Unawareness and ignorance of this risks perpetuating rather than challenging existing inequalities that often run along 'racial' lines (Grohmann 2023:206).

This article is concerned with two questions: Firstly, with who does epistemic authority tend to rest, within a multicultural and multilingual church - not only but particularly in a post-apartheid South Africa? And secondly, how could it be more equally distributed? The basis for these considerations is formed by a recently completed PhD project in Cape Town. With an ethnographic approach, I studied white people's perspectives on 'racial' reconciliation in a multiethnic yet largely white-dominated church.

Generally, white people were found to show a desire to 'listen' to and learn from 'black brothers and sisters', about their lives in black communities, their experiences growing up, their faith journeys etc. Although conversations were supposed to bring better understanding and healing, the pattern whereby African language speakers by their choice of English kept adapting to those who wanted to 'reconcile' with them, still reflected the history of skewed intercultural relations in this country. Searching for redemptive alternatives to colonial domination, Erasmus and Garuba (2017) state that:

[T]he politics of language in contemporary South Africa challenges the idea that dialogue is the foundation for repairing its brutal history […]. The evidence suggests the opposite: repair is the foundation for intersubjective dialogue. (p. 350)

In the following, it will become clear why these remarks are pertinent when we consider the nature of typical, supposedly multicultural churches in South Africa as well as the meaning and impact of the coloniality of knowledge. We will then concern ourselves with the potential of linguistic diversity before reflecting on several concrete ways it can be actualised in multiethnic settings, echoing the 'repairing' Erasmus and Garuba regard as prerequisite for restoration. The discussion will focus on the benefits of these suggestions as well as the potential costs for communities and individuals in South African contexts. It will be concluded that a paradigm-change towards seeking relationships with the 'underprivileged' on their own terms has far-reaching transformative potential.

 

Research design and methods

The project was situated at the intersection of reconciliation studies, cultural anthropology, sociology of religion, and linguistics.¹ It dealt with the overarching question of how white people in a multi-'racial', reformed evangelical Anglican church understood and worked for 'racial' reconciliation in a context where they seemed to be relatively influential: This 'dominance' was made out not only in their sheer numbers among the congregation or church leadership nor in the relative socio-economic positions of people. It was also seen at play with respect to language (the almost exclusive use of English), cultural practices, theology (primarily drawing on Western philosophical and theological traditions), and place (meeting in middle-class settings that were the norm for most white people but not necessarily for people of colour at the church). All of this, I subsumed under 'cultural dominance'.

The study sought to answer the questions, to what extent white people at the church were aware of their cultural dominance, how white people at the church imagined reconciliation considering their understanding of inter-cultural power relationships and lastly, in the light of their ideas about reconciliation, what reconciliation looked like practically for white people at the church. The goal was to reach a better understanding of reconciliation in contexts marked by coloniality, meaning the inherited unequal relations from colonial times in many spheres, which are not restricted to mere socio-economics. A more specific objective was to learn to what extent 'reconciling', progressively 'multicultural' (church) communities challenged or perpetuated structures of inequality.

A subsidiary study was undertaken in an isiXhosa-run African Initiated Church in a township, which allowed for the opportunity to experience church rooted in African rather than in Western traditions.

The research methodology² rested on the following pillars: a constructivist grounded theory approach, ethnographic methods as well as languaculture-learning.³ While the former assured a self-aware, iterative and concurrent analysis of the data, ethnography allowed for an exposure to and immersion in my research fields over a period of around 10 months. In the multiethnic church, apart from substantial participant observation, I conducted semi-structured interviews with the majority of the white adult regulars at the church as well as with the black junior pastor at the time. In the township church, no formal interviews were conducted. Data were collected from notes on participant observation and several clarifying conversations with the pastor, held in isiXhosa. As is common in qualitative studies and particularly in grounded-theory approaches, the analysis of all data involved software-based coding, constant comparisons, memo-writing, categorising, and theoretical sampling.

Working on the assumption of inequalities being partly rooted in the predominance of English, from the beginning of my research project I made an effort to learn isiXhosa as the dominant black South African language in the province. This enabled me to progressively engage with people speaking isiXhosa. Together with the regular sessions with my isiXhosa tutors, the time spent at the township church led to an increasing awareness of cultural-linguistic differences. This resulted in a subsidiary concept study of isiXhosa-English term pairs, which illustrated the potentially misleading nature of translation as well as possible and actual implications of the dominance of English in a multicultural church. For this study, four isiXhosa home language speakers were interviewed; both the interviews and the data analysis were conducted in isiXhosa.

Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their identities anonymised, for example by using pseudonyms.

 

Western dominance in 'multicultural' South African churches

There are many examples - even in denominations that used to be known to be 'overwhelmingly white' like REACH SA⁴ (Balcomb 2004:15) - of 'racial' integration nowadays being part of the everyday experience in urban churches. One often speaks of 'celebrating' one's cultural diversity or the different cultures. In practice, this includes having people of different 'racial' backgrounds represented in various forms of church gatherings and church offices, in seeking relationships marked by equality and respect even outside church gatherings as well as by including songs in a variety of languages. These are typically translated into English on screen or combined with verses in English in the same song.

All of the above was certainly the case in the multiethnic congregation in which the field research of this study was carried out. It partly reflected the essence of what 'racial' reconciliation meant to white people at the church: the double goal of increasing equality and seeking 'racial' integration to overcome the divisions and hierarchies of the past and establish a community marked by inter-'racial' and multicultural togetherness. In terms of their 'racial reconciliation', the church was also regarded as dangerously progressive by some within their theologically conservative and historically white denomination. The extent was such that it was suggested they were too boldly tackling issues of 'racial' reconciliation and risking the harmony in the church by providing platforms to discuss issues of historical injustices (e.g. Interview Lillian, 26/11/2019). Indeed, engaging the South African legacy inside and outside of church entangled with personal stories and a variety of theological emphases did not go without conflict and some people left the church for different reasons prior to my field research. Despite these difficulties, the church leadership was adamant that such disagreements, frustrations or difficulties mustn't be deterrents in the congregation's quest of being an agent of healing and reconciliation after the apartheid era:

… [S]ometimes you are bashing your head against the wall, make no mistake, but it is, it is a worthy thing to desire, reconciliation, because that is what Christ did, he died for. (Interview with church elder Jeremy, 20/09/2019)

Nevertheless, a good number of the white people I interviewed made remarks such as the following when it came to describing their experience at the church, it was said to have:

'a western mind-set rather than an African mind-set'. (Interview Elisabeth, 10/11/2019)

'a white feel' (Interview Leo, 11/11/2019), there were certain 'ways of doing things'. (Interview Henry, 17/05/2019)

'a white context' (Interview Pamela, 22/08/2019), 'all the unspoken stuff that's hard to put your finger on'. (Interview Erika, 24/05/2019)

'a white lingua franca, it's a white style. It's the thought leaders and the sort of the whole context'. (Interview Jonathan, 27/05/2019)

How come a church that is able to display such a measure of cultural 'diversity' can be described in these terms?

Part of the answer is that the approach to reconciliation by white people at this increasingly multi-'racial' church is based on a stance which can be called 'Hope for transformation from within'. This attitude:

… [I]s based on a commitment to racial reconciliation and transformation. It acknowledges a responsibility for white Christians in South Africa to bridge cultural as well as socio-economic gaps to overcome the divisions of the past while being conscient of possible limitations. What is significant about 'Hope for transformation from within' is that it tries to change power relationships by altering existing - white dominated - structures rather than seeing white people becoming a minority in a black-instituted structure as a viable alternative. It therefore defines both the kind of change that people would like to see happening and the boundaries within which such change is conceivable or desirable and beyond which it is not. (Grohmann 2023:112f.)

If control is not abandoned or handed over but, in some way, retained, significant cultural transformation in the way church is understood, lived out and experienced is unlikely to happen. John Flett (2016) in his seminal work 'Apostolicity' points in a similar direction. He writes:

… [W]hile ecumenical theory may appear to cherish 'diversity', it does so insofar as this illustrates the supposed a priori universality of the church as experienced in the West […] Diversity, especially when defined in the narrow terms of gift, is cherished to the extent that it reinforces and does not intrude on the specific Western cultural heritage of the universal church. (p. 182)

The two limitations identified in 'Hope for transformation from within' were the interconnected boundaries of language and theology. Whereas language and culture were indeed often acknowledged as central to people's receiving, understanding and practicing of theology, the perhaps paradoxical conclusion was reached that in a multilingual context, the almost exclusive use of English was justified. At the same time:

[C]ultural diversity [was] regarded as subordinate to theological orthodoxy. In this view, cultural diversity and theological orthodoxy can - at least at times - constitute mutually exclusive categories. (Grohmann 2023:123)

This attitude concealed the fact that the dominant theology at the church was itself rooted in certain epistemological and cultural traditions that did precisely not draw on Black or African theologies but on those of neo-Calvinist origins in the West.

Taking into account these related attitudes towards language use and theology is central in understanding how church practice in similar congregations is often marked by a 'coloniality of knowledge'. In the following section, this coloniality of knowledge will be explained as to its pertinence to church environments.

 

Decoloniality and the coloniality of knowledge

The notion of coloniality refers to persisting consequences of the period of formal colonialism which, in Maldonado-Torres' words, had created a 'logic, metaphysics, ontology, and matrix of power [that is] intrinsically tied to what is called "Western civilization" and "Western modernity"' (Maldonado-Torres 2016:10). The 'patterns of power, control and hegemonic systems of knowledge that rationalized colonial domination' (Stroud & Kerfoot 2021:20) are understood to have created long-lasting imbalances that continue to privilege the former colonising nations.

The 'project' of decoloniality seeks to 'critique […] the failures of Eurocentered modernity [assuming] the perspectives and life experiences of peoples from the Global South as points of departure' (Veronelli 2015:109). Despite the wide traction it gained in Latin America, Africa and beyond, this 'project' has also been criticised for its lack of nuance (Cheah 2006), and its simple West/non-West dichotomies and essentialism (Vickers 2020). Moreiras even saw in the 'decolonial option […] not a democratic critique of imperial reason' but rather 'an imperial critique of imperial reason' or even 'a colonial critique of colonial reason' (Moreiras 2012:231), amounting to 'political theology' (Moreiras 2012:235). This critical evaluation of decolonial theory is important. However, it does not render a careful and balanced consideration of power imbalances in concrete contexts obsolete. Such is the purpose for the remainder of this article.

One of the several strands coloniality is commonly classified in is the coloniality of knowledge.⁵ The main problem here in which the West exerts power over others is that knowledge is taken to be universal and potentially complete rather than perspectival and of necessity, incomplete (De Sousa Santos 2016:201). By privileging Western, secular, scientific ways of knowing, other epistemologies are rendered absent or non-existent in Santos words (De Sousa Santos 2016:172, 174), resulting in epistemic monocultures and therefore 'epistemic injustice' (Stroud & Kerfoot 2021:21). A certain approach to translation is instrumental in that, mistaking it for 'a neutral medium for the transmission and reception of pre-existing knowledge [rather than] the key ingredient in the very constitution of knowledge' (Jaworski & Coupland 2014:3). Indigenous knowledges could thus be translated into colonial languages and claims made to the universality of knowledge (Stroud & Kerfoot 2021:23), concealing the fact that such supposedly universal knowledge had been constructed through the categories and frames available in European language systems.

In the following, I would like to illustrate how this abstract rendering of the problem finds practical expressions in the life of institutions that base their transformation on inclusion into a system where such coloniality of knowledge is found.

At this point, we need to take note of the following: If we are serious about this critique, we need to have the self-awareness to see how it impacts our centres of learning and our academic discourses as well. Echoing Santos, my using of English in this article could mean a marginalisation or production as absent of perspectives that are based on languacultures other than a Western English one - at least if what I am saying purported to be universally valid and universally accessible knowledge. Not wanting to simply settle for the coloniality that is embedded in such ways of thinking, I acknowledge the limitations of presenting my argument based on Eurocentric English to a languaculturally diverse readership. Considering the issues at stake from a different languacultural perspective is likely to result in different perspectives, engagement with which is of great value.

Besides these academic contexts, the coloniality of knowledge is of course relevant to the realm of faith-based communities that feature a diversity of cultures, in our case, churches. Against the backdrop of apartheid-era segregation, unity across 'racial' divides is often given a lot of emphasis in churches wanting to be truer to what they regard as the mandate of the church in places such as South Africa - a 'this-worldly' reflection of St. John's vision of the great multitude before the heavenly throne with people 'from every nation, tribe, people and language' (Rv 7:9). And indeed, in a miniature version this exists of course in many places as people worship in culturally diverse settings. Furthermore, this diversity is often acknowledged as well, be it by greetings in people's languages, by songs, instruments - although all of that usually has to fit into a Western framework - or by having people from different backgrounds in various leadership positions. When it comes to the practice of 'languaging',⁶ though, English commonly takes precedence. Sermons are preached in English, in Bible studies it is usually taken for granted that the discussions are based on English versions of scripture, and prayer - especially in group contexts - is practiced in English only in a consecutive, 'orderly' manner.⁷

As was mentioned earlier, the boundaries of language have an effect on what can be said - just like the boundaries of theology. In defining what counts as orthodox, cultural diversity is effectively being limited - to the extent that languacultures differ in their understanding, making sense of and responses to reality. At this stage, there is no need to discuss diverging convictions between different church traditions. Rather, I would like to give an example how this implicit insistence on English can lead to a stifling of healthy debate in a theological context - as is likely to be the case in many non-religious settings as well. We will look at a rule the denomination REACH SA laid down for its member churches:

Its handbook emphasises that 'in terms of 1 Timothy 2:12 it is not permissible for a woman to preach in a Church service' (REACH SA 2014:17). At the same time, one professes to highly value the role of women, and indeed, women do play a central role in the community and in church services, for example by public reading of Scripture and giving testimonies. People from certain isiXhosa-speaking churches may find this practice inconsistent. Preaching in isiXhosa is often referred to as ukushumayela. Being used as a translation, however, doesn't mean that ukushumayela is an equivalent of 'to preach'. As 'giving testimonies' ('ukungqina') can be subsumed under ukushumayela (just as 'prophesying'), allowing women to do the one but denying them to do the other may not make much sense (Grohmann 2023:174ff.). Furthermore, Chapter 2 of the gospel of Luke in the isiXhosa Bible presents Hannah as a prominent woman who is presented as umshumayeli - a term that would commonly be translated into English as a 'preacher'. Being restricted to using English in multicultural contexts, it can be difficult for speakers of African languages to engage theological arguments that challenge their languaculturally based understanding of Scripture in this matter. Epistemic authority rests with those who are privileged by the fact that their home language happens to be the lingua franca of the church (Stroud & Kerfoot 2021:20; Venter 1998: 33). Truth being implicitly regarded as universal and universally translatable, what is truth in English consequently has to be truth for everyone.

This is a problem both for reconciliation and for theological relevance. For reconciliation it is problematic insofar as reconciliation's intention includes a levelling of inherited power hierarchies. The assumed universalism embedded in the coloniality of knowledge makes it hard for people here to even see power as an issue. Rather, English is experienced as a leveller of hierarchies, not as an institution that upholds them. Pointing out a possible legitimacy of deviating theological convictions can be understood as undermining the foundations of the church by opening the door to arbitrary relativism. By keeping this door shut, though, for the sake of the protection of truth that people perceive so clearly in Scripture (in their own language), the 'reconciliation' of a community essentially depends on terms set by those who have epistemic authority - and do not realise that others are prevented from having it in the same way because of one language being privileged over others (Grohmann 2023:150f.).

The other consequence of the coloniality of knowledge in a church context is that theology lacks in relevance to certain speech communities. For theology contextual to the Anglo-American world to be relevant to those outside the 'West', what is required is a measure of assimilation into Western ways of thinking and perceiving the world. On a sidenote, this would arguably be true for large parts of African education systems as well. If English based on secularist, Western assumptions is the context from which Scripture is read and understood, and at the same time the reality of contextual differences cannot be perceived - literally - for a lack of words in another language, what will be communicated will be contextual to the West and not to Africa (Harries 2018; Tshehla 2002).

This is illustrated by an issue uncovered by Dion Forster in his study on the divergent understanding of forgiveness between research participants who were white and others of colour. The latter emphasised a kind of forgiveness that was contingent on the conditions for forgiveness to be met in the community, that is it had an aspect of social transformation and 'tangible expressions of remorse' at its core (Forster 2018:83). On the contrary, white people tended to prioritise the spiritual dimension of forgiveness: After acknowledging to have been a beneficiary of apartheid, righting one's relationship with God could be regarded as sufficient to 'move on' from a painful past (Forster 2018:84). Forster's study did point out differences in the groups' intersubjective orientations as a possible explanation for this divergence. The misunderstanding then serves as an indication for differences that can appear as symptoms in the form of disagreements. The supposedly shared language of English here conceals different ontologies. By prioritising English, they are produced as absent, in Santos' words.

Let us consider the case of isiXhosa here: The word commonly translated as 'to ask for forgiveness' is ukuxolisa. 'To forgive' would be ukuxolela accordingly. These two words have a common root in uxolo, which is mostly translated as 'peace'. Orthographically, this connection doesn't exist between the English words 'forgive' and 'peace'. Looked at from a Western English perspective, it seems likely, though, that in isiXhosa ukuxolisa ('to ask for forgiveness') - through its inherent link to the notion of 'peace' - comes with a much more comprehensive understanding of what is required for a request to be forgiven to be granted. Restricting discussions on forgiveness to English in a community that includes those of and others not of Western or English backgrounds risks riding roughshod over understandings that are based on different cultural-linguistic categories. Even if it can be acknowledged that isiXhosa might conceptualise, for example, 'forgiveness' differently, these differences are invisibilised, eclipsed, if English ends up being the platform where everybody meets. The concept in question will then be 'forgiveness', not 'uxolelwano'. To ignore that risks perpetuating coloniality.

The suburban church environments that I was privileged to do research in had the vision to impart 'solid' theological understanding with relevance to whoever attended their gatherings. Not considering that their unnoticed 'linguistic supremacy [carried] with it conceptual and normative prevalence' (De Sousa Santos 2016:233), white people ended up inadvertently undermining objectives they were determined to sacrificially strive for in their quest for reconciliation, namely equality and cultural diversity.

Utilising linguistic diversity can reduce epistemic inequalities

The importance of linguistic diversity therefore exceeds the acknowledgement of people's heritages and their presence in an otherwise - practically speaking - monolingual space. Such acknowledgement is what is often framed as a 'celebration' of people's cultures (e.g. Interview Charlotte, 20/09/2019), upholding equality as a theological reality. Consider for example, the words of Amos:

In a church context I would say [reconciliation is] recognised in that these ['cultural others'] are my brothers and sisters in Christ and that we are equal image bearers, sinful image bearers saved by grace. (Interview Amos, 12/11/2019)

Unquestionably, the intention of moving towards a community where this equality before God becomes part of the lived experience of all is honourable and important. Nevertheless, the celebration of linguistic diversity falls short of realising this ambition if it is not matched by actually drawing on languacultures other than English and indeed, creating an environment where these can be acknowledged as having epistemic authority. If epistemic authority in a multicultural setting rests with English alone, central objectives of reconciliation and transformation are thwarted by keeping hierarchies of coloniality intact. Transformation of this kind might produce 'racial' integration but would lack equity and equality. It would equally hinder the transformative power of the gospel - both for those who are pressured into assimilation and for those who are prevented from deep intercultural learning because of the suppression of languacultural difference.

Van Wyngaard (2013) sketched David Bosch's uneasiness with liberation theology and his vision for and calling of the church to be an 'alternative community' as it radically sides with the poor and oppressed. Whereas his 'alternative community' was found to be 'standing close to the liberation movement', 'Bosch consistently fails to provide a concrete analysis concerning how this theological vision of a reconciled community would have an effect on the actual sociological liberation of people' writes Van Wyngaard (2013:92).⁸ Realising or practising linguistic diversity to a greater extent carries the potential of undermining epistemic hierarchies, inequalities and dependence. Because of that, it might be considered as an element that could fill the void made out in Bosch's understanding of the alternative community as being able to contribute to liberation holistically - without having to pay allegiance to a certain political project perceived by Bosch to be outside of the calling of the church.

Some may object and ask: Wouldn't an actual utilisation of linguistic diversity of necessity lead to renewed segregation? Isn't the coming together under one language a price we should happily be willing to pay for the overcoming of the divisions of the past?

Yes, this price may have to be paid at times to enable a measure of relationship building in languaculturally diverse contexts. We should, however, be more keenly aware of its limitations and strive for alternatives. Although the following suggestions cannot claim to fully resolve the problem,⁹ they do come with the potential of deepening cultural integration while seeking to reduce and counter coloniality.

How to challenge the coloniality of knowledge and to render theologising more relevant in the intercultural contact zone

To offset the shortcomings of an English monoculture in multicultural and theoretically multilingual South African settings, I would like to make three concrete suggestions. For the purposes of this article, they will be contextualised to church congregations.

Learning to practice equivocality in multilingual spaces

Equivocality takes into account the existence of multiple ways of perceiving and interacting with the world, which find expression in language. By expecting and being willing to learn about conceptual difference rather than taking conceptual similarity for granted, 'ontological dominance' (Stroud & Kerfoot 2021:28) can be countered. Viveiros De Castro (2004), promoting intercultural communication that is based on equivocality emphasises that through equivocality …:

… [T]ranslation becomes an operation of differentiation - a production of difference - that connects the two discourses to the precise extent to which they are not saying the same thing, in so far as they point to discordant exteriorities beyond the equivocal homonyms between them. (p. 20, emphasis in original)

In a church context, to make it concrete, this could mean having Bible study meetings where people feel free to study the texts in versions of Scripture in their home languages. Through a multilingual reading of Scripture, the focus of discussion could now move from understanding 'the original meaning of the text' and 'its meaning for us today' to 'the meaning of the text read from my languacultural vantage point' and 'its meaning for those sharing my languacultural assumptions'. This is illustrated by Figure 1 and Figure 2. The differently shaped and coloured objects stand for the culturally and linguistically diverse congregation. In Figure 1, it engages with Scripture in a uniform, horizontal way. Practised equivocality transforms this into a circular engagement with Scripture and with each other, as depicted in Figure 2.

 

 

 

 

With this changed orientation, the multicultural character of the space could become more tangible. The learning in respect of theology would truly develop a more intercultural character. The pressure to conform to a supposedly universal norm based on English (or white Afrikaans¹⁰) would considerably lessen. Epistemic authority would be more equally distributed as it comes to light that the perspectives shared are in fact emic and context-specific - not acontextual or transcultural.

In a church context, there are of course also other areas where equivocality could be imagined. In communal prayer, having people pray in their heart languages rather than conforming to an 'Anglonormativity' (Christie & McKinney 2017:166), possibly coupled with the mode of mass prayer, would allow for the experience of cultural difference within Christian community (cf. Grohmann 2023:169ff.). In preaching, a sermon based on exegesis - and possibly, with translation, preached - in an African language would mean an automatic engagement with African contextual matters and liberate the preaching from an inadvertent privileging of Western thought. Equivocality in teaching would prioritise dialogue with the diversity of languacultural perspectives of the issues at stake over the transmitting of supposedly universally accessible and understandable content. In relationship-building in the absence of a shared functionality in an indigenous language, equivocality could - at the very least - translate into 'epistemic humility'. This would mean realising one's limitations in cross-cultural meaning-making in an apparently shared language.

Of course, the aforementioned would require an openness to changing old ways. It could be encouraged by realising that equivocation - or the practice of 'translating by not translating' but juxtaposing concepts and terms from different languacultural backgrounds - promises greater depth in cross-cultural relationships. It may, however, also cause some frustration at times, especially when the erstwhile taken for granted similarity at times appears to morph into a measure of incommensurability. This is why Stroud and Kerfoot point out the experience of vulnerability as a potentially central and transformative emotion that needs to be owned: moving towards epistemic justice and multicultural equality would of necessity involve 'establishing [a certain] ethical relationship [namely], an ethics of "becoming with others"' (Stroud & Kerfoot 2021:37). However, the reverse is true as well: A change of approach from (others) 'becoming with me/us' to (I/we) 'becoming with others' is an embodiment of transformation which despite or because of the experience of vulnerability on the part of the otherwise dominant can contribute to the 'repair' that Erasmus and Garuba suggested was needed as a 'foundation for intersubjective dialogue' (Erasmus & Garuba 2017:350).

For some, to learn African languages through deep cultural exposure

The second suggestion is that some white people or those steeped in Western traditions and languages should strive to learn African languages through deep cultural exposure.¹¹ Whereas the first proposal aimed at increasing epistemic variety, this one could contribute to creating an environment favourable to the appreciation of more cultural difference. At the same time, it might be an option for some committed people who find that their communities struggle with the proposed changes and want to radically deepen their cross-cultural understanding regardless.

Why should some linguistically dominant people thoroughly learn African languages? Several key reasons can be advanced. To start with, it serves to develop the necessary awareness for the conceptual world inhabited by people from different languacultural backgrounds (Krog, Morris & Tonkin 2010:22). Because a key reason for the invisibility or incomprehensibility of differences lies in using a language that is shared only at first sight, one needs to learn based on the cultural-linguistic foundations of the people one wants to build deeper relationship with (cf. the examples of 'preaching' and 'forgiving' above).

Another argument for needing to do the hard work oneself is that it is unrealistic and perhaps also unfair to always rely on 'cultural others' to be our primary informers of cultural differences and potential dominance. Power dynamics may stand in our way, some aspects of culture may better not be spoken about, differences may even go unnoticed to the other side and lastly, if it is the desire of the 'privileged' to grow in understanding of the 'other', the former should take more responsibility in order to move towards such growth.

The final reason concerns the purpose of deepening cross-cultural understanding. Unawareness of differences often leads to patterns of dominance that most would agree are undesirable. Having some 'privileged' people in a given community or network who have contextual knowledge of those with less influence, can help others with privilege and power to become aware and more conscious of their dominance, make adjustments and in this way become allies of those at the margins (cf. Greenfield 2022:62).

What does learning through deep cultural exposure mean? The kind of languaculture learning that is proposed here is not a hobby. Although it may also be pleasurable at times, it requires long-term commitment and stamina and is essentially a lifestyle-choice. A textbook or a classroom cannot teach one how language is actually used, how words are understood as they relate to concrete experiences in everyday life. Therefore, if the goal is an ever-deepening cross-cultural understanding, regularly spending time in contexts where the respective language is spoken is crucial, as is learning to rely on communication in that language. This, even if done part-time, but on a long-term basis, can yield results that to a large extent offset the coloniality of knowledge (cf. Grohmann 2023:186f.).

For 'Westerners', to use African languages exclusively where possible

Building on the previous suggestion, some white people or those steeped in Western traditions, based on their growing competency in an African language, should attempt to use it exclusively in interaction with people from the respective speech communities, for example in personal relationships, social visits, discipleship, mentoring or teaching. By doing so, one would truly be building on ways - in Kwenda's words - 'that invoke […] the cultural worlds of the players [and] what they, in their distinctive ways, take for granted' (Kwenda 2003:69). This would mean acting on the realisation of the often-present coloniality of knowledge - and choosing to avoid or to counter it. Through framing interactions in indigenous categories, the learner-speaker accepts the role of a guest and acknowledges the epistemic authority of the languacultural host. To be convincing and relevant in their speaking, those outsiders communicating on indigenous terms have to find ways to make themselves understood that make sense from an emic perspective. The acknowledgement of this challenge alone should be sufficient to make people realise the necessity of language-learning in cross-cultural contexts. If it's hard to make oneself understood based on indigenous categories, why do we so often take it for granted that it is easier if indigenous language speakers choose or are forced to communicate in the dominant English language that, in its Western variety, does not share the same categories and cultural conceptualisations with their home language (cf. Sharifian 2017:168f.)?

 

Discussion: The impact of utilising linguistic diversity

How exactly would these various suggestions impact the nature, structure, vision and practice of a given congregation or denomination? I want to be careful not to become overly prescriptive - a weakness often inherent in so-called 'social-restorationist' approaches to reconciliation (cf. Du Toit 2018:141; Grohmann 2023:16). Rather, I'd like our thoughts to be guided by the realisation that oftentimes our intercultural togetherness is built on epistemic inequalities. Our vision of human and interhuman flourishing and of seeing more and more glimpses of God's kingdom being realised needs to be guided by a commitment to include in it as an integral part Kwenda's notion of 'cultural justice', referred to in the introduction.

As was shown in Grohmann (2023), the reliance on a commonly shared language such as English can lead to a perpetuation of Western dominance even in a congregation that is committed to working towards reconciliation based on the notions of equality, equity and 'racial' integration. Of course, moving from a celebration to a utilisation of linguistic diversity comes at a cost. Not only will it challenge the comfortable belief that understanding and agreement is generally possible when everyone speaks the dominant language. It can also expose the fallacy that what is considered to be orthodox belief is or has to be disconnected from cultural-linguistic perspectives (Harries 2017).¹² What is generally regarded as true in one language doesn't have to be true from the perspective of a different languaculture. Ignorance of this risks ending up in cultural dominance. On the one hand, this can cause a measure of discomfort among those who usually find themselves in dominant positions, theologically speaking. On the other hand, it can be of great benefit to them if practiced linguistic diversity leads to a deeper acknowledgment and appreciation of God's work in different cultural contexts. It can help the 'privileged' to understand how matters of truth and 'correct belief' can be engaged if people speak, think and act on different assumptions.

This can be amplified by white people or those from Western epistemological backgrounds making serious efforts at gaining proficiency in African languages and actually using them. Experiencing first hand that epistemic authority can be located differently if one communicates in a language not one's own can be transformative for everyone involved, including the observing communities of the language-learners. Interacting with African-language speakers on their cultural-linguistic terms and in relation to their respective contexts can deepen one's understanding of the gospel working in particular contexts and traditions in ways unattainable by English. The same is true for making intelligible and relevant contributions to these contexts.

Given the societal realities of contemporary South Africa, it is likely, however, that intentional and costly adjustments need to be made in one's lifestyle, possibly one's living standard, habits, expectations, norms, usual standard of safety and even beliefs if one earnestly seeks to learn language by exposing oneself to communities and churches where this language of choice is predominantly spoken. Here, congregations or communities could play a vital role in finding ways to encourage and enable such 'chosen vulnerability'.

 

Conclusion

We have highlighted the nature of epistemic inequalities in multicultural churches based on Eurocentric traditions. If equality and equity are indeed the sought-after foundation for togetherness in the post-segregation era, it was suggested that a mere celebration of cultural and particularly linguistic diversity is not enough. The reliance on a supposedly shared language such as English ignores the ways in which our language use is always shaped by cultural conceptualisations arising from the diversity of our cultural contexts. Equivocality was presented as a way out of the coloniality of knowledge trap, supported by the efforts of some "Westerners" to learn African languages and use the acquired languages in interactions with members of these speech groups. How exactly such a move from the 'celebration' to the 'utilisation' of African languages would play out in the life of concrete congregations and their relationships outside the church was purposefully left open. We can conclude that despite and partly also because of the costs involved for the 'privileged', such an approach to intercultural togetherness comes with enormous transformative potential (see also Grohmann 2020:153f.). The paradigm-change I am suggesting is for relationships to be sought on the terms of those who are often marginalised in different ways. It can rectify epistemic inequalities and contribute even to reconciliation in a different and more profound way.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exist.

Author's contributions

I declare that I am the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the Ethical Commission of the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Germany, and ethics consent was received on 15/04/2019. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study. The ethics approval number is FSV 19/23.

Funding information

The author is a postdoctoral research fellow funded by Stellenbosch University in the discipline group of Practical Theology & Missiology.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available because of their containing information that could compromise the privacy of research participants and are available from the author upon reasonable request.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Marcus Grohmann
marcusgrohmann@sun.ac.za

Received: 31 Aug. 2023
Accepted: 02 Oct. 2023
Published: 06 Feb. 2024

 

 

1. This and the following two paragraphs are based on the Sections 1.2 and 1.3 in Grohmann (2023:11ff.).
2. This and the following paragraph draw on Chapter 3 in Grohmann (2023:47ff.).
3. Languaculture is a concept developed by the linguistic anthropologist Michael Agar. It highlights the ways in which the languages people use are inextricably intertwined with how they understand the world and live their lives (Agar 2002:60; 135ff.).
4. The Reformed Evangelical Anglican Church in South Africa, formerly known as CESA (Church of England in South Africa).
5. Two other prominent subsets of coloniality, according to Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2013:11 f.), are the 'coloniality of power' and the 'coloniality of being'. Veronelli (2015), pertinent for the topic under consideration here, also adds the 'coloniality of language'. As it is intrinsically interwoven with the coloniality of knowledge, it is not given separate attention here.
6. Veronelli understands 'languaging' 'as a way of thinking in which language is not already thought as a finished product but, rather, as an ongoing and situated activity' (Veronelli 2015:121). Language is thus seen as fundamentally relational and process-oriented, not something one possesses.
7. A key argument advanced for this form of prayer which is part of evangelical traditions is that whatever is done in a church service is meant 'to build up' the church. This need, Kroesbergen (2019:15) suggests, is not as keenly felt in black congregations who, being rooted in ubuntu traditions, do not have to build up community as '"community" is commonly regarded as the point of departure for everything else' (Grohmann 2023:173).
8. Drawing on Conradie (2011:93).
9. Sections 2.5 and 9.2 in Grohmann (2023) suggest that the concept of 'association from a distance' (Wrogemann 2016) could go even further than what is proposed here. Association from a distance can reconcile unity and plurality more fully. It does so through modesty (acknowledging the limitations of one's togetherness in cases of far-reaching diversity) and - during encounters - embracing the terms of the 'other' out of appreciation. This does not preclude critical engagement. It thus has the potential of complementing more well-known strategies of reconciliation.
10. I use this term to distinguish it from Kaaps, a variety of Afrikaans that is indigenous particularly to the coloured population of the Cape Flats. Stroud and Kerfoot (2021, 31ff.) write about how a conscious move to decolonise Afrikaans entail the self-confident adoption of the term 'Afrikaaps' for this language variety to signal its equality in status with Afrikaans (cf. Grohmann, 2023: 202).
11. Note that despite the broader challenge of 'racial reconciliation', the suggestions in this section are not primarily about 'race'. They are concerned with people rooted in different epistemological traditions that may often but do not on principal always correlate with the formerly constructed racial boundaries.
12. See Garner (2012) for a proponent of this suggested, mandated disconnect or absolute pre-eminence of Scriptural authority over cultural proclivities.

^rND^sAlexander^nN.^rND^sBalcomb^nA.^rND^sChristie^nP.^rND^sMcKinney^nC.^rND^sConradie^nE.M.^rND^sDe Castro^nE.V.^rND^sDu Toit^nF.^rND^sErasmus^nZ.^rND^sHarry^nG.^rND^sForster^nD.A.^rND^sGarner^nD.B.^rND^sGrohmann^nM.^rND^sHarries^nJ.^rND^sHarries^nJ.^rND^sJaworski^nA.^rND^sCoupland^nN.^rND^sKroesbergen^nH.^rND^sKrog^nA.^rND^sMorris^nR.C.^rND^sTonkin^nH.^rND^sKwenda^nC.V.^rND^sMoreiras^nA.^rND^sNdlovu-Gatsheni^nS.J.^rND^sStroud^nC.^rND^sKerfoot^nC.^rND^sTshehla^nS.M.^rND^sVan Wyngaard^nC.^rND^sVenter^nD.^rND^sVeronelli^nG.A.^rND^sVickers^nE.^rND^sWüstenberg^nR.K.^rND^1A01^nDirk J.^sHuman^rND^1A01^nDirk J.^sHuman^rND^1A01^nDirk J^sHuman

EDITORIAL

 

African contextual hermeneutics

 

 

Dirk J. Human

Department of Old Testament Studies, Faculty of Theology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

Hermeneutics comprises the science of (textual) understanding. Biblical hermeneutics lets this science focus on the understanding of biblical texts, while African Contextual Hermeneutics takes the African context seriously in this textual endeavour.

In the processes of reading and understanding biblical texts there are at least three angles of incidence to approach the understanding processes: the world behind the text (historical contexts or Sitze im Leben), the world in the text (textual exposition), and the world before the text (reader's context). These processes then allow for diachronic, synchronic and reader-response analyses. In the case of African Contextual Hermeneutics, the 'African' exegete and the different 'African' socio-political, economic and religious contexts provide the spectacles through which texts are interpreted and understood.

In addition to Western and European emphases on reading and understanding biblical texts, the African Contextual Hermeneutics places a special focus on the actual and relevant life-issues of people from different African contexts. The exegete's eye and senses are seriously seeking the overlap in biblical and contextual themes and contexts in the reading process. Robust dialogue between biblical contexts and cultures with contemporary circumstances not only leads to the realisation of alienation to the ancient world(s) but also to discovering of the 'self' and theologising relevantly in African context(s). In this process the importance of African scholars, African literature, African discussion partners and African contexts plays a pivotal, but not the only role. In sum, Sam Ndoga summarises while saying that 'Africanization is a reader centered approach of the text to address the reader facing similar circumstances to derive meaning from such an exercise'.

This project focuses especially on texts from the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible. These texts provide the incubator for analysing and contemplating contemporary African circumstances and readers. A variety of themes are connected to texts such as Genesis 37-38 (seduction and male abuse), Deuteronomy 22:13-21 (female virginity), Ruth 1:1-5 (migration), Isaiah 2:1-4 (insecurity and non-violence) and Zechariah 1:8 (a mysterious Hebrew word).

Readers of the Special Collection on African Hermeneutics will enjoy scholarship on a wide-range of relevant and actual contemporary issues that lively contribute to contextual sensemaking of our deep Christian heritage on our African continent.

 

 

Correspondence:
Dirk Human
Dirk.Human@up.ac.za

^rND^1A01^nAugusta B.^sHofmeyr^rND^1A01^nAugusta B.^sHofmeyr^rND^1A01^nAugusta B^sHofmeyr

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

A critical consideration of Foucault's conceptualisation of morality

 

 

Augusta B. Hofmeyr

Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Humanities, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The background of this research is the status and significance of an ethics of care of the self in the history of morality. I followed the following methodology: I attempted to come to nuanced, critical understanding of the Foucault's conceptualisation of morality in Volumes II and III of The History of Sexuality. In the 'Ancients', Foucault uncovered an 'ethics-oriented' as opposed to a 'code-oriented' morality in which the emphasis shifted to how an individual was supposed to constitute himself as an ethical subject of his own action without denying the importance of either the moral code or the actual behaviour of people. The main question was whether care of the self-sufficiently regulated an individual's conduct towards others to prevent the self from lapsing into narcissism, substituting a generous responsiveness towards the other for a means-end rationale. I put this line of critique to test by confronting Foucault's care of the self with Levinas's primordial responsibility towards the other and put forward a case for the indispensability of aesthetics for ethics. In conclusion, I defended the claim that care of the self does indeed foster other responsiveness.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: Foucault's ethics, understood as an 'aesthetics of existence' has profound intradisciplinary and interdisciplinary implications, as it challenges traditional ethical normative ethical theories and engages with various fields of philosophy, social sciences and humanities. Interdisciplinary fields greatly influenced by Foucault's ethics include: psychology, literary, cultural, gender and sexuality studies, medical ethics, anthropology and history, among others

Keywords: Foucault; care of the self; ethics; morality; aesthetics of existence; Levinas; responsibility for the other.

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Introduction: An 'ethics-oriented' rather than a 'code-oriented' morality

Foucault develops his 'moral philosophy' in the second and third volumes of The History of Sexuality. Whereas the first volume laid bare the objectification of the self by the tactics of power at work in the 18th century valorisation of discourse on sex (HS I, 23/33, 70/93-94), the second and third volumes return to Antiquity to discover possibilities for subjectivisation, that is, the relation that the self establishes with itself by which it recreates its subject identity and creates some distance from the forces that objectify and subjectify it. Foucault's preoccupation with the past was an attempt to find in the ancient self's relation to itself or ethics indications of how practices of freedom might be possible today (Foucault 1984:4).

According to Foucault, the task of a history of thought is 'to define the conditions in which human beings 'problematise' what they are, what they do, and the world in which they live' (Foucault 1984: 4). In Greek and Greco-Roman culture, this problematisation is directly tied to the 'arts of existence': those deliberate actions - freely and voluntarily undertaken by individuals - to set for themselves rules of conduct, but also to transform their life into a work of art (HS II, 10-11/16-17; Foucault 1983:350). For Foucault, conceiving of ethics as an 'aesthetics' does not mean that ethics is reduced to a matter of superficial appearances or aesthetic taste. Rather, it underscores the idea that ethics involves creative practices of self-discipline, self-examination and self-transformation. Just as artists use techniques and practices to create art, individuals employ techniques to create their ethical selves. This characterisation of ethics, as we shall see, challenges traditional moral philosophies, and opens up new avenues for thinking about the nature of ethical subjectivity and practice.

In the course of this study, Foucault was led 'to substitute a history of ethical problematisations based on practices of the self, for a history of systems of morality based, hypothetically, on interdictions' (HS II, 13/19). The Church and the pastoral ministry stressed the principle of a morality based on compulsory universal precepts. In classical thought, on the other hand, the demands of austerity were not organised into a unified, coherent, authoritarian moral system that was imposed universally and uniformly; they served more to supplement the commonly accepted morality. These themes of austerity did not impose but proposed different styles of moderation and also did not coincide with the limits established by the great social, civil and religious interdictions.

Classical moral reflection did not inhibit men's conduct by way of prohibitions, but incited them to exercise and affirm their rights, privilege, potential and autonomy by way of the stylisation of their conduct as a practice of liberty within the bounds of austerity (HS II, 23/30).

 

Morality and/or ethics?

The shift of emphasis from the codification to the stylisation of conduct tempts one to project the Hegelian distinction between 'morality' [Moralität] and 'ethics' [Sittlichkeit] into the later Foucault's thinking. 'Morality' would then refer to the fundamental questions of right and wrong and moral principles would be those which are universally valid and, as such, are obligatory for all human beings. The terms 'ethics' and 'ethical' would have bearing on empirically ascertainable norms of conduct which are specific to particular societies at particular times, and hence to the common good or collective self-interest of their individual members, rather than on any rationally apprehensible, universally valid principles which apply to or within all societies at all times. The latter would fall within the purview of morality rather than that of ethics. One might even agree that in Foucault one finds a distinction between morality and ethics that coincides with the Habermasian distinction. According to Habermas, 'what is being asked [in ethical questions] is whether a maxim is good for me', whereas in the case of moral questions, what is being asked is 'whether I can will that a maxim should be followed by everyone as a general law' (Habermas 1993:7, 116-117).¹

Foucault's own vocabulary is often indiscriminate. What exactly is Foucault referring to when he undertakes to study the forms and transformations of a 'morality'? Is it different from his genealogy of 'ethics'? In an interview in 1983 titled, 'On the genealogy of ethics', Foucault (1983) defines ethics as:

[T]he kind of relationship you ought to have with yourself, rapport à soi … which determines how the individual is supposed to constitute himself as a moral subject of his own actions. (p. 352)

The interview title is reminiscent of Nietzsche's Toward a genealogy of morals, but of course, Nietzsche used the German word, Moral [Zur Genealogie der Moral]. Kant's titles, on the other hand, uses the word Sitte, which we translate as 'ethics'. The German word, Sitten refers to customs and practices, which is different from morality, that is, conduct which accords with a prescriptive system of rules that distinguishes between right and wrong. What interested Foucault was Sitten much more than Moral (cf. Hacking 1984).

Over and above the 'moral code', Foucault maintains that 'morality' also consists in the real behaviour of individuals in relation to the rules and values that they are supposed to adhere to. What is relevant here is how and with what measure of variation or transgression do individuals or groups conduct themselves in relation to a prescriptive system that is explicitly or implicitly operative in their culture. This is what Foucault refers to as 'the morality of behaviours' (HS II, 26/33).

The 'moral code' is thus composed of 'interdictions and codes' and can be analysed formally and independently of any effective behaviour. The 'morality of behaviours', on the other hand, refers to the 'actual behaviour' of individuals, and can only be evaluated, a posteriori, by reference to the 'prescriptive set' circumscribed by the moral code. Although there is no explicit reference to Kant, Foucault is here obviously transposing the distinction - established in the Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten - between the moral law and actions that may or may not conform to it (Han 2002:158; Kant 1785:52-54). Like Kant before him, Foucault denies that morality could be understood solely by reference to the actions carried out, and therefore rejects 'actual behaviour' as being inframoral.² Morality must be defined, not by the conformity of the action with the code, but in reference to the intention and the freedom of the subject, and thus, ultimately, to the way in which the will determines itself. '[F]or what is morality, if not the practice of liberty, the deliberate practice of liberty?', Foucault (1984:4) asks.³ However, the difference between Foucault and Kant lies in their respective conceptions of the 'practice of freedom'. For Kant, it is respect for the law alone that allows us to decide the morality of an action.⁴ Foucault, on the other hand, repeatedly stresses that the Greeks had very few prohibitions and strict adherence to these was never an object of great moral concern. What was important was the necessity of the subject determining and expressing, not only his will, but also his way of being through action. Thus, in clear opposition to the subject's subjection to the law, characteristic of the Judeo-Christian understanding of morality, Foucault advocates an ethics that can be defined from the 'conduct' of the individual - the way in which he gives 'deliberate form' to his liberty (Foucault 1984:4).

Han (2002:159) points out that Foucault herewith implicitly takes up the traditional distinction between act-centred morality and agent-centred ethics. Those who emphasise the act, understand the virtuous action by referring it to a set of pre-established prescriptions, while those who emphasise the agent, on the contrary, attach little importance to 'duty' and define virtue itself from the conduct that a virtuous man adopts.

Foucault therefore supersedes the Kantian opposition between codes and actions, by introducing a third level concerned with the way in which one ought to 'conduct oneself' - 'that is, the manner in which one ought to form oneself as an ethical subject acting in reference to the prescriptive elements that make up the code' (HS II, 26/33).⁵ Given the code of conduct and various ways in which individuals conduct themselves, which can be defined by their degree of conformity with or divergence from the code, there are different ways to 'conduct oneself' morally. How I ought to act then also becomes a matter of how I choose to act, which should not be mistaken for voluntarism since the choice reflects an entire mode of being - what Aristotle called a virtuous character associated with hexis - an active condition that requires vigilant attention and the discerning application of the virtues in each different situation.

 

Ethics understood as the self's relationship to itself

Foucault thought of ethics proper, of the self's relationship to itself, as having four main aspects:

• The ethical substance [substance éthique] is that part of oneself that is taken to be the relevant domain for ethical judgement. For the Christians, it was desire, for example, and for Kant, it was intentions. For the Greeks, when a philosopher was in love with a boy, but did not touch him, his behaviour was valued. For them, the ethical substance consisted in the act linked with pleasure and desire, and not in pleasure or desire as such.

• The mode of subjection [mode d'assujettissement] refers to the way in which the individual establishes his or her relation to moral obligations and rules. How do people come to recognise their moral obligations? Which authority do you subject yourself to when you act morally? Is it, for example, divine law or a religious interdict revealed in a text, or is it natural law, a cosmological order or perhaps a rational rule respected as universal? It might be compliance to a social convention or custom or the aspiration to give your existence the most beautiful form possible. The mode of subjection links the moral code to the self, determining the code's hold on the self.

• The self-forming activity or ethical work [practique de soi] is that which one performs on oneself, not only in order to bring one's conduct into compliance with a given rule, but also to attempt to transform oneself into an ethical subject. Sexual austerity, for example, can be the result of a long process of assimilating a systematic ensemble of precepts, or of a sudden, all-embracing, and definitive renunciation of pleasures, or it could be practised in the form of a relentless struggle against passions that tend to become excessive. Foucault also calls this aspect l'ascétism - asceticism in a very broad sense. Potential avenues of being or acting are closed off to serve some immediate end.

• Finally, the telos refers to the kind of being to which we aspire when we behave ethically. An action is not only moral taken on its own, but also as part of a pattern of conduct. A moral action tends towards its own accomplishment, but also beyond it towards the establishment of an overarching mode of being characteristic of the ethical subject (HS II, 26-28/33-35). For instance, do we want to attain purity, immortality, freedom or self-mastery? Therefore, action itself can only make sense within the global perspective of the ethical determination of the self in which it is inscribed and which it helps to form. As Foucault explains, it is an 'element and an aspect of [the ethical subject's] conduct, and it marks a stage in its becoming, a possible advance in its continuity' (HS II, 28/35; modified).

Again, we are here reminded of Aristotle's thesis that virtue is perfected by its own use, demanding from the agent a permanent actualisation that ultimately will make it habitual. Indeed, the idea that action determines a 'mode of being characteristic of the moral subject' clearly evokes Aristotle's definition of hexis as a 'state of character' or a 'relatively permanent disposition' progressively acquired through the repetition of specific actions, as The Nicomachean ethics says:

Moral virtue comes about as a result of habit … For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them, e.g. men become builders by building and lyre-players by playing the lyre; so too we become just by doing just acts. (Aristotle 1980:28-29 [1103^a 11-33])

The act does not completely disappear in its being effected but subsists by leaving its trace in the subject's potentiality as an hexis (Foucault 1984:131 [1136^b 32-1137^a 20]; pp. 156-158 [1144^b 1-1145^a 11]). In this way, the modification of being that Foucault speaks about can only occur through the deliberate and reflective repetition of certain actions judged to be virtuous, which in the passage from the quantitative to the qualitative slowly transforms the ethos of the individual.

The self's relationship to itself can also be understood in terms of poiesis - the Greek term for creation or production, which unlike mere action [praxis] or doing, is aimed at an end [telos].⁶ This, however, does not mean that Foucault is proposing a teleological ethic. The telos consists in change, in transforming oneself into an ethical subject - the precise form of which is not known or determinable beforehand. Instead of the telos determining the production, it is the production process itself that determines the end product. Ultimately, it is the process of sculpting itself, the skilful taking away and shaping of the raw material, that determines the final sculpture.

Therefore, when Foucault speaks of morals, he refers to the effective behaviour of people, the codes, and the kind of relationship one establishes with oneself based on the four aspects mentioned above (cf. Foucault 1983:352-355; ed. Gutting 1994:118; HS II, 26-32/33-39; ed. Hoy 1986:228-229, 237-238). Arnold Davidson's schematic representation of Foucault's understanding of morals (Figure 1) is useful in this regard (ed. Hoy 1986:229).

 

 

For Foucault, ethics is thus one part of the study of morals. In shifting the emphasis to how an individual is supposed to constitute himself as an ethical subject of his own actions, he was not, however, denying the importance of either the moral code or the actual behaviour of people.

'Moral' action cannot simply be reduced to an act or a series of acts confirming to some law or value. All moral action entails both a relationship with the reality in which it is carried out and a relationship with the self. This relationship with the self cannot simply be reduced to conscious knowledge of one's own character, motives, and desires. It is an active relationship of self-formation as an 'ethical subject'. Foucault describes this process of self-formation as that:

[I]n which the individual delimits that part of himself that will form the object of his moral practice, defines his position relative to the precept he will follow, and decides on a certain mode of being that will serve as his moral goal. And this requires him to act upon himself, to monitor, test, improve, and transform himself. (HS II, 28/35)

Every moral action refers to a unified moral conduct; and every moral conduct calls for the formation of the self as an ethical subject. Moreover, the formation of the ethical subject always entails 'modes of subjectivation' and an 'ascetics' or 'practices of the self' that support them. Moral action is indissociable from these forms of self-activity which differ from one morality to another as do the systems of values, rules and interdictions. This is something other than a morality that simply relies on a law of prohibition to authenticate it. Ethics as self-formation, that is, as aesthetics, consists in the constant possibility of transgressing those laws that serve as supplement to a process that is always more than the mere rules, norms, or values that serve as a guideline for action. Importantly, transgression here does not mean non-observance. Instead of mere subjugation to the moral code, it entails the considered incorporation of a self-adopted code in the deliberate stylisation of conduct as a process of subjectivisation.

The history of 'morality' thus covers not only 'moral behaviours' and 'codes' but also the way in which individuals are urged to constitute themselves as subjects of ethical conduct. The last would be concerned with the proposed models for cultivating certain relationships with the self, for self-reflection, self-knowledge, self-examination, for the decipherment of the self by oneself, for the transformations that one aims to accomplish taking oneself as object. Foucault calls this 'a history of "ethics" or "ascetics," understood as a history of the forms of moral subjectivation and of the practices of self that is meant to ensure it' (HS II, 29/36). When the practices of the self are described in terms of the Greek askēsis (ascesis), it refers to self-discipline and moderation and not to the Christian sense of self-renunciation and rejection of all forms of indulgence (cf. HS II, 72-77/84-90; HS III, 43/57). The virtues in Aristotle, for example, are themselves exemplars of moderation - the golden mean between excess and deficiency as courage is the golden mean between cowardice and foolhardiness. The purpose of the complex exercises that made up askēsis, was not to deny all pleasure and worldly delights - sex, food, or ambition - but to avoid excess. Ascesis is not the suppression of pleasure, but its regulation; the aim is not denunciation, but optimal satisfaction.

According to the second and third volumes of Histoire de la sexualité, moral conceptions in Greek and Greco-Roman antiquity were concerned with the practices of the self and not with the demarcation of right and wrong. With the exception of the Republic and the Laws, one finds very few references to anything like a moral code. There is consequently also hardly any mention of the need for an authority charged with seeing to its application or for punishments sanctioning infractions. Admittedly, respect for the law and the customs - the nomoi - was considered of the utmost importance. However, far more important than the content of the law and its conditions of application was the attitude that caused one to respect them. The emphasis was on:

[T]he relationship with the self that enabled a person to keep from being carried away by the appetites and pleasures, to maintain a mastery … over them, … to remain free from interior bondage to the passions, and to achieve a mode of being that could be defined by the full enjoyment of oneself, or the perfect supremacy of oneself over oneself. (HS II, 31/38)

According to Foucault's Greeks, ethics as self-stylisation implied an active vigilance: a self, able to constantly struggle against those forces within threatening to enslave, exploit and overpower it. There is no one turning point or victory, but a constant battle of the self against itself. It is a:

[C]hoice … a willingness to give one's life a certain form. A matter of style, as it were: an individual is called upon to temper his conduct in terms of the mastery he intends to bring to bear on himself, and in terms of the moderation with which he aims to exercise his mastery over others. (HS II, 182/201)

For Foucault, then, freedom is both a condition that enables individuals to engage in ethical reflection and resistance to power, and it is a telos that guides the ongoing process of self-creation and self-transformation within an ethical framework. On the one hand, individuals need a degree of critical distance from existing norms and power structures to engage in ethical questioning and self-reflection. On the other hand, freedom is also the telos or goal of ethics in the sense that individuals aim to exercise their freedom to actively shape their ethical identities. This view of freedom challenges the idea of a fixed, universally applicable moral code and emphasises the dynamic and contingent nature of ethical subjectivity.

 

The ethicality of self-creation questioned

To what extent is caring for the self actually ethical? Foucault's own conceptualisation of ethics allows one to distinguish two criteria for ethicality. According to him, as we have seen, an action is ethical if it secures and maintains increased freedom for an individual. However, as such, increased freedom is not necessarily ethical. It only becomes ethical when it is practised in a deliberate fashion and given deliberate form. In other words, what do we do with our freedom? How do we use it to form our subjectivity? If the power-defined individual is more than a distinct singularity, how he or she uses his or her freedom will necessarily affect others. The ethicality of an action is then also determined by its effect on other people. This means that the inherent political nature of the individual's practices of liberty does not salvage their ethical status for although these practices necessarily concern others, politics does not preclude the possibility of affecting others adversely. Does care for self, sufficiently regulates the individual's conduct towards others to prevent the self from using the other as mere means in the process of self-creation? Surely, sometimes the only way to secure one's own freedom is to violate somebody else's. Or, instead of using one's freedom to care for others, I can choose to persist in caring for myself exclusively. Once Foucault uttered this concern himself, asking: 'Are we able to have an ethics of acts and their pleasures which would take into account the pleasure of the other?' (Foucault 1983:346) Before formulating a response to this misgiving, I shall briefly revisit some main critiques elicited by this ethical practice understood as an aesthetics of existence.

In the critical response to Foucault's conception of care of the self, the spotlight has fallen on different aspects and consequences of these practices of self-creation - on the freedom it supposedly secures, on the narcissism which it supposedly does not cultivate, on the 'aestheticisation' of every aspect of life to which it leads, and, of course, on the absence of the other towards whom we bear responsibility. His critics' main refrain is that what Foucault describes as ethical is nothing more than a form of egotistical preoccupation with the self or self-exaltation which is precisely one of the major causes of contemporary society's ethical quandary. How can one become ethical by being self-indulgent, through an essentially narcissistic practice? Is the Greek concern with the self not just an early version of our self-absorption?⁷ For it would appear as if the independent self-converted subject, who needs nothing and no one, has no incentive to take up his or her ethical responsibility towards others.

Furthermore, a charge of 'aestheticisation' has been levelled against Foucault based on the presupposition that a chain of associations is in place that leads from aesthetics to fascism, and then to fetishism, hedonism, and meaninglessness (Eagleton 1990:373). Not only do critics such as Eagleton (1990), Wolin (1987, 1992), Callinicos (1989), and others see aesthetics as a slippery slope, they have also come to see aesthetics as the other to ethics.

I would like to counterpose that aesthetics is not the other to ethics, but precisely a necessary - albeit not sufficient - condition for ethical conduct and a generous responsiveness to others. In short, I would like to make a case for the indispensability of the aesthetic to ethics.⁸ What is at stake here is the (non)place of the other in self-formation: does it foster a non-reductive responsiveness to the other as end in itself instead of a means to self-formation? Barry Smart (1995) sums it up nicely:

The precedence accorded to care of the self is controversial, particularly if the relation to the Other, responsibility for the Other, is to be placed … at the centre point in ethics … Is an ethical relationship to the other implied in the contemporary search for styles of existence affirmed by Foucault? Can such an ethical relation be assumed in a context where the interests of the 'modern individual' have diminished, if not largely paralysed, any sense of responsibility for the other? It is all very well talking about creating ourselves as a work of art but is such a preoccupation with the self necessarily synonymous with caring or showing responsibility for others?⁹ (p. 101)

I think we will all agree that although care of the self might be considered 'amoral' in the sense that it is primarily unconcerned with the rightness or wrongness of an act as determined by objectively formulated rules or laws, it is not intrinsically bad or even 'unethical' (in the Foucauldian sense of ethics as cultivating a kind of relationship with oneself). For it is this relationship to the self that serves to regulate one's conduct towards others. But if it does not answer to the ultimate criterion of ethics - caring or taking responsibility for others, which is not the same as merely regulating the way in which you behave towards them - what makes for its ethicality? Should it be said once and for all that 'turning one's life into a work of art' is an admirable but ultimately arbitrary practice based on personal choice that is non-essential when one aspires to ethicality?

 

The ethicality of self-creation put to the test

Stage I of my defence: Care of the self in Levinas

When care of the self is opposed to care for others at least one thinker immediately comes to mind, an ethical thinker par excellence, Emmanuel Levinas: he was the one who put our unequivocal and infinite responsibility towards the Other at centre stage. Levinas's thinking serves as the ideal critical yardstick against which to measure the ethicality of care of the self, not because he stands in clear opposition to Foucault, but because in his early works, especially Existence and Existents (EE) (1947), Time and the Other (TO) (1948), and Totality and Infinity (TI) (1961), one finds the deployment of the egoist existent's economic existence. It will be argued that this economic existence functions analogously to the practices of the self in Foucault, which, as we shall see, serves as necessary condition for the individual's ethical conversion. In Levinas's later 'mature' works - from Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence (OB) (1974) onwards - economic self-positing is still presupposed but subjectivity is radically reconceptualised as Other-invoked. Levinas consequently seems to want to distance himself from these analyses of economic life which ultimately testify - contrary to Levinas's insistence - to the fact that the self needs the Other to save it from its always already too heavy materiality and existential burden. And need, in Levinas's ethical scheme, belongs to the world of the 'atheist' existent, not to the relation with the Other, which is ethics. If I do something for the other because I also need the other, I expect something in return. My action thus forms part of an economic transaction and therefore deemed unethical. It is deemed unethical and not merely amoral because for Levinas need is the assimilation of the other to satisfy the self.

My defence of Foucault will proceed in two stages: Firstly, I shall look to Levinas to address the questionable status of care of the self, of these worldly aesthetic practices. Focussing our attention exclusively on Levinas's earliest works will enable us to provisionally bracket out the question of the Other. Here Levinas is concerned with the existent's economic practices in the world. The existent experiences its existence, which is characterised by solitude and materiality, as unbearably heavy. Being-in-the-world provides it with the opportunity to partially rid itself of this existential burden - the existent reaches towards things in the world, labours, gathers possessions, makes a home and learns to provide for the future. This economic existence enables the existent to become self-sufficient and to enjoy life. According to Levinas, this self-sufficiency and independence, which the existent has been able to secure through its economic existence, is a necessary condition for the existent's ethical conversion. In other words, the independence on the basis of which this self is capable of having a relation of exteriority with its Other, the Infinite, is constituted by a primordial and primitive way of being with oneself characterised as 'interiority'. However, this condition is necessary but not sufficient, that is, interiority is not enough. The Other is the trump card in Levinas's ethical metaphysics. The world provides only a partial alleviation of the heaviness of being. Without an encounter with the Other, the existent is doomed to 'self-implode' under the unbearable weight of its materiality, but also, more importantly, doomed to remain unethical. The question is whether or not the Foucauldian notion of care for self, which, I contend, functions analogously to economic existence in Levinas, can ultimately escape the necessity of being-for-the-other? Secondly, the conclusive stage of our defence will consider to what extent self-concern fosters other-responsiveness.

Employing Levinas as critical yardstick is not novel in itself.¹⁰ What is new is the way in which it is attempted here - by way of a 'functional analogy' between the late Foucault's aesthetics of existence and the early Levinas's economic existence. In their respective conceptualisations, we find certain structural elements that function in an analogous fashion. In other words, these structural elements are comparable in certain respects and specifically in a way which makes the nature of the things compared clearer. The way in which the existent's auto-positing function in Levinas's thinking, should enable us to gauge the ethical status of the Foucauldian subject's self-creation.

The early Levinas directs our attention to a 'level of life' phenomenologically prior to that in which the encounter with the Other takes place, as Boothroyd (1996:376) contends. In this sense, the existent, as Levinas refers to the substantive subject, is in this instant a wholly separate, solitudinous subject (Boothroyd (1996:376)). In an analogous fashion, care of the self in Foucault can be thought of as the existence of a subject which is not yet in a relationship to others. The self-fashioning praxis of Foucault's subject unfolds in another ontological order as that in which it figures as part of the socio-political world shared with others. Although Foucault acknowledges the role of others in ethical self-formation, they merely feature as means to an end, as what Levinas would call 'provisional alterity' that the self uses to aid its formation. This is a level on which our ordinary ethico-political conceptions of self-other relations have no bearing on the self and its self-reflexive movements. The political nature of the self's practices of liberty is therefore provisionally bracketed out. Others aid the self's aesthetics of existence, but they do not (yet) figure as the object of our responsibility. This is something Levinas articulates in Time and the Other 'by saying that they do not take place in the same time, but in different "Instants"' (1996:373).

Both Foucault and Levinas describe a process by which the subject becomes a self-at-home-with-itself. Foucault maintains that within the field of normative practices in which aesthetic self-production takes place, no disjuncture with 'external' normative codes of practice arises. The aim of stylising one's practice in such a way as to make oneself a work of art meant, as Aristotle said of the work of art, that 'it is not possible either to take away or to add anything, implying that excess and defect destroy the goodness of art, while the mean preserves it' (Aristotle 1980:38 [Book II, 1106b]). In other words, it entails creating oneself in such a manner that there is no disjunction between one's performance and one's idea of exterior value. As Butler (2000) points out, lives which are made into oeuvres:

[D]o not simply conform to moral precepts or norms in such a way that selves, considered pre-formed or ready-made, fit themselves into a mould that is set forth by the precept. On the contrary, the self fashions itself in terms of the norm, comes to inhabit and incorporate the norm, but the norm is not in this sense external to the principle by which the self is formed. (p. 218, italics in the original)

We find an analogous structure in Levinas: 'The way of the I against the "other" of the world consists in sojourning, in identifying oneself by existing here at home with oneself (chez soi) … In the world, which is from the first other, the I is nonetheless autochthonous', that is, an indigenous inhabitant (TI, 37/7).

By focussing on this connection between Levinas and Foucault, I want to explore the notion of a self-styling individuality emerging only out of the reflexive movement of the Same. According to their respective formulations, these immanent practices of self-conversion or 'atheism', of independence, self-sufficiency, self-possession and enjoyment serve as a necessary condition for the subject's ethical becoming or conversion. If one takes proper care of the self, according to Foucault, one's conduct towards others will be regulated. He insists, moreover, that 'this ethos of freedom is also a way of caring for others' (Foucault 1984:7, my emphasis). According to Levinas, 'auto-personification' enacted in economic existence (TI, 147/120) enables the existent to take up his/her ethical responsibility towards others, for we cannot receive the Other with empty hands and a closed home. Without aesthetic self-formation (Foucault) and economic auto-personification (Levinas), there can be no care for others, no possibility of generosity and hospitality.

Stage II of my defence: Self-concern and other-responsiveness

The conclusive stage of my defence will be dedicated to finding that dynamic in Foucault's aesthetics of existence which cultivates a non-reductive responsiveness to others. For how does the self - educable as it may be - succeed in countering the strong gravitational pull of his/her egoist economy without external intervention? Upon closer investigation, one finds that Foucault's aesthetics of existence do not stop at self-constitution. If every alternative solution recreates the same conditions of unfreedom which it tries to counter, proper care of the self must also entail transgression of the self. After the self has learnt to master its excessive and violent impulses (freedom from), it also has to overcome those limits imposed from within and without (freedom to). Transgression makes of the arts of the self something other than mere contemplative self-possession. It implements a constant self-critique which takes shape as the possibility of transgressing one's limits. Transgression is not the transcendence of all limits, but pressure exerted on the limits to enlarge them in order to make room for alterity. In the process, difference is 'non-positively affirmed' within the limits of the self, that is, alterity is relocated to exist as otherness within the self (Foucault 1963:36). The other is affirmed as radical difference within the self and this is precisely what turns the self-converted self, outward towards others.

Although transgression opens up the ethical scope of care of the self, it ultimately remains unclear how and by whom this self-violation is triggered. How can the ethical initiative - the enlargement of the limits of the self to make room for the other as other - emanate from a closed system unto itself? How does self-concern or conversion to the self, trigger a beneficent responsiveness to the other? According to Foucault, the existence of limits constitutes a necessary condition for the possibility of transgression. But how are we to posit a limit separating the self and what is other-than-self if the Foucauldian conception of power/knowledge precisely undermines the distinction between the inside of the self and outside of power? Ultimately, we shall not have to look too far afield for the answer. For the key to other-responsiveness in Foucault is to be found, not outside of the self, but in the repetition of the same. Through the disciplined and repeated practices of the self an ethical sensibility is cultivated which allows differences to exist as such.

Foucault qualifies the relation between the same and the other in terms of the Deleuzian notion of difference and repetition which Foucault discusses in his 1970 essay, 'Theatrum philosophicum'.¹¹ It concerns the appearance of alterity in an entirely different guise. It is only through the repetition of the Same that a space is created for alterity to exist as Other.

The main question that occupies Foucault in this essay is how difference can be understood differentially instead of trying to find mutual characteristics that underlie difference (1970:182). For if we truly succeed in understanding difference differentially 'repetition … would cease to function as the dreary succession of the identical, and would become displaced difference' (1970:182).

According to Foucault, categories are responsible for the most tenacious subjection of difference. They suppress the anarchy of difference, divide differences into subdivisions, and delimit their rights. This is why difference can only be liberated through the invention of an acategorical thought (1970:186). Foucault uses Andy Warhol's popular art to illustrate the way in which acategorical thought functions. Think, for example, of his representations of Campbell's soup cans: same brand, same size, same paint surface - 22, a 100, even 200 times more of the same. Sometimes the monotony would be interrupted by the use of different colours, but then the variation would only serve to once again emphasise the repetition of the same. By mimicking the condition of mass advertising and presenting this affectlessness as art, Warhol makes a mockery of art understood as a sublime aesthetical experience that expresses that which is original and unique. The repetition of identical, recurrent soup cans is a transgressive move that challenges this categorical conception of art. It wants to address the absurdity of life and show how centralised thought reduces and eventually completely eliminates the marginal. It is precisely the absence of diversity that paradoxically frees difference from suppression by identity:

But in concentrating on this boundless monotony, we find the sudden illumination of multiplicity itself - with nothing at its centre, at its highest point, or beyond it - a flickering of light that travels even faster than the eyes and successively lights up the moving labels … that refer to each other to eternity, without ever saying anything: suddenly, arising from the background of the old inertia of equivalences, the striped form of the event tears through the darkness, and the eternal phantasm informs that soup can, that singular and depthless face. (Foucault 1970:189)

The univocity of being, the unambiguity of its expression, is paradoxically the principal condition, which permits difference to escape the yoke of similarity. Difference is no longer hierarchically ordered and neutralised as pure negative element by categories (Foucault 1970:192).

How does this relate back to the self's aesthetics of existence? However much the outcome of this process of self-stylisation depends upon heteronomously determined rules and changes accordingly, it is nevertheless essentially a repetition of the same - the repetition of the same cycle of self-creation and self-refusal of which the content might vary but the form stays the same. In the self's efforts to stylise his or her freedom, he or she engages in certain self-directed practical exercises with the common goal of critically remoulding externally imposed limits (HS III, 58-65/74-82). This process of 'ethical self-creation' is then also followed by a critical relation to those self-imposed rules and ultimately by a refusal of that self-created identity. The 'self' is never only crafting but always simultaneously crafted. In other words, the subject is not first formed and then turns around and begins suddenly to form itself. On the contrary, the line between how it is formed and how it becomes a kind of forming, is not easily, if ever drawn.¹²

Now, what makes for the ethicality of this form of resistance? It is precisely in the predictable and doggedly persistent repetition of the practices of the self that a form of difference is unleashed that slips through the cracks of normalising power. Contrary to a difference posited in opposition to its antipode, which, as we know, is but two projections of the same axis, the form of alterity freed when the same is repeated is not susceptible to reduction or assimilation. Deleuze (1988) explains it as follows:

It [the inside] is not a reproduction of the Same, but a repetition of the Different. It is not the emanation of an 'I', but something that places in immanence an always other or a Non-self … I do not encounter myself on the outside, I find the other in me. (p. 98)

It is this 'other in me' that accounts for the self-creating subject's inherent other-responsiveness.

 

Conclusion

Foucault's condemnation of the other-reductive tendencies of the same/self and his plea for the rights and value of alterity are unequivocal. He rejects: (1) good sense as that which gives preference to the common elements underlying difference; (2) dialectics as that which dismisses difference as the opposite of identity; and (3) categorical thought which serves only to subject difference. It is not surprising then that Foucault fails to (or rather refuses to) provide us with an adequate account of the other person in his later works, as if such a representation would reduce the other's alterity to what is simply contrary to the self.

Foucault's refusal is a response to what he considers to be the immorality wired into the conventional morality of good and evil. It is the same morality that separates good people from evildoers, the sane from the mad. This same morality calls the self selfish and the Other good by virtue of his or her alterity, or alternatively, labels the Other evil by virtue of his or her refusal to conform, to fit in and abide by an arbitrary order. To reach beyond the immorality of good and evil is to embrace an ethics where the emphasis is on the way in which the self and the other person interact. It is an interaction marked not by 'the transcendentalisation of contingent identities' (Connolly 1993:109), but by a generosity fostered through care, care of the self to be able to care for others. This generosity is not to be found within an oppositional structure that distinguishes between the inside of the self and the outside of the other. Instead, we find that the self and the other feature as nodes in networks of power and/or knowledge, or more precisely, they appear as relations of force whose point of contact functions as the limit that separates them. Thus there is a limit, (for without limits transgression would be impossible) but not a fixed limit. Instead, 'the outside' appears in the form of:

[A] moving matter animated by peristaltic movements, folds and foldings that together make up an inside: they are not something other than the outside, but precisely the inside of the outside. (Deleuze 1988:96)

Here Deleuze describes the inside [of Foucault's self] as 'an operation of the outside … an inside which is merely the fold of the outside, as if the ship were a folding of the sea'. The Other is in me - immanent. To be sure, this other in the same is not the 'de-substantiation' or 'subjection' of the subject (OB, 127/163) but precisely its subjectivisation - the remoulding of its limits to craft a new form of subjectivity with an increased scope for thinking, acting and being. In other words, this non-indifference to the other fosters self-critique that is nevertheless not at the expense of the self. This reading does not only constitute a response to the Levinasian criticism levelled against Foucault, but also presents us with an approach to ethics in a time when morality is falling short. What is at stake for Foucault is not only our freedom but also the resumption of responsibility for our own ethical self-formation.

Both in its outwardly directed resistance to power and in its self-directed practical exercises, the self bends these power relations inwards to create and repeatedly reshape an inside. In this way, the zone of subjectivisation is created as a work of art. And if the inside is constituted by the folding of the outside, there must be a topological relation between them: 'the relation to oneself is homologous to the relation with the outside and the two are in contact' (Deleuze 1988:119). And thus by caring for myself, I necessarily also take responsibility for the other. The limits of the self are enlarged to make room for the other as other. The other's alterity is not attenuated because the other is not reduced to one pole in a binary opposition. The only way in which difference is freed to exist as alterity is through the active repetition of the practices of the self … 'for in concentrating on this boundless monotony, we find the sudden illumination of multiplicity itself': 'suddenly, arising from the background of the old inertia of equivalences, the striped form of the event tears through the darkness' (Foucault 1970:189). The secret of Foucault's ethics of the self is 'to await, in the always unpredictable conclusion to this elaborate preparation, the shock of difference' (Foucault 1970:190) - not as something that is introduced from the outside but as a necessary by-product of the workings of the inside.

 

Acknowledgements

This article is based on the author's PhD thesis entitled Ethics and Aesthetics in Foucault and Levinas completed at the Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands, in 2005. It is available online: https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/26929/26929.pdf?sequence=1.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

A.B.H. is the sole author of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Augusta Hofmeyr
benda.hofmeyr@up.ac.za

Received: 19 Feb. 2023
Accepted: 03 Oct. 2023
Published: 22 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. In this regard, see "On the pragmatic, the ethical and the moral employments of practical reason" (pp. 1-18) and "Lawrence Kohlberg and Neo-Aristotelians" (pp. 113-132) in Habermas (1993).
2. "Setting aside" all actions "contrary to duty" as well as those which are "in conformity with duty but to which human beings have no inclination immediately" (Kant 1785:52, emphasis in the original), Kant concludes his analysis of those for whom there exists an "immediate inclination": To preserve one's life, for example, is a duty, but everybody also has an immediate inclination to do so. To look after one's life is thus in conformity with duty but not from duty. "[I]n such a case an action of this kind, however it may conform with duty and however amiable it may be, has nevertheless no true moral worth … for the maxim lacks moral content, namely that of doing such actions not from inclination but from duty" (p. 53, emphasis in the original).
3. Foucault also shares with Kant the idea that moral behaviour presupposes a rational conception of action (the "reflective form", the "reflective practice"), which leaves any action determined by sensible inclination outside the moral field.
4. See Kant (1785:55, emphasis in the original): "[A]n action from duty has its moral worth not in the purpose to be attained by it but in the maxim in accordance with which it is decided upon … duty is the necessity of an action from respect for law".
5. Kant's transcendental approach clearly excludes the necessity and even the possibility of taking into account the agent's mode of being, which can only be defined empirically and a posteriori. Foucault thus diverges from Kant by stressing that the Greeks would not have defined morality independently of the quality of the moral agent and would not have defined this quality independently of his actions. It is not intention alone that decides the moral value of an action. Intention cannot be examined on its own without taking the mode of being of the agent into account. This is not definable a priori, but is the result of the constitution of the subject by itself (Han 2002:159).
6. Judith Butler (2000:214) briefly mentions poiesis in relation to Foucault's conception of self-making.
7. Foucault's response to this question asked in an interview was that the Greek conception of the self is very different from our present culture of the self: "In the Californian cult of the self one is supposed to discover one's true self, to separate it from that which might obscure or alienate it, to decipher its truth thanks to psychological or psychoanalytic science, which is supposed to be able to tell you what your true self is. Therefore, not only do I not identify this ancient culture of the self with what you might call the Californian cult of the self, I think that they are diametrically opposed. What happened in between is precisely an overturning of the classical culture of the self. This took place when Christianity substituted the idea of a self which one had to renounce … for the idea of a self which had to be created as a work of art" (1983:362).
8. Jane Bennett (1996) has launched a convincing point by point defence of this point of view. William Connolly (1993:110) too argues that Foucault's conception of an aesthetics of existence fosters a "generous sensibility" and opens up "new possibilities in social relations … that enable a larger variety of identities to coexist in relations of 'studied' indifference on some occasions, alliance on others, and agonistic respect during periods of rivalry and contestation".
9. Smart's own initial response is: "Foucault's remarks suggest not; he comments on the significant differences between the ancient Greek culture of the self - in which emphasis is placed upon aesthetics and the importance of 'exercising a perfect mastery over oneself' (Foucault 1986:362) through imposition of 'austerity practices', effectively a government of the self which allegedly simultaneously exemplified a responsibility towards others - and the modern hedonistic cult of the self in which the 'relationship to the self no longer needs to be ascetic to get into relation to the truth' (Foucault 1986:371)"… [I]t is precisely the absence of any consideration of relations with and responsibility for others which makes Foucault's reference to creating ourselves and the autonomy of personal ethics morally problematic" (Smart 1995:102, 105).
10. I would not be the first to involve Levinas in this debate. Others have paved the way, suggesting that Levinas's emphasis on our infinite responsibility towards the Other has the potential to emend Foucault's conception of care of self. I am thinking, for example, of Barry Smart's "The subject of responsibility" (1995) and David Boothroyd's "Foucault's alimentary philosophy: care of the self and responsibility for the other" (1996). However, neither Smart nor Boothroyd have explored this possibility fully.
11. This essay is a review of two books by Gilles Deleuze: Différence et repetition (Paris: P.U.F., 1969) and Logique du sens (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1969).
12. Judith Butler (2000:230), in one of her essays on Foucault, expresses it very eloquently: "… the formation of the subject is the institution of the very reflexivity that indistinguishably assumes the burden of formation. The 'indistinguishability' of this line is precisely the juncture where social norms intersect with ethical demands, and where both are produced in the context of a self-making which is never fully self-inaugurated".

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The conceptualisation of morality in Judaism

 

 

Gavin Michal

Department of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article dealt with the irony that confronts any investigation into the conceptualisation of morality in Judaism: much of contemporary scholarship promotes the Strong Dependence Theory where God is considered the prime source of morality − yet an empirical analysis of classical rabbinic literature indicates a leaning more towards the Weak Dependence Theory which considers human beings the source for morality. Somehow, scholarship seems to overlook this textual evidence. On the other hand, that same contemporary scholarship has no problem in accepting absolute and complete human autonomy in the area of Jewish religious law or Halacha. This study questioned why humans are comfortably accepted as the primary determinants of religious law but not of morality - and argued for a return to the original Weak Dependence Theory to maintain moral efficacy. It included an examination of an extreme historical test case for rabbinic morality concerning how the rabbinic world dealt internally with the moral implications of major rabbis who had fled the Holocaust.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: While this literature study was conducted from an orthodox rabbinic perspective, it adopted a descriptive and evaluative methodology based on academic, rabbinic and historical sources

Keywords: morality; Strong and Weak Dependence Theories; Divine Command Morality; rabbinic leadership during the Holocaust; theodicy; Jewish ritual law (Halacha).

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Introduction

It must be noted, at the outset, that it is difficult to speak about any idea within Judaism as representing the authoritative view of that religion. This is because the system is extremely nuanced with views ranging across a vast theological spectrum and divergent Weltanschauungen. At best one can only survey all the interpretations and texts to try and determine some mean, or direction of thought. This is particularly the case with conceptualising morality in Judaism.

 

Aim and objectives

The aim of this article is to demonstrate through empirical (textual) evidence that although the Strong Dependence Theory (or Divine Command Morality [DCM] − where morality is conceptualised as deriving from God's command) is overwhelmingly adduced as the basis of Jewish morality, the classical rabbinic sources reveal the opposite.

The objectives are, firstly, to provide textual evidence contrasting the perceived origins of Jewish morality with the actual primary sources themselves, thereby demonstrating that the roots of Jewish morality are in fact conceptualised as deriving from the Weak Dependence Theory (Lichtenstein 1975:63; Sagi & Statman 1995:39). Secondly, to examine an extreme test case of Jewish morality as perceived by both the opponents and supporters of leading rabbis who fled the Holocaust. Those who were left behind, claimed the fleeing was a moral offence to God (Hershkowitz 2009:119), adducing the Strong Dependence Theory. Thirdly and finally, to argue, counterintuitively, for a return to the primary rabbinic texts for a conceptualisation of morality based on the Weak Dependence Theory; thus, promoting a natural and human constituent to morality allowing for a more universal and less parochial approach than that professed to be provided by God and slanted by particular religions or sects.

 

The sources of morality: Strong and Weak Dependence Theories

The search for the source of morality in Judaism is laden with irony because, generally speaking, both religious and secular contemporary Jewish scholarship unambiguously claim adherence to the Strong Dependence Theory where God is considered the prime source of morality. Yet an empirical study of the rabbinic texts belies such a notion.

Avi Sagi and Daniel Statman point to the surprising anomaly that while Christianity (Idziak 1989) and Islam (according to the Al-Ash'ari school) (Frank 1983) both subscribe to the Strong Dependence Theory − where morality is said to originate with God − the same may not be said of Judaism which, based on rabbinic texts, has 'hardly any echoes of support for this thesis' (Sagi & Statman 1995:39).

Instead, foundational rabbinic sources point to an autonomous and independent existence of morality very much defined by humans. These rabbinic texts support the Weak Dependence Theory although its adherents often maintain that God adopts such autonomous human morality as a model for Judaism.

Strong Dependence Theories are extremely rare in Judaism. Sagi and Statman boldly claim that there is only one source for it, as we shall see below. Nevertheless, most contemporary Jewish scholarship persists in maintaining that God, not humans, is considered by Judaism to be the only source of all morality.

Isadore Twersky exemplifies this common and characteristic view of Strong Dependence Theory as follows:

Autonomous morality … is a human creation … This view has no parallel in Judaism. Judaism admits only a heteronomous-theonomic approach, which views the Creator as the source of morality. (Twersky 1991:238 n. 237)

Another typical example of Strong Dependence Theory is David Bleich who similarly claims that: 'morality is the product of the halakhic (i.e. the Jewish ritual and legal − G.M.) system which itself is the embodiment of divine revelation' (Bleich 2006:114).

Juxtapose these two statements against the view of Aharon Lichtenstein who disagrees with this popular approach and instead promotes a Weak Dependence Theory: 'At most, the rabbis rejected natural law, not natural morality' (Lichtenstein 1975:64). According to this contemporary minority view as espoused by Lichtenstein, the rabbis embraced a 'natural', or human source for morality, thus subscribing to the Weak Dependence Theory.

The first two statements are representative of current scholarship and also attest to the common religious argument used across the board by many religions that 'without G-d, everything is allowed', and that intrinsically, morality is contingent upon a divine source. This makes the research and findings by Sagi and Statman − that most rabbinic texts subscribe to the Weak Dependence Theory − all the more compelling because it seems to go against the grain of the popular, more 'religious' and 'appealing' view which supports the Strong Dependence Theory.

Again, standing apart from the general trend of modern Jewish scholarship is the abovementioned view of Lichtenstein who lends support to the Weak Dependence Theory: 'The fact remains that the existence of natural morality is clearly assumed in much that is quite central to our tradition' (Lichtenstein 1975:63).

Sagi and Statman take this even further by demonstrating that the Weak Dependence Theory is borne out, not only by much but by the vast majority of classical rabbinic texts.

The risk of over-reliance on the Strong Dependence Theory is well - if not cynically - depicted by Henry Mencken (n.d:n.p.) who noted that: 'Morality is doing right, no matter what you are told. Religion is doing what you are told, no matter what is right'.

It must be pointed out, however, that in Judaism, the Weak Dependence Theory does not deprive God of any input. It claims that although morality is defined in human terms, it still relies on God or religion to authorise it:

In weak dependence theories, an act can be considered a moral obligation even if not ordained by God − although, without religion, actualizing it may not be possible. (Sagi & Statman 1995:41)

In my estimation, by emphasising the Weak Dependence Theory, one side-steps Mencken's fear of religion prescribing acts that are not considered right, because by embracing the Weak Dependence Theory, morality remains balanced, as it were, somewhere between heaven and earth. And, if I understand this concept correctly, the classical rabbinic conceptualisation of morality is that even by accepting the Weak Dependence Theory, the good in humans still becomes ordained as 'divine'. Yet, contemporary Jewish scholarship seems to negate this notion with their support for the Strong Dependence Theory instead.

Strong Dependence Theory

Sagi and Statman significantly maintain that there is only one rabbinic source that exclusively and conclusively promotes the model of the Strong Dependence Theory (Sagi & Statman 1995:50). This is to be found in the relatively recent writings of the Chassidic leader R. Klonymus Shapira produced in Warsaw during the Holocaust, who claims (contra Idziak [1989] and Frank [1983]) that only non-Jews promote the Weak Dependence Theory:

The nations of the world, even the best of them, think that the truth is a thing in itself, and that God commanded truth because the truth is intrinsically true. They therefore accept the rational commandments … such as that we should not steal, rob, and so forth …

Not so Israel, who say 'You God are truth' … and all the truth found in the world is there only because God wished it and commanded it … Stealing is forbidden because the God of truth has commanded it … And when God commanded the opposite, that hefker beit-din hefker [i.e., that the court has the power of expropriation] then this becomes true and a person's wealth can be confiscated. When God ordered Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, it was true to sacrifice him and, had God not said later 'neither do anything to him', it would have been true to slaughter him. (Shapira 1960:68; see also 172)

Here Shapira leaves no room whatsoever for the autonomy of morality simply being reinforced by revelation as the Weak Dependence Theory suggests. This source is suggested by Sagi and Statman to be the singular example within the non-contemporary rabbinic writings (i.e. excluding the contemporary views of Twersky and Bleich), of the more radical Strong Dependence Theory approach.

Another (more classical) rabbinic text which may also serve as an exception, could be the Mishna in Avot 3:17 which states R. Eliezer ben Azariah's view that: 'without Torah, there is no derech eretz (morality), and without derech eretz, there is no Torah'. The corollary in the latter part of the dictum, however, seems to soften the first part of the statement.

Of particular interest is Shapira's interpretation of the sacrifice of Isaac where Søren Kierkegaard (1983), as well as Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1992), understand the narrative as a prime example of the conflict between religion and morality, known as theodicy. For Shapira and his Strong Dependence Theory approach, there is no longer a conflict. Whatever God decrees is moral, and truth and justice have no independent existence.

Yet, as if to emphasise the uniqueness of this 'singular' source, in Shapira's other writings, he seems to go back to the usual rabbinic approach of the Weak Dependence Theory where morality has an independent existence and he acknowledges that God follows human moral norms and does not just formulate morality by whim or decree. This complicated picture of Shapira underscores even further the exceptionality of the Strong Dependence Theory within Jewish thought.

Yet the Strong Dependence Theory somehow still became the dominant theological position portrayed by contemporary Jewish scholarship despite most foundational rabbinic sources which point rather to the Weak Dependence Theory. We shall now turn to six such sources.

Weak Dependence Theory

• 1. The Talmud records:

Rabbi Yochanan (180-279 CE) said: Even if the Torah had not been given, we would [nonetheless] have learned modesty from the cat, [which covers its waste] and that stealing [is objectionable] from the ant [which does not take grain from another ant] and forbidden relations from the dove [which is faithful to its partner]…. (b. Eruvin 100b)

• 2. The Midrash records:

Derech eretz (morality) preceded the Torah (Vayikra Rabbah, 9:3 [Tzav]).

On this, Lichtenstein (1975:63) comments: 'In context, the primary reference is to chronological priority'. Accordingly, human morality had to have chronologically pre-existed revelation, indicating its independent status which is not contingent upon God.

Centuries later and a cultural divide apart, a similar point is made by the 17th-century Platonist Benjamin Whichcote quoting the Hebrew Bible. Lichtenstein paraphrases Whichcote:

[O]ne cannot ask 'Shall, then, the judge of the whole earth not do justice?' (Gn. 18:25) unless one assumes the existence of an unlegislated justice to which, as it were, God Himself is bound. (Lichtenstein 1975:63)

• 3. Rav Saadia Gaon (882-942) suggests that the category of Jewish rational commandments (as opposed to the commandments that are beyond understanding) do not require origins in revelation at Sinai. Yet, revelation is still necessary for humans to grasp the concrete significance of such commandments (Saadia 1948, 3:3).

Saadia Gaon was such a great promoter of the Weak Dependence Theory that he writes that he was not prepared to engage in conversation with one who subscribed to the Strong Dependence Theory, who:

… [W]as therefore compelled to take refuge in the theory that the disapproval of lying and the approval of truth were not prompted by reason but were the result of commandments and prohibitions of Scripture, and the same was true for the rejection of murder, adultery and stealing. (Saadia 1948:3:8)

Saadia Gaon probably saw such 'moralists', who relied solely on their perception of the word of God, to be dangerous people as their morality was predicated on a system of belief that was supernatural, non-transparent and subject to interpretation.

• 4. Yehuda haLevi (c.1075-1141) similarly rejects the Strong Dependence Theory as he argues that morality must have clearly preceded Sinai 'in character and time', as human society cannot function without some form of ethics. He writes:

… [E]ven a gang of robbers could not but accept the rule of justice among themselves. (Halevi 1964:2:48)

• 5. Maimonides (1138-1204), the father of Jewish rationalism, also rejects the Strong Dependence Theory and writes that only Halacha or ritual and civil law needs provenance in Sinai, since:

… [W]ere it not for the Torah, [those who did not observe ritual law - G.M.] would not be wicked at all. (Maimonides 1966:Ch. 6)

Moral law, however, does not require origins in Sinai because in the domain of morality, Maimonides adopts a 'thesis of autonomy' (Sagi & Statman 1995:53).

• 6. R. Nachman of Breslov (1772-1810), a Chassidic mystic, declares that God does not decree good nor bad:

The following is an important principle: From the Most High comes neither good nor bad. Only a simple [as yet undefined] light. However, according to the vessel [or person] that receives the light, so is that [undefined] light shaped [and formed] in it [or him or her]. (Paraphrase of Likkutei Moharan 31:9)

All these six sources promote and describe a Weak Dependence Theory approach.

It is surprising, then, that most contemporary Jewish scholars do not seem to consider the Weak Dependence Theory as falling within the rubric of Jewish theology when important rabbinic texts from across the rationalist and mystical spectrum show an almost unanimous adherence to it.

There is, furthermore, an argument from logic that can be adduced to support the Weak Dependence Theory:

It makes no sense to say with Abaye, that 'the whole of the Torah … is for the purpose of promoting peace' (b. Gittin 59b), unless the ethical value of peace can be taken for granted. (Lichtenstein 1975:64)

 

The vexing conundrum

All this points to a particularly vexing conundrum: human autonomy indeed plays a constant and pivotal role in determining so much of Halacha (Jewish ritual and civil law) in both the Talmud and the Shulchan Aruch (Codes of law). Yet, no objection is raised by the same contemporary Jewish scholars to the principle that human autonomy determines Halacha.

There is a unanimous acceptance that Halacha is decided largely by a Weak Dependence Theory approach, in the day-to-day technical process of determining and adjudicating Jewish law. Anyone, even vaguely familiar with the Halachic process would know the degree of autonomy the Posek or Halachic decisor has when determining the final outcome of the law. There is no magic, no ritual, and no prayer involved in the process whatsoever. The rabbinic decisor has absolute autonomy (obviously within the framework of precedents and texts) to rule one way or the other. Human discretion is applied and rabbinic legal sources are cited, as opposed to reliance even upon verses from the Torah. The Halachic process is guided by human reason and is autonomous. The Talmud, basing itself on Deuteronomy 30:12 declares that the Halachic process is 'Not in heaven' but squarely within the domain of humans on earth (b. Bava Metzia 59b).

To emphasise the degree of autonomy human beings exert in the domain of Halacha, R. Yehuda Loew (1520-1609), known as the Maharal of Prague, writes about a Jewish judge in Halachic matters:

Even if his insight and wisdom mislead him, he is still beloved by God … when he rules as demanded by his reason. The judge has nothing but what his eyes see, and he is better than one, who, when ruling, follows a text without understanding its reasons and who walks like the blind. (Loew 1970, 1:69)

The question begs: Why is it perfectly reasonable to accept the extreme autonomy of the Halachic process yet reject the autonomy of the moral process? This, particularly in light of the primary sources we have demonstrated above. Yet despite the tenor of the texts, for some reason, contemporary scholars, while happy to accept the autonomy of Halacha, feel disinclined to ascribe human autonomy to morality.

A reconciliatory approach

Although in theory, Lichtenstein (an exception among modern scholars) acknowledges the Weak Dependence Theory in determining morality, he seems unhappy to leave it there:

[T]he issue is not whether the tradition accords a non-halachic ethic some theoretical standing by acknowledging its universal validity and provenance. Rather, it is whether now … [that the] 'Torah has been given and Halakha innovated' [b. Shabbat 135b - G.M.] that standing is of any practical significance to us; whether, for the contemporary Jew, an ethic independent of Halakha can be at all legitimate and relevant at an operative level. (Lichtenstein 1975:65)

Put in non-rabbinic parlance and a different genre, Lichtenstein's approach may perhaps be compared to that of Brevard Childs (1922-2007) and his canonical approach to biblical interpretation. Childs acknowledges the academic methodology of historical criticism but takes the moment of official canonisation as the starting point of his inquiry. According to Childs: 'the "final form"… of the canon as a whole has priority over any of its antecedent forms' (Kessler 2013:57-58).

Lichtenstein seems to be saying the same thing about morality. We do not need to consult earlier sources and 'reinvent' or 'redefine' a morality that already exists in a well-established and 'canonised' religion. This observation by Lichtenstein may explain why so much of contemporary Jewish scholarship (intentionally or otherwise) tends to negate the classical texts dealing with morality, adopting instead a de facto position of the Strong Dependence Theory linking everything back to Godly sanction, Sinai and the 'canonisation' of the Law. This is generally referred to as 'Sinai' but it may be more accurate to refer to the Talmudic period (10 CE-500 CE) or even more specifically the era of final canonisation of the Code of Law, known as the Shulchan Aruch, by R. Yosef Karo (1488-1575).

This idea is emphasised by Maimonides who, although a promoter of the Weak Dependence Theory as noted earlier, points to Sinai as the 'practical' originator of all Jewish law and morality. For example, he writes that we do not circumcise because of the tradition that historically Abraham circumcised - rather we do so because we were thus commanded at Sinai (Maimonides' Commentary on the Mishna, Chullin 7:6). This way, everything in Judaism is viewed retroactively through the lens of Sinai.

 

Is Sinai enough?

This 'canonical approach' linking everything to Sinai, does theoretically reconcile the conundrum between the autonomy of morality and the authority of God and Sinai. The preferred rabbinic perspective is always reconciliatory, particularly in the literary and exegetical senses. But is this reliance on Sinai sufficient for something as fundamental as morality in a real, complicated and divided society? Is there not, perhaps, a danger in framing morality solely as a religious prescription − because when it becomes a sacred duty of a pious group, it may lose its sense of universal humanitarianism?

This objection was already noted by the Talmud:

R. Yochanan said: 'Jerusalem was destroyed only for [the fact] that they adjudicated [cases on the basis of] Torah law. [The Gemara asks:] Should they rather have adjudicated cases on the basis of arbitrary decisions [or of the Magians]? Rather, say … they did not go beyond the letter of the law'. (b. Bava Metzia 30b)

In other words, R. Yochanan maintains that Jerusalem was destroyed specifically because the letter of the law was applied at the expense of the spirit of the law. The letter of the law cannot shape moral people. Moral people are only produced by the spirit of the law.

Nachmanides (1194-1270) went even a step further by declaring that one can observe every single detail of the Torah yet be nothing but: 'a villain operating within the confines of the Law' (Nachmanides' commentary on Lv 19:2).

This way, even if we choose to reconcile the conundrum of why most contemporary scholars tend to ignore the empirical data that Judaism follows the Weak Dependence Theory, and opt instead for the Strong Dependence Theory by connecting everything to the final authority of Sinai, still, as R. Soloveitchik is known to have said: 'Halacha is a floor, not a ceiling'.¹

Sinai and the Law are only starting points and even according to those who see them as the source, they must never be taken as the full flowering of Jewish morality. This is why I argue that it is important to acknowledge the Weak Dependence Theory as the basis of all morality.

 

An extreme test case for rabbinic morality

Perhaps the most extreme test case for rabbinic morality, involving rabbi versus rabbi, is the question of the rabbis who fled the Holocaust leaving their flock behind. Isaac Hershkowitz (2009:109) explains how, in the years following the war, a 'comprehensive apologetic literature' had been produced by the followers of these rabbis, justifying their leaders' actions.

These rabbis who fled the Holocaust included Aharon Rokeach (1880-1957), who had one of the largest Chassidic courts in Europe with tens of thousands of followers, his brother Mordechai who led a Chassidic court in Bilgoraj, Poland, as well as the rebbes of Vizhnitz, Munkacs and Satmar, to name but a few.

Anecdotally, in a private communication between myself and a respected scholar in Israel who had researched this matter, he claimed that possibly more than 60% of rabbinic leadership fled the Holocaust. His family had direct experience of this. He was reluctant, however, to give me permission to quote him because of the immense sensitivity involved. I have no way of verifying or denying this claim, but a significant number of the rabbinic leadership certainly left their people to their fate.

In a fascinating sociological response, as a general rule, the ultra-Orthodox or Chareidim refer to these escapes as being a part of 'the rescue miracle'. They view these rescues as an imperative. Spiritual leaders must be saved for the group to survive and to be re-established elsewhere. Other camps within the rabbinic world, however, viewed this as a betrayal and had expected instead to see their leaders stay and lead their people to the bitter end (Hershkowitz 2009:111).

The widow of R. Avraham Halberstam, known as the Stropkover Rebbe, Rebbetzin Chaya Halberstam said the following (recorded by a Sonderkommando who subsequently was also killed):

I see the end of Hungarian Jewry. The government had permitted large sections of the Jewish community to flee. The people asked the advice of the admorim [Chasidic leaders] and they always reassured them. The Belzer Rebbe said that Hungary would only endure anxiety … And now the bitter hour has come, when the Jews can no longer save themselves … but they [the rabbis], themselves, fled at the last moment to the land of Israel. They saved their own lives but left the people as sheep for slaughter … In the last moments of my life I set my plea before You. That You pardon them for this great 'חילול השם' [desecration of God's name - G.M.].²

Hershkowitz brings evidence that far from being grateful for the 'rescue miracle', there was instead an intense intra-rabbinical controversy taking place in Budapest just before the Nazi invasion of Hungary in March 1944, and it concerned the ethics of the imminent departure of many of these rabbis in important leadership positions. The debate was based on Halachic and Talmudic sources on morality. The research reveals that the rabbinic opposition to the fleeing of the rabbis was far wider and more intense than is usually portrayed (Hershkowitz 2009:113).

In a special edition of the prestigious rabbinical journal Tel Talpiyot (which had over 700 Hungarian rabbis as contributors), published on 27 February 1944, an article entitled Vayhi binso'a haAron [When the Tabernacle travels] dealt with the crisis of the rabbis (who are compared to the Tabernacle) leaving and: 'criticises the escape of the community's spiritual leaders in pungent and acute terms' (Hershkowitz 2009:115).

The article is of unknown authorship but Hershkowitz shows that it is likely to have been by R. Meshulam Zalman Katsburg, or a close associate. This is significant because his father, R. David Tzvi Katzburg, the editor of Tel Talpiyot, was severely censured for supporting religious Zionism (the Mizrachi movement) and opposing the powerful Hungarian ultra-Orthodox camp.

Without directly mentioning their names, the article condemns the Belzer Rebbe and his brother for neglecting their people and for emigrating to Palestine even though they had been outspoken against the nascent Zionist movement. It mentioned how 'certain rabbis' (alluding to these anti-Zionist rabbis) had used 'certificates' (immigration visas) to British-ruled Palestine and these documents stated that they were 'veteran Zionists'. A policy of selective Aliyah (immigration to Palestine) had been in practice during the 1930s.

The article also objected to the very public spectacle of their leaving, including the event of the final sermon of the Belzer Rebbe's brother, R. Mordechai of Bilgoraj who claimed that for years he had dreamed of prostrating himself on the soil of the Holy Land.

Of interest is the moral tenor of the article which cites moral sources against leaders leaving their flock. The imagery of a shepherd abandoning the herd and a captain abandoning the ship is used to full force. Rabbinic sources are used to show how Moses was not permitted to enter the Holy Land because his contemporaries were not permitted to enter either. By leaving the people behind, a leader desecrates the holy concept of leadership.

The author, obviously fully aware of the hyper-veneration of the Chassidic followers to their rebbes, contrasts that respect with the rebbes' self-interests and self-centredness:

Why won't they notice the powerful demand that the nation's leaders remain obliged to the public … Whenever any of our leaders fail to acknowledge this minimal obligation to the Jewish collective, he fails to do his duty … his duty to the people is at least as great in times of distress as in peacetime … (cited in Hershkowitz 2009:117-118)

But the author of the article in Tel Talpiyot also attacks the public for being naïve and accepting of such behaviour from their leaders:

How long will the innocent and loyal souls among us neither see nor feel, or close their eyes so they won't see and confuse themselves so they can't feel … who tolerate the offence being done to the Torah[?]. (cited in Hershkowitz 2009:119)

These rabbis who opposed their fleeing colleagues also visualised the origins of morality through the lens of the Strong Dependence Theory as they conceptualised morality originating from the Torah which had now been offended. Yet people from their own faith, the ultra-Orthodox, using the same Torah, viewed the same events as a 'rescue miracle' that enhanced the Torah.

 

Conclusion

The Strong Dependence Theory, by definition, always reverts and deflects morality to God, Sinai, the Torah or Halacha. The Weak Dependence Theory sometimes does too but only for authority, not provenance. The Strong Dependence Theory has great religious appeal and is a good example of virtue signalling. The Stropkover Rebbe's widow adopted the Strong Dependence Theory by referring to the fleeing rabbis as a 'desecration of God's name'. And the 1944 rabbinic journal referred to the same as an 'offence to the Torah'. Despite the empirical textual evidence from classical rabbinic sources that morality is autonomous and defined in human terms, ultimately the conceptualisation (whether accurately or not) of morality in Judaism is still somehow always reflected back to God and not to humans.

Ironically, by framing morality as originating in God, it can be subject to religious manipulation as we saw with the ultra-Orthodox referring to the fleeing rabbis as the 'rescue miracle', while their communities perished. Because morality based on religion is susceptible to interpretation and exegesis, I argue for a return to the primary rabbinic texts for a conceptualisation of morality in Judaism based on Weak Dependence Theory, with a natural and human conceptualisation of morality defined by the 'innocent and loyal souls among us'. The Weak Dependence Theory − unlike a conceptualisation of morality rooted in God, faith or religion − is difficult to distort due to its open, moral and ethical transparency. When human beings are accepted as the final (in this case, technically, the initial) arbiters of what constitutes morality − as the classical rabbinic texts suggest − then morality may have a better, albeit not perfect, chance of endurance. This is for the simple reason that it speaks a universal language that many (most?) people understand, and is, therefore, difficult to misrepresent or bestow unevenly.

 

Acknowledgements

Research on this article commenced in 2022 when Gavin Michal was completing his Master's Dissertation and invited to present a paper on the Conceptualisation of Morality in Judaism at the ProMores Conference at the University of Pretoria, Faculty of Theology and Religion, on 12 September 2022.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

G.M. is the sole author of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.

 

References

Bleich, D.J., 2006, 'Survey of recent Halachic literature: Torture and the ticking bomb', Tradition issue 39(4), 89-121.         [ Links ]

Frank, R., 1983, 'Moral obligation in classical Muslim theology', Journal of Religious Ethics 11(2), 204-223.         [ Links ]

Halevi, Y., 1964, The Kuzari, transl. H. Hirschfeld, Schocken Books, New York, NY, pp. 1130-1140.         [ Links ]

Hershkowitz, I., 2009, '"This enormous offense to the Torah": New discoveries about the controversy over the escape of the Rabbis from Budapest, 1943-1944', Yad Vashem Studies 37(1), 109-136.         [ Links ]

Idziak, J.M., 1989, 'In search for "good positive reasons" for an ethics of divine commands: A catalogue of arguments', Faith and Philosophy: Journal of the Society of Christian Philosophers 6(1), 47-64. https://doi.org/10.5840/faithphil1989612        [ Links ]

Kessler, J., 2013, Old Testament theology: Divine call and human response, Baylor University Press, Waco, TX.         [ Links ]

Kierkegaard, S., [1843] 1983, Fear and trembling, transl. H.V. Hong & E.H. Hong (eds.), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.         [ Links ]

Leibowitz, Y., 1992, Judaism, human values, and the Jewish State, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.         [ Links ]

Lichtenstein, A., 1975, 'Does Jewish tradition recognize an ethic independent of Halakha', in M. Fox (ed.), Modern Jewish ethics: Theory and practice, pp. 62-88, Ohio State University Press, Columbus, OH.         [ Links ]

Loew, Y., 1970, Netivot Olam, Machon Yad Mordechai, Tel Aviv.         [ Links ]

Maimonides, M., 1966, Eight chapters, transl. J. Garfinkel, Arms Press, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Mencken, H., n.d., H. L. Mencken quote: Morality is doing what is right, no matter what you are told. Religion is doing what you are told, no matter what is right, viewed 25 July 2022, from minimalistquotes.com.         [ Links ]

Saadia, R., 1948, The book of beliefs and opinions, c. 930, transl. S. Rosenblatt, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.         [ Links ]

Sagi, A. & Statman, D., 1995, 'Divine command morality and Jewish tradition', The Journal of Religious Ethics 23(1), 39-67.         [ Links ]

Shapira, K., 1960, Esh Kodesh (Hebrew), Va'ad Hasidei Piaseczno, Jerusalem.         [ Links ]

Twersky, I., 1991, Introduction to the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides (Hebrew), Magnes Press, Jerusalem.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Gavin Michal
baalshem@global.co.za

Received: 05 Apr. 2023
Accepted: 11 Aug. 2023
Published: 23 Jan. 2024

 

 

1. See online source: viewed 26 July 2022, from Torah from Heaven: A Guide to the Four Questions - TheTorah.com.
2. See online source: viewed 27 June 2022, from DUS IZ NIES !! Rare View…: The plea of the Stropkover Rebbitzen shortly before she was murdered by the Nazis.

^rND^sBleich^nD.J.^rND^sFrank^nR.^rND^sHershkowitz^nI.^rND^sIdziak^nJ.M.^rND^sKierkegaard^nS.^rND^sLichtenstein^nA.^rND^sSagi^nA.^rND^sStatman^nD.^rND^1A01 A02^nStephen J.^sPope^rND^1A01 A02^nStephen J.^sPope^rND^1A01 A02^nStephen J^sPope

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The Roman Catholic conceptualisation of morality: Its essence and distinctive character

 

 

Stephen J. Pope^{I, II}

^IFaculty of Theology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States
^IIDepartment of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Over the course of its history Catholicism has generated several different conceptions of morality. The early medieval church conceived morality primarily in terms of caritas and other virtues, the modern church generated a legalistic conception of morality, and the post-Vatican II church proposes a relational conception of morality.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The essence of morality concerns natural virtues and natural moral law, which all people of goodwill can grasp, appreciate, and act upon. The distinctive conception of morality is identified with our ultimate end, the beatific vision, the theological virtues, and the ethics of discipleship centred on caritas

Keywords: morality; Thomas Aquinas; natural law; the 'new law'; justice.

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Introduction

This article seeks to answer the question: What is the essence and distinctive character of Roman Catholic conceptualisation of morality? The thesis of the article is that Roman Catholicism has generated three major conceptions of morality: morality as virtuous living, morality as licit conduct, and morality as rightly ordered relationships. All three conceptions share the belief that anyone who is reasonably reflective can grasp the basic norms of morality and cultivate the virtues appropriate to them. If the essence of morality is the 'natural moral law', the distinctiveness of this tradition lies in its conviction that we are created for union with God, empowered by grace to live the theological virtues, and find in Jesus Christ the definitive pattern of the Christian life.

This article proceeds in five stages that examine, in order, the meaning of the question this article addresses, the fundamental theological presuppositions of Catholic moral theology, the Thomistic conception of morality, the modern Catholic conception of morality, and the corrective approach to morality proposed by the Second Vatican Council, the contemporary relational conception of morality, and then the impact of the global church on contemporary conceptions of morality.

 

Basic terms

We begin by identifying the meaning of key terms used in the question we mean to address. Firstly, the term 'conceptualisation' will be taken as referring to the formation and particular content of beliefs, ideas, or mental representations common to the Catholic moral tradition.

Secondly, the phrase 'Roman Catholic' includes the teachings of the Roman Catholic church, and also the practices of local communities around the world and the reflections of philosophers and theologians.¹ Thirdly, the term 'morality' has many meanings and no single formulation satisfies everyone using it (see Gert 2020).² The Catholic tradition generally treats morality and ethics interchangeably.

The word 'moral' is taken from the Latin mores just as 'ethics' is an English rendering of the Greek ethos. Both terms refer to a particular people's customs or 'habits of the heart', the way they conduct themselves, and what they consider valuable and important (or not). The Catholic intellectual tradition takes the domain of 'morality' to include anything involving the exercise of our powers of agency, and particularly (but by no means exclusively) our volitional capacities. Every truly human act is considered a moral act (ST, I-II,18,8, in Aquinas 1946:vol. 2:668). It is moral both in the sense that it is voluntary and reasonably well-informed, and therefore something for which a moral agent is responsible and in the sense that in some way or other it pertains to the human good, that is, what contributes to true human flourishing or happiness in an objective rather than purely subjective sense. Morality has to do not only with 'action guidance', decision procedures, and impartial norms (the concern of many secular moral theories) but also the attitudes, affections, imagination, virtues, and character of the moral agent. As this domain concerns whatever is relevant to the human good, it also constitutes a dimension of the whole range of human activities from science and technology to music and the arts. For this reason, we can subject any human act, practice, or policy to moral assessment (without necessarily doing so in a moralistic way).

 

Theological presuppositions

Philosophers and theologians have typically tried to explicate the meaning and use of moral concepts with some clarity, depth, and thoroughness. We can distinguish formal from informal conceptions of morality. Informal modes of conceptualising morality communicated throughout communities and expressed 'common sense' aphorisms, sayings, exemplary figures, folklore, cautionary tales, and the like. They blend Catholic values with those of the host culture. Informal modes are much more pervasive and influential than formal modes of conceptualising morality.

Formal modes of conceptualisation are found in systematic analyses of normative morality such as those produced by scholars working in 'high culture'. Roman Catholic conceptions of morality have been produced by philosophers and theologians reflecting on how to lead a Christian life (personally and collectively) in their own particular historical contexts. This deep and diverse intellectual tradition includes the writings of the monk Cassian (+535, Gaul), the Italian scholastic Thomas Aquinas (+1274), the English lawyer Thomas More (+1535, England), the Spanish missionary Bartolomé de las Casas, O.P. (+1566, Madrid), and the Spanish mystical theologian Teresa of Avila (+1582). It is misleading to speak of the Roman Catholic conceptualisation of morality as if it were analogous to Aristotelian, Kantian, or utilitarian moral theories. Catholicism has sponsored Augustinian, Thomist, Scotist, transcendental, liberationist, or other particular Catholic 'schools' of theology. They do not all share an identical conception of morality, so it is probably best to speak of Roman Catholic conceptions of morality in the plural.

Like other Christian traditions, the Roman Catholicism reveres the Bible as 'sacred Scripture', that is, as a collection of writings produced by human authors inspired by the Holy Spirit and communally recognised as expressing God's self-communication to us about truths pertaining to faith and morals ('divine revelation' in Vatican II, Dei Verbum). Catholics take Scripture to be inerrant in matters concerning our redemption, reconciliation with God, and salvation (but even here there is significant room for theological interpretation). Christian morality is essentially biblical morality in that its essential standards are taken from Scripture.

Christians share the belief that Jesus gave to his apostles a special responsibility to preserve and hand on the fullness of the truth he had taught them (see Mt 16:19; Mt 18:18). The distinctiveness of the Roman Catholic tradition lies in the claim that Jesus assigned to Peter and his successors (the bishops of Rome) a special responsibility to care for the church by preserving its fidelity and unity. The 'magisterium' is the doctrinal teaching authority of the church (Gaillardetz 2018). According to Catholic doctrine, the college of bishops, along with the pope as its head bear a unique responsibility to provide the 'authoritative interpretation' of Scripture when necessary (see Vatican II, Dei Verbum, 10). They are called to identify misinterpretations (e.g., when ancient Gnostics denied that Jesus of Nazareth was truly human) and morally perverse misuses of Scripture (e.g., by 20th century Christians who used it to justify anti-Semitism).

The phrase 'Roman Catholicism' points to its twofold character as both particular ('Roman') and universal ('catholic'). Theologically speaking, this inclination to see an underlying unity shared by distinct realities is grounded in the Incarnation, the core Christian doctrine that in Jesus 'the Word became flesh' (Jn 1:14). The union of divine and human natures in Jesus lies behind the distinctively Catholic sensitivity to ways in which divine love (or grace) is active throughout the human life-span (Radcliffe 2005).

Emphasis on the Incarnation also supports the Catholic tendency to look for analogical ('both-and') harmonies rather than dialectical ('either-or') oppositions (Tracy 1981). This framework leads Catholics to expect an essentially complementary rather than oppositional relationship between creation and redemption, grace and freedom, law and gospel, science and faith, philosophy and Scripture, Christ and culture, and reason and revelation (John Paul II 1998). In morality, this sensibility presupposes a fundamental harmony between divine law and natural law, mercy and justice, conscience and authority, theological virtues, and acquired virtues.

This emphasis on incarnation is complemented by a rich theological anthropology that can only be briefly summarised here. As a species, we are relatively intelligent, free and morally responsible, social animals. We are created in the image of God and therefore bear an intrinsic dignity, moral duties to others, and a special calling to love and revere God and to live in ways that bear witness to God's goodness. We are born with great potential but need to be taught how to love well, reason properly, and order our personal and communal lives wisely. Simply as a natural human institution, morality at its best answers to fundamental human needs we have as intelligent social animals. Morality, properly construed, is also the context for learning how to love God, self, and neighbour rightly.

This theological anthropology also provides an eudemonistic framework for understanding both morality and spirituality. We all experience a desire to lead meaningful lives marked by authentic friendship and love. This experience reflects the fact that we are created with a desire for true and complete fulfilment. This deep desire is finally satisfied only by union with God that begins in this life but is only fully realised in the kingdom of God (i.e., eschatologically). The real purpose of morality is to help people, both individual persons and communities, flourish. As will, the natural moral promotes comprehensive human flourishing in this life and the life of discipleship constitutes the path to 'eternal life' (Jn 10:10). The latter includes but transcends the goals of the former.

 

Thomas Aquinas' conception of morality

We now turn to Thomas Aquinas' conception of morality because he provides the most comprehensive account of morality in the Catholic tradition. We will focus first on his treatment of both natural (acquired) virtues and the natural law and then turn to his account of the 'New Law' and the (graced) theological virtues. Aquinas' conception of morality can be summarised as a virtue-centred Christian eudaimonism. He developed an account of the natural moral law as a component of his overarching neo-Platonic theological framework within which all creatures emanate from God and return to God (O'Meara 1997).

Aquinas' overarching eudaimonism justifies moral standards in terms of their contribution to human flourishing both in this life ('imperfect beatitude') and the next ('perfect beatitude'). These moral standards include both natural 'virtues', steady and deep-seated habits of the good normally acquired by proper training, education, and practice, and 'precepts' (or what we might call 'deontic' norms).

Aquinas is well-known for having proposed a carefully crafted theory of natural law ethics. This work was the culmination of generations of theologians working on this concept (Porter 1999). This accomplishment has unfortunately led many Christians to think of him primarily as an exponent of naturalistic morality and therefore to miss the fundamentally theological character of his moral theology that we can see at work even in his analysis of the different kinds of law. He defined law as an 'ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has care of the community, and promulgated' (ST I-II,90,4, at Aquinas, vol. 1:995). He distinguishes various kinds of law: eternal law (the wise divine governance of the creation), natural law (the 'rule and measure' that pertains to the rational creature, i.e., human beings), human law (the particular positive laws determined by human beings seeking to order their common life), and divine law (i.e., divine revelation about human conduct) (ST I-II, 91, at Aquinas, vol. 1:996-1001).

Natural law is the rational creature's way of participating in the eternal law. As an intelligent group living animals, we only thrive to the extent that our social relations are regulated in reasonably ordered and just ways. We are created to govern ourselves by the exercise of our capacity for practical reason and we flourish when we do so regularly within a community that is reasonably well-ordered. We can employ reason to identify and rank the various kinds of natural goods that contribute to our well-being (Porter 2004).

The moral law rooted in human nature and displayed in the daily lives of good people whether or not they are Christian (here his ethic is less sceptical of 'pagan virtues' than was Augustine) is what we might call 'basic morality'. Natural law morality can guide right external conduct but it also requires proper internal habits of heart and mind. Its consistent implementation, then, is accomplished only by agents capable of exercising the moral virtues. In purely philosophical terms, natural law morality is only consistently exemplified by those who exercise the cardinal virtues.

Aquinas was confident that any reasonably intelligent human being - Christian or otherwise - can know the content of golden rule and its specification in the precepts of the second table of the Decalogue. He recognised that average people are naturally capable of reasoning together about the implications of these basic norms for how they lead their lives and structure their communities (Porter 2016). Careful reflection on the exigencies of our social life can see the reasonableness of the basic or natural law requirements of justice.

This confidence in our epistemological access to the natural moral law puts Aquinas at odds with important aspects of what would in the next century would become early divine command theory (Hare 2015) and, in the late 20th century, some forms of narrative ethics (De Villiers 2012; Hauerwas 1981). As rational creatures we do not need divine revelation to know it is wrong to murder, steal, lie, or commit sexual infidelity. God reveals these norms in Scripture to provide clarity, but Aquinas thought any reasonably reflective and well-raised person acknowledges their ethical legitimacy and value for communal living.

While acknowledging the legitimacy and value of the natural virtues and the natural moral law, Aquinas, first and foremost a man of faith, was much more interested in the theological virtues, the 'new law', and the beatific vision. He recognised that we only know of our supernatural end, the beatific vision, from divine revelation.

The Christian life consists essentially as a participation in the 'new law', the indwelling grace of the Holy Spirit given to those who believe in Christ (O'Meara 1997; ST I-II,106, in Aquinas, vol. 1:1103-1108). The transformative power of grace enables Christians to not only try to live up to the basic requirements of the natural law (such as the golden rule) but also calls them to even higher standards. The central theological virtue is caritas, the Latin translation of agape, which Aquinas understood to be the believer's grace-infused friendship with God and love of every creature 'in God'. Grace inspires in the believer not only the theological virtues but also the infused moral virtues of prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude. Included in the catalogue of Christian virtues are patience, meekness, humility, forbearance, mercy, and other virtues praised in the New Testament. Christians find essential support for doing so in participating in the life of the church and partaking in her sacraments.

Whereas all reasonable people can be expected to conform to the requirements of the natural moral law, the Christian life involves duties and aspirations that transcend the natural law and are therefore not expected to be adhered to by non-Christians. The 'higher righteousness' of the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5-7) can be taken as a short summary of the essence of the Christian life (Pinckaers 1998, 2009). Aquinas understood all Christians - and not just monks and mendicants - all Christians are called to this 'higher righteousness' (Pinckaers 1999:19-21).

This framework regards the natural moral law as necessary but not sufficient for the end for attaining the end for which we are created. For one thing, we learn from revelation (rather than reason) that we are created for friendship with God and the communion of saints. For another, our natural moral capacities have been seriously compromised by both the original sin into which we are all born and our own particular sinful tendencies, debilitating moral weaknesses, intellectual blind spots, and spiritual immaturity. Sin, both original and actual, pervades human life and makes living up to the precepts of the natural law (let alone the ethics of discipleship) very difficult, if not impossible.

What is perhaps Aquinas' most famous axiom - that 'grace perfects rather than destroys nature' (Aquinas 1946, ST, I,1,8 ad 2; vol. 1:6) - registers at once both the value and the shortcomings of 'nature' and the natural law regarding our true happiness. He distinguished but did not separate natural law and the 'new law'. The latter goes beyond but does not negate the former. Natural law requires us to respect one another's property but caritas invites us to put our surplus at the service of the poor. Natural law forbids adultery but the Christian life resists giving a foothold to the vice of lust. Natural law allows a victim to resist unjust personal aggression, but the Gospel encourages us to 'turn the other cheek' and respond to evil with love. The natural law provides moral standards respected by all decent people, but the Gospel calls us to a way of life shaped by the imitatio Christi. This conception of Christian morality includes both the solid 'floor' of natural law morality (to which all human beings are accountable) and the open 'ceiling' of the kenotic Christ-patterned love of God and neighbour (Mt 22:37). The former is 'nested' within the latter.

There is much more to the Catholic tradition than Thomism,³ but Aquinas' major convictions about the complementary relationship of grace and nature, faith and reason, and temporal and eternal fulfilment have exerted an enormous influence on Catholic conceptions of morality. In principle (if not always in practice), Catholicism is open to insights about human nature (including the natural basis of morality) that might be forthcoming from other sources of wisdom, including philosophy, music and the arts, literature, the natural and social sciences, and ordinary experience. We see this tendency in Patristic critical appropriation of Stoicism and Neo-Platonism, Aquinas' dependence on the Roman notion of 'natural law', and late medieval Nominalist use of Greco-Roman virtue theory.

The four principles of modern Roman Catholic social teachings provide a prime example. The principles of subsidiarity and the common good were taken from Greco-Roman philosophers and then used to support the rights of labour and to counter totalitarianism and fascism (Himes 2018). The egalitarian conception of human dignity and its connection to human freedom was developed by Kant and other Enlightenment philosophers and was adopted and given a new theological reformulation in the great social encyclicals of Popes John XXIII, Paul VI, and John Paul II. Human dignity in Catholicism is grounded in the imago Dei rather than in the rational agent's capacity for autonomy. The principle of solidarity first appeared in 19th century secular philosophy and social theory before they were taken up and transformed by liberation theologians in Latin America and elsewhere and then by the magisterium (Hollenbach 2002). These four key principles have theological foundations in the doctrines of creation, incarnation, and eschatology, but they can and often do appeal to non-Catholics because they promote just and fair access to essential human goods recognised by all reasonable people (Himes 2018).

 

Historical consciousness and recent Catholic conceptions of morality

Historians have identified major shifts in the Catholic moral tradition. We will briefly notice the dominant emphasis on virtue up through the high Middle Ages and then a shift to a highly legal conception of morality in the modern period (roughly from the mid-16th to mid-20th centuries, largely reflecting the church's defensive reaction to the rise of Protestantism, the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution) (O'Malley 2010). During this phase, modern Roman Catholicism developed a well-deserved reputation for legalism, rigidity, and authoritarianism (Mahoney 1987). Beginning with the Second Vatican Council, the church has tried in various ways to move away from a strongly obligation centred conception of morality and into a conception of morality that is more personalist and relationship-centred.

The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), building on a century of work by theologians on the significance of historicity, sought to recover a more biblical, pastoral, Christ-centred view of the Christian moral life. The Council inaugurated a sweeping and ambitious ecclesiological change from a predominantly institutional model of the church 'above' the world to a more communitarian church 'in' and 'for' the world. Morality is no longer conceived primarily as a large and fixed collection of absolute rules (mostly prohibitions), but rather as a thoroughly historical institution that is subject to modification and development in the light of emergent and pressing social needs (the 'signs of the times'). Historical consciousness brought an expansion of moral concern beyond the probity or sinfulness of individual acts (particularly regarding violations of sexual purity) and onto structural injustices such as poverty, racism, sexism, and xenophobia. This emerging conception of morality was highly social and communal.

A new kind of challenge for the teaching authority of the magisterium was occasioned by the intense debate in the late 1960s over the impermissibility of artificial contraception (Mahoney 1987:ch. 7). The debate Humanae Vitae (1968) essentially constituted a clash of the older law-centred deontological conception of morality against an emergent and more creative personalist view of morality. Many Catholics were not convinced by Pope Paul VI's attempt to repackage the old legal prohibition in a more personalist language. John Paul II took the same approach with no more success.

Since then, progressive theologians have unsuccessfully urged the magisterium to replace the older law-centred mentality with a more person-centred conception of morality (Cahill 1996; Cahill in Lacey & Oakley 2011; Mahoney 1987). Some progressive theologians thought it best to replace natural law categories with an ethic of responsibility (Curran & McCormick 1991) but others tried to develop a more dynamic, historically conscious version of natural law. The latter appeal to an account of natural human goods to challenge unhelpful church norms (Cahill 1996; Cahill in Lacey & Oakley 2011; Mahoney 1987). Analysis of particular teachings have sometimes provoked significant historical development, for example, regarding the ethical legitimacy of charging interest on loans, the permissibility of capital punishment, and the right to religious freedom (Noonan 2005).

Catholic theologians today tend to invoke a compassionate and 'relational' rather than harshly 'judgmental' image of God. This shift from a more juridical to a more personalist image of God, often grounded in social Trinitarian theology, has led to a more personalist and relational conception of morality. Moral laws have not been discarded, but they are valued primarily because they can play a constructive role in forming and supporting right relationships and the virtues needed to sustain them.

This shift in conceptions of morality is especially seen in moral theologians' heightened appreciation for the central place of love in the Christian life. Caritas, the grace-inspired love of God and love of neighbour, is the primary Christian virtue and the animating heart of Christian morality. Our moral duty to love God (in the sense of trust, obey, remain loyal to, and believe God) cannot be detached from our obligation to love our neighbour. Love of the neighbour refers primarily to 'benevolence', that is, willing the good to another. Recent Catholic ethics have come to appreciate that the love of God extends not only to the love of the neighbour but also to love of the self (Vacek 1994:239-279 and Fozard Weaver 2002) and love of non-human creatures (Pope Francis 2015).

This emphasis on caritas implies a tighter relation between salvation and morality than one finds in Protestant traditions endorsing the formula of salvation by faith alone. Morality in fact provides the key litmus test for the authenticity of one's faith (Mt 25:31-45). To love one's neighbour consistently demands a host of complementary and interdependent virtues such as mercy, justice (or righteousness), hospitality, humility, patience, kindness, forgiveness, forbearance, and the like. Distinctively Christian virtues are complemented by norms governing specific kinds of conduct, for example, the virtue of humility prohibits boasting or other acts of vainglory. A person shaped by the virtue of caritas strives to go beyond the obligations of justice, for example, by engaging in corporal and spiritual works of mercy (feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the prisoner, pardoning the sinner, etc.) (Day 1997).

No Catholic conception of morality regards love as a substitute for justice. On the contrary, caritas at the very least insists that every neighbour be treated justly. The requirement of justice also applies to institutions as well as to individuals. There is no theological justification for the assertion that Christians must love each individual neighbour they encounter but have no duty to be concerned with social justice or work to change the unjust institutions that unfairly harm their neighbours.

The Catholic moral vision is motivated by a Christian rather than secular form of humanism, but it wants to find common ground with all people of good will. Cahill strikes the right balance when she writes:

Christian concepts of grace, salvation, and virtue are already embedded in the new personal and social, which is to say moral and political, relationships of God's reign. And those relationships are never just 'Christian' or among Christians, but are always 'human,' joining people who participate in many types or layers of community at once, especially in our pluralistic and global age. (Cahill 2013:248)

Promoting a social as well as personal conception of morality, Roman Catholicism has a characteristic tendency to translate these values, norms, and aspirations into concrete organisations with specific missions to serve the needy. This institutional concern lies behind medieval associations formed to ransom captives, bury the dead, or care for victims of the plague. It gave rise to institutions such as hospitals, clinics, schools, and universities. It also gave rise to the establishment of modern institutions such as homeless shelters, soup kitchens, and refugee centres (Hollenbach 2008).

 

Relational morality in a global context

The growing Catholic conception of morality as fundamentally relational is grounded in sacramentality. The church regards the seven sacraments as special ritual practices that enable participants to celebrate and embrace God's grace more deeply in their own lives and to cooperate with that grace in their engagement with the wider world. The 'sacramental imagination' is attuned to the quiet but powerful presence of grace in the everyday realities of human existence, for example, in the family, workplace, neighbourhood, and elsewhere (Godzieba 2008; Greeley 2000; Rahner 1959, 1963). This framework encourages believers to cultivate a special sensitivity to the moral dimensions of every concrete human relationship (Rahner 1969).

Sometimes informal conceptualisations of morality at the grassroots have a long-term influence on the revision of formal conceptualisations of morality and vice versa. Catholic ethics is marked by continuity across time and place regarding the obligation to adhere to fundamental moral norms and the cross-cultural legitimacy of basic human virtues such as practical wisdom, justice, compassion, courage, and the like. Formal agreement on moral standards is compatible with some concrete material diversity about how we are best to conceive of these standards in particular local contexts, for example, what counts as justice among agriculturalists in rural Kenya may not have much overlap with what counts as justice in corporate America.

The Second Vatican Council showed a much greater awareness of the church as a global community. While most representatives at the Council were European, the emerging awareness of the global church set the conditions for the transition from the older vision of the church as an essentially white, European community with outreach to the missions to a truly global church in which the majority of the baptised are brown people living in the global South. We see a tangible acknowledgement of this shift in the election of the first pope from Latin America (or indeed anywhere from the global South).

The postconciliar turn to the 'world Church' has become increasingly expansive in the 21st century. The natural law underpinning of Catholic conception of morality, and particularly its trust in human intelligence, gives it a fundamental openness to ways in which particular cultures yield valuable insights into the human good. The church as a whole is increasingly recognising the wisdom of communities relegated to the margins of most societies, particularly when it comes to communitarian values and environmental responsibility. Cahill relates natural law ethics to ecological responsibility when she writes that:

[B]asic human equality yields an obligation to ensure that all have access to the minimum conditions of human sustenance. This implies, at the very least, that our common human environment be protected as a prerequisite of human flourishing. The process of naming ecological goods and responding to ecological dangers should be inclusive of all those affected. (Cahill 2013:281)

Despite the theological transition to a more relational conception of God, the church, and morality, Catholics around the world generally continue to assume that morality is a system of rules taught by the church. Many Catholics do not have an expansive, relational view of morality as encouraging compassion, personal integrity, a just social order, and right relationship to God, neighbour, self, and creation. This is partly a challenge to education and evangelisation, that is, inviting believers to deepen the grasp of Christian faith and morals.

A related challenge comes from secularism, the complex set of modern processes that have led to a decline in religious attendance, church affiliation, and, more broadly, religious sensibility. The 'disenchantment' that marks modern secularism and its 'immanent frame' affects Catholics and their conception of morality as much as anyone else (Taylor 1991, 2007).⁴ Forces of secularisation in Europe and North America have led to a significant drop off of church affiliation, particularly in places such as Ireland that were the sites of widespread clerical sex abuse and subsequent cover-ups by church authority. Matters are made worse in the United States, where the bishops who have fuelled the 'culture wars' have reinforced the widespread perception that the church promotes a morality obsessed with absolute prohibitions of various kinds of medical procedures (e.g., stem cell research and abortion) and a wide of array of sexual activities that have become increasingly acceptable in modern popular cultures (e.g., premarital sex, cohabitation, and marriage after divorce).

Catholics in Western liberal democracies such as the Netherlands and Ireland increasingly accept some forms of behaviour (such as same sex relations) that Catholics in more traditional, honour-sensitive cultures such as Bosnia and Nigeria find abhorrent (see Diamant 2020). Whatever one thinks of this particular moral issue, or others like it, this tendency probably represents less a shift to a new Catholic conception of morality than its abandonment and replacement with an ethic of individual autonomy.

Pope Francis' whole pontificate has been aimed at making the church less impersonal, rigid, and bureaucratic and more merciful, accepting, and hospitable. While not denying the need for the moral law, the pope has tried to change the tone of contemporary Catholic moral culture. He conceives of morality primarily in terms of compassion expressed in interpersonal relationships and loving outreach to people who exist on the periphery of the community (Pope Francis 2013). His deeply relational conception of morality strongly resists both the 'culture wars' and the increased radical individualism and consumerism of modern cultures. He repeatedly reminds us of what we can learn from indigenous cultures about care for the earth (Pope Francis 2015) and from popular movements about social injustice (Pope Francis 2020).

 

Conclusion

This article has tried to distinguish the essential from distinctive dimensions of Catholic conceptualisations of morality. We have sketched the differences between three major conceptions of morality - virtue-centred, law-centred, and relationship-centred, respectively. Most contemporary Catholic theologians agree on the value of all three concepts but differ over their relative priority. Those who worry about moral relativism place a high value on the moral law, those who worry about legalism place a high value on cultivating the virtues, and those who worry about marginalisation place a high value on relationality. All three have valid concerns and point to values worthy of protection.

Despite all the diversity within the church, we can still venture the claim that the Catholic conception of morality is centrally grounded in its vision of comprehensive human flourishing promoted by virtues and moral laws. We can distinguish in this vision both what is essential and what is distinctive.

Firstly, the essential features of any Catholic conception of morality lies in its analysis of the natural moral law and the acquired virtues - moral standards that, in principle, every reasonable person can understand. 'Essential', the operative term here, is understood as basic or elementary. Put in an evolutionary context, morality is a human institution that was slowly developed by our remote ancestors, intelligent social animals, who developed modes codes that would function to protect and promote their individual and collective well-being. A Catholic conception of morality will convey a basic confidence in the natural ability of human beings to reason together about what is right and wrong and about the kind of a community they want to be. Most fundamentally, this conception holds that reasonable people will acknowledge the normative truth of the golden rule and recognise the basic moral norms of justice that accord with it.

Secondly, the most obvious distinctive feature of the Catholic conceptualisation of morality lies primarily in its theological vision of eschatological human flourishing and the theological virtues that enable us to pursue it. We have seen that Catholicism takes its primary theological bearing from the incarnation and the conviction that Jesus Christ definitively reveals to us the full meaning of our humanity and this necessarily means the full meaning of morality. This vision is distinctive in its source (grace), end (union with God), way of life (Christ-patterned), and sustaining community (the church). It also gives rise to a set of distinctive attitudes - emblematically portrayed in the Sermon on the Mount - that cannot be justified on the basis of the natural moral law alone.

We can conclude that both aspects of the Catholic conception of morality are both essential and distinctive in their own ways. The theological virtues are most 'essential' if one has in mind attaining the final end. The natural moral law, however, is most 'essential' if by that we mean most easily connected to the 'essence' of the human person, that is to 'human nature'.

The theological virtues are most distinctive when compared with the acquired virtues in that they are rarer, more explicitly connected to the Gospel, and less intelligible to secular people of good will than are the acquired virtues. But the concept of natural law is more distinctive within Christianity in that Catholic theologians are much more prone to use this language than are other Protestant theologians (but see Doe 2017:chs. 4-8; VanDrunnen 2014). In some contexts, then, we can say that the Catholic conception of morality as including both the natural moral law and the life of grace are, in different respects, both essential and distinctive. This is especially the case when we see them in their intrinsic unity rather than dichotomise them. Doing so of course suits a perspective grounded in the claim that 'grace perfects nature'.

 

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges the participants in the seminar series, 'The Emergence and Conceptualisation of Morality' at the University of Pretoria, organised by D. Etienne de Villiers.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

S.J.P. is the sole author of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.

 

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Correspondence:
Stephen Pope
popest@bc.edu

Received: 17 Aug. 2023
Accepted: 05 Oct. 2023
Published: 23 Jan. 2024
Republished: 05 Feb. 2024

 

 

1. The church considers those who no longer attend services, and even those who consider themselves disaffiliated, 'lapsed' Catholics. While this accords with canon law, the fact that someone happens to have undergone infant baptism or childhood confirmation does not in itself say anything about whether they have taken the faith seriously enough to have developed a Catholic conception of morality (one might call to mind, among others, Vito Genovese of The Godfather).
2. Ordinary discourse often treats the terms 'morality' and 'ethics' interchangeably. Philosophers, in contrast, often conceive of morality as marked by impartial norms that govern relations between strangers as distinguished from ethics as referring to a person's pursuit of a good life (Ricouer 1992; Williams 1985).
3. A longer article would also have to examine the Augustinian strain within Catholic theology represented Bernard of Clairvaux (+1153) and the Franciscans Bonaventure (+1274) and John Duns Scotus (+1308). It would also have to take into account the development of natural law theory in the writings of the Salamanca scholastics Francisco de Vitoria (+1547) and Francisco Suarez, S.J. (+1617).
4. Philosopher Charles Taylor distinguishes three kinds of modern secularism: the elimination of religion from public life, the decline of religious belief, belonging, and practice, and 'the conditions of experience of and search for the spiritual' that make it possible to speak of ours as a 'secular age'. Taylor (2007:3).

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REVIEW ARTICLE

 

Development cooperation and Neo-Pentecostal churches - A decolonial perspective

 

 

Mangaliso M. Matshobane

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Tshwane, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Religion and development are a subject that has stimulated researchers in the recent past. Most of the religious role players in development within sub-Saharan Africa have been the historic missional churches, also known as the mainline churches - mostly founded by Euro-Western missionaries. Development with Neo-Pentecostal Churches (NPCs), who are part of Pentecostal-Charismatic churches, is fairly a new area of research. The purpose of this article is to position NPCs as potential development partners that can work in cooperation with other stakeholders in advancing development in the South African context from a decolonial perspective. A literary review on Neo-Pentecostals as development actors, is the focus of this article, positioning them as ideal development partners that contribute towards social and economic capital of communities within the context of education. The article starts by defining a working definition of development, followed by a conceptual framework of Pentecostal tenets where Christ is saviour, healer, baptiser and soon coming king, together with the holistic African worldview which does not demarcate between the sacred and the secular. The outcome is that development in NPCs is spiritual development which starts from individual development that is accompanied by entrepreneurial skills and that Neo-Pentecostals have a contribution towards sustainable development as expressed in their practice of faith and theology which naturally gravitates towards development.
CONTRIBUTION: Education, economics, and Pentecostalism highlight the importance of flexibility and versatility of Neo-Pentecostals in the discourse of sustainable development

Keywords: Neo-Pentecostals; development; Sustainable Development Goals; Pentecostal theology; entrepreneurship and African worldview.

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Introduction

The United Nations (UN) website on sustainable development gives a historical background on the agenda for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It relates how in the 1990s, world leaders met to set out developmental goals that would address the many ills of the global community among others poverty, inequality, education, health, and environmental sustainability, which were to be achieved by 2015. In 2015 an evaluation was done, and the target was set for 2030 with a focus moving from Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to SDGs. The reasons for the shift from MDGs to SDGs, among others, is that MDGs were a top-down approach with only experts involved in crafting the focus and scope of the development, whereas SDGs use a collaborative approach where 193 member states, scientists, the private sector actors, including civil society organisations (CSOs) and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), were involved (Death & Gabay 2015). Another reason for the shift was that MDGs were more aid-oriented from rich countries to poor countries, but SDGs are calling on all countries to take initiatives and develop their own internal strategies and goals for development and collaboration (Death & Gabay 2015). We are now in the last decade before 2030, and as much as there is some progress made, it is still a far cry to achieve the goals by 2030, especially in Africa which still has a high level of poverty, hunger, illiteracy, diseases, gender inequalities, clean water, and sanitation, to mention but a few. The names and numbering of the SDGs as set out in the UN website are: (1) No Poverty; (2) Zero Hunger; (3) Good Health and Well-being; (4) Quality Education; (5) Gender Equality; (6) Clean Water and Sanitation; (7) Affordable and Clean Energy; (8) Decent Work and Economic Growth; (9) Industry Innovation and Infrastructure; (10) Reduced Inequalities; (11) Sustainable Cities and Communities; (12) Responsible Consumption and Reproduction; (13) Climate Action; (14) Life Below Water; (15) Life on Land; (16) Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions; (17) Partnerships for the Goals (United Nations 2015). Based on the weight of the items listed above and the short timeline given, there is an urgent need to have cooperation with more development actors within the global societal spectrum, including the religious sector, if we are to achieve the SDGs by 2030, hence the engagement with Neo-Pentecostal Churches (NPCs) as strategic partner.

Pentecostalism is a growing tradition within the religious sector with estimations of 644 million adherents by 2020 and projections of over a billion by 2050 (Zurlo, Johnson & Crossing 2020). This growth is evident especially in the global South where Africa is a part. Therefore, given the projected numbers, Pentecostals must play a substantial role in advancing development. It is in the light of the above that development cooperation with Neo-Pentecostals, who are part of the Pentecostal and Charismatic tradition, should be advanced.

Development cooperation with religious bodies has been a conversation that has been explored by academics since the turn of the millennium with numerous publications surfacing since then. The main role players in the subject of religion and development have been the historic mission churches also known as the mainline churches - mostly founded by western missionaries. However, development advances with African Independent Churches (AICs), where NPCs are a part, is fairly a new area of research (Öhlmann, Frost & Gräb 2016). There are a few scholars who have researched on the relationship between development and AICs; these are Bompani (2008, 2010), Freeman (2012), Öhlmann et al. (2016, 2020), Golo and Novieto (2021). This article will expand on existing literature with a specific focus on NPCs as potential development cooperation partners within the context of education as the 4th goal in the SDGs, presented as both a social and an economic capital for sustainable development in NPCs. A conceptual framework of Pentecostal tenets where Christ is presented as saviour, healer, baptiser and soon coming king, together with the holistic African worldview which does not demarcate between the sacred and the secular, is the framework that undergirds this article and one that is espoused by Neo-Pentecostals in their view of development.

The main aim of this article is to position NPCs as potential development partners that can work in cooperation with other stakeholders in advancing development within the South African context. This aim will be achieved through discussing the contribution of NPCs in development and their unique entrepreneurial approach which will contradict the narrative that they are 'other-worldly' and therefore not fit to be development partners (Golo & Novieto 2021:83).

The approach of this article will be based on a triangulation of an observer participant and a literature review. The former is based on the experience of the author as a founder in an NPC for over 25 years and is, therefore, conversant with this church tradition and its contribution and deficiencies in development. The literary analysis will help in bringing objectivity to a possible subjective approach by the author. A definition of the concept of development will be discussed first, to set the scope of how development is used in this study.

 

Development

Development has always been a challenging concept to define into one concrete idea. It has been conventionally understood as an indicator to the economic growth of nations where the gross domestic product (GDP) is used as a measuring stick to determine the developmental needs of a nation (Gasper 2004:25, 36). This modernist notion changed in the 1990s to human development after noticing a failure for nations to develop, based on economic growth alone. This failure was because of the poverty levels not having improved despite the various attempts to boost the economy in several nations (Gasper 2004). The latter was also caused by some of Africa's corrupt governments who mismanaged the finances that were meant for the poor but never got to them, and did not even have proper management and monitoring systems and policies to ensure proper accountability of resources. The focus started shifting towards human development because of its social transformation aspect of producing healthy societies that are morally stable and spiritually sound (Golo 2019). Development can, therefore, be defined as an improved quality of life that individuals experience in satisfying their basic needs in a sustainable and empowering way (Simon & Närman 1999:21). This is achieved through proper coordinated socio-economic systems which enhance production of goods and services, quality education, improved institutions regulated by policies which facilitate growth and progress (Simon & Närman 1999:21). This study aligns with Simon and Närman's definition of development and will discuss NPCs' contribution to development through their engagement in quality education later in the article. But firstly, it is important at this stage to discuss how NPCs define development since they are the focus of the study. This will be done by discussing the theological tenets together with their African worldview which impacts on their perspective on development which formulates the conceptual framework of this study.

 

Development in Neo-Pentecostal theology

Development in NPCs is imbedded in their theology, as discussed by Dayton (1987) in his seminal work Theological Roots of Pentecostalism, where he presents four tenets of Pentecostal theology centred on Christ the saviour, healer, baptiser in the Spirit, and soon coming king.

On the first tenet, NPCs define salvation in developmental terms, as progress or transformation in terms of prosperity through health, employment, marriage, business, and wealth creation in the life of an individual or a nation (cf. Asamoah-Gyadu 2005; Golo & Navieto 2021:76). This holistic perspective of salvation among African Neo-Pentecostals is influenced by their primal religious roots where salvation is understood as an 'empowerment of the individual self, the promotion of fertility, and success in life's ventures' (Maimela 1985:72). The African worldview that influences African Neo-Pentecostals, does not demarcate between the secular and spiritual realities; hence, they view development as an integral part of one's salvation (Mbaya & Cezula 2016:7). Salvation is seen as covering the total well-being of an individual where one is saved not just from sin but also from poverty, disease, and all other misfortunes of life (Asamoah-Gyadu 2005). This holistic approach to salvation, which is experienced in the family, spiritually, materially, emotionally, socially, politically, economically, and cosmically, positions NPCs as strategic development partners (Althouse 2003; Petersen 1996; Swoboda 2019; cf. Volf 1989; Yong 2005). The spiritual experience of salvation refers to the conventional repentance from a lifestyle of sin to one of righteousness. Material salvation refers to the transformation from a state of poverty, oppression, and marginalisation (Volf 1989). Social salvation refers to the transformation of the political and socio-economic conditions of society (Petersen 1996). Cosmic salvation refers to the ecological transformation of the environment from an ecologically hostile environment to one that is eco-friendly (Swoboda 2019). Family salvation refers to the transformation of the entire family, committing their lives to be followers of Christ (Yong 2005). Neo-Pentecostal Churches advocate and administer this holistic salvation to individuals in their churches who, in turn, impact their families, communities, and neighbourhoods, which further enhances the process of development.

The second tenet in Pentecostal theology is healing. Healing is also approached holistically where 'the transformation of the personality would be manifest in personal health, wellbeing, and care…' (Asamoah -Gyadu 2005:408). Healing is a big subject among AICs where NPCs are a part, and it does not only address physical healing but also economic healing, social healing, as well as spiritual healing (cf. Bowers-Du Toit 2020:316; Öhlmann et al. 2016:5). Neo-Pentecostal Churches' healing ministry is mostly centred around deliverance from malevolent spirits which do not just harm the body through sickness and disease, but are also perceived to harm the economic development of individuals; as a result, spiritual warfare, through prayer, is waged against demons of poverty and underdevelopment (cf. Anderson 2004; Gukurume 2020:269, 276; Myers 2015, 116). The latter is an attractive view to Africans, and it is the cause for the stupendous growth of African Neo-Pentecostals who see development within the context of their spiritual experience, which is how most primal religions view the world (Atiemo 2017; Myers 2015; Nel 2019:6). As an observer participant, the author can relate to the views raised by the literature and has witnessed how NPC congregants respond with heightened enthusiasm in prayer meetings where the focus is on praying against spirits that hinder personal development, more than a general prayer focus.

The third tenet of Pentecostal theology is the role of the Spirit in NPCs, where the Spirit is not only limited to the experience of glossolalia (Ac 2:1-4), but the role of the Spirit can be multidimensional, impacting the material, social, political, cosmic, and family aspects in the life of individuals in African NPCs, because in the African perspective there is no difference between the material and the spiritual, all are interconnected (Mbaya & Cezula 2016:7; Öhlmann et al. 2016). African NPCs have a particular sensitivity to the spirit world where everything is seen through a spirit prism such that their critics refer to them as those who 'see a spirit behind every bush' (Anderson 1991). Poverty and lack of development is perceived as driven by a malevolent spirit as alluded already above; therefore, everything material has a spiritual cause. Development can be seen as driven by a benevolent spirit whereas underdevelopment can be caused by a malevolent spirit, hence their engagement in prayer vigils in what they call a 'spiritual warfare' against spirits of poverty and lack of development, a 'notion that captures hearts and minds much more energetically than the rhetoric of the war against poverty' (Freeman 2012:2). 'Spirit of poverty' is a common phrase that is used by NPCs in most of their preaching and teaching; and the word 'spirit' can also be attached to anything good or bad including the spirit of ignorance - when referring to a lack of education, spirit of laziness, jealousy, the spirit of joy, peace, success, among others. This demonstrates the pneumatic paradigm of NPCs which is imbedded in their thinking and vocabulary.

The fourth tenet deals with the Parousia which, from a traditional premillennial outlook, is anti-development. Neo-Pentecostal Churches, however, unlike classical Pentecostals, are more inclined towards a victorious eschatology which purports an optimistic end of the world, where the influence of the church and its gospel message impacts the world in a positive way rather than the pessimistic premillennial end of the world (Frost 2021:108). Althouse (2006) shed more light on this optimistic eschatological perspective by highlighting the transformational eschatology of Moltmann, where he argues that the concepts of the new earth and heaven do not mean the annihilation of the earth, as we know it, but its transformation. This is the same transformation that happened in the biblical narrative of the flood of Noah, where the earth was not annihilated but was transformed, just as the case was also with the resurrection of Jesus, where his body was not annihilated at death but was transformed. Neo-Pentecostal Churches' eschatological view, in praxis, reveals an inclination towards this transformative eschatology rather than a pessimistic premillennial view. This positions NPCs as better developmental partners. African NPCs can relate better to a transformational eschatology because of their African perspective on death, where the dead are not annihilated but they continue in another life, as ancestors who are believed to still affect the affairs of this present life which is ably captured by Mbiti in his expression of the 'living dead' (Mbiti 2015:125). Although in praxis, NPCs in South Africa would never embrace the concept of the dead affecting the living, they are more likely to understand the concept of transformational eschatology by reason of being African and, therefore, knowledgeable about the African perception of death, as transition than annihilation. The holistic nature of the four tenets of Pentecostal theology, from an African perspective, conceptualises their view and involvement in education.

 

Neo-Pentecostal Churches' engagement in education

The empirical research done by Öhlmann et al. reveals that AICs of which NPCs are part, are mostly involved with SDGs 1-4 and 16, where Education as SDG #4 is most prominent (Öhlmann et al. 2019:25). The findings of the data reveal that out of 60 interviews, there were 42 churches that were running schools, emphasising the involvement of NPCs in education. Literature also supports this finding, indicating that NPCs are running learning centres from early childhood to primary and secondary schools all the way to private tertiary institutions (Adeboye 2020; Gukurume 2020). The involvement of NPCs in education is a form of a social capital, because it does not only equip society with knowledge, but it also serves as a way of keeping young people and children out of harm's way and idle minds. The latter are a deterrent to the personal development of young people and society because they lead to mischief, criminal behaviour, and drug abuse.

Neo-Pentecostal Churches' involvement in education does not just act as a social capital for many communities but also as an economic capital, by creating employment for the staff in learning centres, from pre-schools to universities. This is especially helpful in South Africa because of the high unemployment rate which currently stands at 32.6% (Stats SA 2023). This job creation, although giving an economic boost to many struggling families, further serves the social capital by restoring dignity to poor families where their employed family members can start providing necessities for themselves and their families.

Furthermore, NPCs use this vehicle of learning centres as a tool to generate income so that they remain financially viable as churches. This proved to be helpful, especially during and after the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic which affected church attendance, as a result, the finances of most NPCs were negatively affected (Mhandu & Ojong 2021). The concept of learning centres as income generating institutions is motivated by the ideals of improving the quality of life in sustaining basic needs of individuals to lead a prosperous life, which is what development is all about, based on the definition of development given by Simon and Närman (1999) as stated above. When the motivation for prosperity is channelled into personal transformation, it can become a great tool for development rather than exploitation (Frost 2021). The transformation of the mind seems to be a priority among Neo-Pentecostals, hence their engagement in education, no matter the size of the church (Öhlmann et al. 2019:25). In NPCs, educating the society starts with an individual, hence their emphasis on personal transformation in their teachings to their members which results into societal transformation that has direct impact on development. Individuals are not only taught academic lessons but spiritual lessons too, by teaching them about positive confessions, self-motivation, self-reliance, self-worth, which gives them a positive outlook on life and a tenacity to pursue success despite the odds of life (Golo & Novieto 2021: 88). This commitment to teaching academic and spiritual lessons is seen as spiritual development by NPCs because to them spiritual development is development.

 

Spiritual development as development

The empirical research findings by Öhlmann et al. (2016) on AICs of which Neo-Pentecostals are a part, reveal that spiritual development, is part of development, further emphasising the African view which does not separate between the sacred and the secular. This is arguably a decolonial view of development because it engages the spiritual element as a key component of development, something which is very foreign to conventional Euro-Western perspectives about development.

Spiritual development focusses on the individual and their personal transformation, starting with their conversion from a lifestyle of being a heathen into an experience of being a devoted Christian, also known as being 'born again' (Adedibu 2020: 143). This 'born again' experience of an individual transforms the moral behaviour from a lascivious lifestyle of wild parties and orgies to that of chastity, sanctity, and deference to others and to self (Myers 2015). The 'born again' individual is encouraged to be industrious, self-disciplined, and to invest finances into profitable business ventures and in education while being generous to others and to the church, which will result into that individual's prosperity (Gukurume 2020:270, 271). There are, however, distortions of the prosperity message where members part with lots of money to enrich the individual prophets who are founders or leaders of some NPC congregations, who exploit individuals in the name of sowing material 'seeds' to reap a great harvest of prosperity (Haynes 2012). Prosperity in this article is not used in the context of the prosperity gospel, but it is used within the context of the definition of development by Simon and Närman (1991), as already stated above, to improve the quality of life by meeting the basic needs of individuals so that they flourish in all areas of their lives (Asamoah-Gyadu 2020:33). The individual's spiritual development is seen as a major strategy for societal development because of the sphere of influence that individual is connected to, which includes his family, friends, colleagues, and the community they live in. The major role players and catalyst of development in NPCs are their entrepreneurial pastors who can mobilise their followers into development actors through various entrepreneurial ventures.

 

Entrepreneurial nature of Neo-Pentecostal Church

Most successful Neo-Pentecostals are blessed with leaders who are entrepreneurial in their leadership style to a point where they can be compared with CEOs of corporate business (Frahm-Arp 2010:110). This entrepreneurial skill is also passed on to the youth and the rest of the congregation through seminars on how to generate and manage finances (Kgatle 2020:6). Within Pentecostalism, there are various expressions that show a high inclination on entrepreneurial ventures, others for personal enrichment especially those who are referred to as the New Prophetic Churches, like Prophet Shepherd Bushiri of Enlightened Christian Gathering, in Pretoria; and Alf Lukau of Alleluia Ministries, in Sandton, among others (Kgatle 2020). There are also those who are entrepreneurial with integrous intentions, to better the lives of their members and communities like: Bishop Mosa Sono of Grace Bible church in, Soweto, South Africa; Rev. Chris Mathebula of Hope Restoration Ministries in Thembisa, South Africa; and Pastor Titus Sithole of Charity and Faith Mission, in Mamelodi, South Africa (Matshobane 2023).

Among these integrous entrepreneurial NPC pastors, the congregation led by Pastor Titus Sithole is worth noting because of how it embodies development among NPCs. Pastor Sithole and his wife Sibongile Sithole founded their congregation in 1984 in a township of Mamelodi that has a population of over 350 000 people. Their mission as found in their website is to convert sinners to be followers of Christ, then disciple them to discover their personal mission, which they do through various developmental programmes (Charity and Faith Mission 2023). They are involved in education not just for their members but for the community of Mamelodi, by running a pre-school from the ages 3 years to 5 years and a school that offers Grade 1 to Grade 12 schooling. They are also involved in the health sector where they are running a community centre called Bophelong community centre - translated from the Sesotho language to mean a place that gives and sustains life. In this centre, they run free medical clinics which include dental and eye care, general health care, and counselling for HIV and AIDS. They also take care of the vulnerable members of their community, including children's home for orphaned children, a hospice for terminally ill individuals, an old age home centre for the aged, and a disability house built for those who have physical and mental disabilities.

According to their 20 years celebration newsletter, they are not just servicing their own community, but they help other churches that are not linked to them to do the same within their own contexts. Their understanding of ministry is epitomised in their name, which has two elements interlinked as one mission - Charity and Faith. The name Charity represents development, while Faith is seen as an expression of salvation, which demonstrates how they are holistic in their theology and as strategic development actors. The latter indicates the potential NPCs have in developing society when they can all adopt elements of what Charity and Faith Mission is doing.

 

Conclusion

The purpose of this article was to position NPCs as potential development partners that can work in cooperation with other stakeholders in advancing development in the South African context from a decolonial perspective. This purpose has been achieved by doing a literary analysis of the involvement of NPCs as development actors which affirmed NPCs as important partners in the development discourse. The working definition of development that this article adopted is a quest for an improved quality life which enables individuals to meet their basic needs in a sustainable and empowering way. This definition has been affirmed by the praxis of NPCs in their holistic interpretation of theological tenets. This article added to the literature the social and economic capital that NPCs bring into development within the education sector, using the conceptual framework of Pentecostal theology from an African worldview which embraces spirituality as development. Spiritual development in NPCs focusses on the development of an individual who influences their community through various creative entrepreneurial ways. This entrepreneurial approach is systematically taught and modelled by NPC pastors who are themselves entrepreneurial and are committed to teaching their congregants how to be industrious. The example of Charity and Faith Mission was used as a case study that models the potential that NPCs carry in advancing development and places them as pivotal partners to the advancement of development in African society.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

M.M.M. declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Mangaliso Matshobane
matshobane@gmail.com

Received: 05 Jan. 2023
Accepted: 08 Nov. 2023
Published: 16 Feb. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Christene wat Joodse gebruike opneem: Die Hebrew Roots-leerstellings, beoordeel vanuit Handelinge 10:9-29, Handelinge 15:1-35 en Galasiërs 2 en pentekostalistiese hermeneutiek

 

Christians taking up Jewish Customs: The Hebrew Roots doctrines evaluated from Acts 10:9-29, Acts 15:1-35, Galatians 2, and Pentecostalist hermeneutics

 

 

Leonie Meyfarth; Marius Nel

Unit for Reformational Theology and the Development of the South African Society, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Numerous Pentecostal and Christian adherents are encountering Hebrew Roots teachings, with a significant global presence, notably in the USA, Israel, Europe, South America, and South Africa. In 2012, the South had a substantial number of adherents. A prominent ministry, 119 ministries, offers an interactive map listing Hebrew Roots ministries worldwide. In South Africa, over 120 such ministries are listed, primarily in Gauteng and the Western Cape. Hebrew Roots proponents claim authenticity by reverting to Jewish and Mosaic roots, advocating adherence to Old Testament precepts, including rituals and customs. This article critically assesses these claims, focusing on key texts such as Acts 10:9-29, Acts 15:1-35, and Galatians 2, in the context of the Mosaic-Hebrew roots movement. This movement argues that non-Jewish Christians should observe the Mosaic laws integral to God's covenant with Israel. Employing a comparative literature analysis and grammatical-historical exegesis, the study contrasts Pentecostal beliefs with those of the Hebrew Roots movement concerning non-Jewish Christians' ethical responsibilities regarding the Mosaic laws. The article first outlines the historical evolution of the Hebrew Roots movement, emphasizing its theological foundations. Subsequent sections systematically analyse the scriptural passages, examining their influence on these movements' doctrines through a Pentecostal hermeneutical lens. One central concern highlighted is the potential for Hebrew Roots teachings to challenge the exclusive role of Christ in salvation by emphasizing adherence to the Old Testament's legal framework, raising questions about Christ's divinity.
INTRADISCIPLINARY/INTRADISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This research seeks to prompt a critical examination within the field of Dogmatics, specifically with regard to the precise delineation of a Christian's obligations concerning the Mosaic Law, particularly in the context of the Decalogue.

Keywords: Hebrew Roots Movement; Torah observant Christians; Messianic Christians; Jewish roots; Hellenistic influences; Mosaic law.

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Ontstaan en verspreiding van Hebrew Roots-beweging

Dit is moeilik om die geskiedenis en oorsprong van die Hebrew Roots-beweging te beskryf, omdat dit nie sentraal georganiseerd is of selfs sentraal ontstaan het nie. Eers teen die middel van die 1980's ontwikkel die Hebrew Roots Movement (nie-Joodse Christene wat Joodse godsdienstige gebruike aanneem) tot 'n duidelik onderskeie eiesoortige beweging met 'n eie identiteit, wat afsonderlik bestaan van Messiaanse Judaïsme ('n beweging wat bestaan uit Jode wat Jesus as Messias aanneem) (Dunning, 2014).

Die Messiaanse Joodse beweging het in die 1960's groei begin toon. Die Joodse jeug was deel van die beweging wat Jesus as held aangeneem en die Israeli-Arabiese Sesdaagse oorlog as geleentheid aangegryp het om die kenmerke van die Messiaanse Joodse beweging te verander. Die jong beweging het probeer om 'n opwindende vorm van Christenskap te skep wat tradisies wat vreemd was vir Jode uit die weg te ruim.

Evangeliese Christene se houding het ook in die tyd verander om meer verdraagsaam met gebruike en tradisies van nie-Westerse Christene te word. Na die Sesdaagse oorlog het Evangeliese Christene die Jode en hulle rol in die geskiedenis en eskatologie ook in 'n ander lig begin beskou en nie Jode wat Jesus as Messias aangeneem het verder onder druk geplaas het om die nalatenskap van hul Joodse godsdiens af te skaf of daarvan af te sien nie.

Messiaanse Joodse beweging het ook Joodse identiteit, kulturele gebruike en simbole bevorder wat by baie nie-Joodse Christene aanklank gevind het. Navorsing toon dat nie-Joodse Christene 'n baie groot persentasie van die lidmaatskap uit maak; in sommige gevalle is hulle ook die meerderheid (Ariel, 2012:323). Die meerderheid wat gemeentes in dié groepering besoek is nie-Jode op soek na 'n "egte" geloofservaring waarin Joodse godsdienstige gebruike 'n prominente rol speel (Kaell, 2015:43).

Die Hebrew Roots-begewing het geen oorkoepelende geloofsleer of leerstellinge nie en bestaan die beweging uit verskillende benaminge en definisies van wat die beweging behels en watter gebruike aangehang moet word.

Die naam Hebrew Roots is in 1994 deur Dean en Susan Wheelock as 'n handelsmerk geregistreer. Hulle het ook 'n tydskrif getiteld Hebrew Roots Magazine geloods en beskikbaar gemaak waardeur inligting aangaande die beweging versprei is. Simpatieke leraars kon programme op kanale soos God's Learning Channel aanbied naas verskeie radioprogramme. Die internet is sonder twyfel die medium wat in die laaste twee dekades die meeste benut is om inligting en materiaal te versprei (Dunning, 2014:1). Menachem Kaiser noem in Tabletmag (2014) dat daar na raming tussen 200 000 en 300 000 Hebrew Roots-volgelinge wêreldwyd was, waarvan die meerderheid tussen die jaar 2000 en 2014 aangesluit het.

Die Hebrew Roots-beweging bestaan uit nie-Joodse Christene wat na die historiese, sosiale en kulturele konteks waarin die Bybel geskryf was, vra. Hulle ontwikkel 'n alternatiewe vorm van Christenskap gebaseer op hul vermeende "beter insig" in die Joodse gebruike waaruit Christenskap sou ontwikkel het en wat die essensie van die Christelike geloof sou verteenwoordig, met die doel om daarna terug te keer (Hauer, 2011).

 

Wet van Moses: vroeë Christenbeweging standpunt

Die vroeë Christen kerk was divers met faksies rakende die vraag of Ou-Testamentiese wetgewing steeds r vir Christene relevant is. Die konflik was gesetel in die vraag of gelowiges die Wet van Moses moes onderhou (Horrel, 2000:4).

Die teologiese konflik was in die etniese identiteit van twee breë groepering, wetsonderhoudende Joodse en nie-wetsonderhoudende (meestal) nie-Joodse Christengelowiges gewortel.

Die woord heiden (goy[im]) kom gereeld in die Ou Testament voor en word gewoonlik as heiden of nasie vertaal (Timberlake, 2016:16). Die eerste gebruik kom in Genesis 10:5 voor wat na die nageslag van Noag se seuns verwys ('Uit hulle het die mense [goyim] wat nou die kusstreke bewoon, daarnatoe versprei, volgens hulle stamme en nasies [goyim], elkeen met sy eie taal'). In Genesis 12:2 belowe die Here aan Abraham dat sy nageslag 'n groot nasie sal word en in Genesis 17:4 word die woord, wat gebruik word om die omvang van Abraham se nageslag te beskryf, ook hieruit afgelei. Al was Abraham 'n heiden [goy], is dit sy geloof wat die basis van geregtigheid vir die Joodse godsdiens vorm (Timberlake, 2016:16). Die woord "heiden" word dus gebruik om na nasies buite die volk van Israel te verwys.

Die Christelike kerk het etniese lyne oorskry sodat dit nie met 'n bepaalde etniese identiteit ooreenstem (soos in Judaïsme) om die geloof te kan uitleef of bely nie (Bennema, 2013:755). Filippus se evangelieverkondiging aan die Samaritane en die ontmande Ethiopiër (Hand. 8) het die eerste sade van die inklusiwiteit in die ontluikende karakter van die kerk gesaai. Volgende was Petrus se ervaring met die nie-Joodse godvresende Cornelius (Hand. 10). Met verloop van tyd het die kerk van Antiochië 'n groot aantal nie-Joodse gelowiges gehad wat daar aanbid het, hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die Grieks-magtige Jode se evangelisasie werk (Hand. 8:1; 4; 11:19-26). Paulus se werk onder die nie-Joodse gemeenskappe in die Romeinse Ryk het die etniese grense van die ontluikende Christenskap heeltemal verplaas (Bennema, 2013:755).

In sy briewe aan die Nuwe Testamentiese kerke het Paulus die toestand van diegene wat nie in Christus glo en derhalwe nie deel aan Christus het nie dikwels bespreek. Volgens Romeine 3:9-20 is daar vir sodaniges geen geregtigheid, genade en verlossing nie. Al hoe enigiemand gered kan word, is deur Jesus as Saligmaker en Redder aan te neem (Rom. 10:13). Alvorens iemand tot bekering kan kom, moet hulle glo en iemand kan net glo as hulle die verlossingsboodskap gehoor en aanvaar het (Rom. 10:14-15). Dit is die boodskap oor Jesus se verlossingsdood wat verlossing openbaar, en geloof in die boodskap lei tot verlossing - aan die Jood eerste maar aan nie-Jode of heidene ook (Rom. 1:16-17). In Romeine 3:25 maak Paulus dit duidelik dat verlossing slegs deur geloof in Jesus se verlossingswerk bestaan. In vers 28-30 redeneer hy dat vir beide vroeë gelowige Jode en nie-Jode slegs een manier is om verlossing te ontvang: deur geloof (Erickson, 2013:938).

Tradisioneel het die Jode slegs nie-Jode aanvaar wanneer hulle die Joodse etniese identiteit aanneem (deur besny te word en die wet te onderhou). Paulus het aangevoer dat Jesus se verlossingswerk hierdie voorwaarde afskaf (1 Kor 7:20) en dat 'n nie-Jood juis hul nie-Joodse identiteit moet behou eerder as om 'n Joodse proseliet te word. Dit het aanleiding tot verskeie teologiese vrae in die kerk rakende die etniese identiteit van Joodse en nie-Joodse Christengelowiges gegee.

Die vraag wat beantwoord moes word, is hoe die verhouding en gedragsbepalings van die groep wat uit beide Joodse en nie-Joodse gelowiges bestaan, behoort te lyk? Behoort daar enigsins 'n onderskeid te wees? Volgens die Hebrew Roots- beweging het alle gelowiges (beide Jode en nie-Jode) 'n verpligting om die wet van Moses in volle omvang te onderhou (Hauer, 2011; Liebenberg, 2007a:7). Verskeie Nuwe Testamentiese teksgedeeltes, onder andere Handelinge 10 en 15 en Galasiërs 2, weerspieël die konflik.

Kaell (2015:43) beweer meer as sewentig persent van mense wat Messiaanse Joodse dienste in die VSA bywoon uit die geledere van weergebore Christene is. Die meerderheid van die besoekers kom oorspronklik uit pentekostalistiese of evangeliese kerke wat glo dat verlossing slegs deur geloof in Christus moontlik is, dat die Bybel die hoogste gesag dra en die noodsaaklikheid van wedergeboorte voorhou. In die lig van die groot getal pentekostalistiese gelowiges wat aanklank by Hebrew Roots-lerings vind, is dit belangrik om die bediening se lering rakende sekere primêre leerstellings aan die hand van sleuteltekste te ontleed.

 

Wet van Moses: die Hebrew Roots-beweging se gebruik

Die Bybelse term "wet" hou 'n wye reeks van betekenisse in. Alhoewel Hebrew Roots-bewegings se lerings aangaande verskeie aspekte van wetsonderhouding divers is, kan 'n bespreking en definiëring van die term 'n bondige oorsig daaroor bied.

Oorsig van Hebrew Roots-lering aangaande die 'wet'

Die oorsig aan die hand van die Hebraic Roots Teaching Institute (HRTI) se dokument Daar is net "Een" verbond, en Christene het dit grootliks gemis (Liebenberg, 2007a) toon dat die term 'wet' drievoudig gedefinieer kan word as die:

• Torah wat uit die eerste vyf boeke van die Bybel bestaan en 613 instruksies vir die korrigering, beskerming en leiding van die gelowige bevat. Die werke van die wet kan niemand se saligheid bewerkstellig nie maar word vrywillig gedoen omdat die gelowige vir YHWH (God die Vader) en Y'shua (Jesus) lief is (Liebenberg, 2007a:7).

• Tien Gebooie wat in die Hebreeuse Bybel twee maal herhaal word en as Asereth ha-D'bharim of Asereth ha-Dibroth ("tien woorde") bekend is. Dit dat daar nooit daar na die tien gebooie as Torah verwys word nie. Die Tien Gebooie dien slegs as 'n deel en opsomming van die Torah (Liebenberg, 2007a:7)

• Twee gebooie, soos weergegee in Lukas 10:27, 'Jy moet die Here jou God liefhê met jou hele hart en met jou hele siel en met al jou krag en met jou hele verstand, en jou naaste soos jouself' nie die 613 gebooie van die Torah vervang nie. Die twee gebooie is wel die pilare van die Torah; sou iemand die twee pilare onderhou, moet so iemand ook die 'Noagiede' wette onderhou. Die 'Noagiede' wette word as die manier hoe nie-Jode kan voldoen aan die minimale vereistes van 'beskawing' en die Goddelike wet (Torah) beskou. Die Tien Gebooie (volgens Liebenberg, die opsomming van die 613 opdragte) geld vir almal wat 'aan die burgerskap van Israel' wil deelneem (Liebenberg, 2007a:9) terwyl die 613 opdragte aan die verbond en deelname daaraan verbind word. Gehoorsaamheid aan die Torah lei tot gesondheid en volkomenheid in die verbondsgemeenskap met God (Liebenberg 2007a):

Om die instruksies van die Torah te volg, is die resultaat van verlossing en lei tot oorvloedige seëninge seëninge. (p. 10)

Volgens HRTI-materiaal mag niemand die inhoud van die Torah se 613 wette verander nie. Sou iemand daaraan verander, moet daardie persoon volgens Deuteronomium 13:1-5 gestenig word. Verder is daar volgens Liebenberg (2007a:17) geen aanduiding dat die nuwe verbond (soos in Jer 31:33: "Dit is die verbond wat Ek in die toekoms met Israel sal sluit, sê die Here: Ek sal my woord op hulle harte skryf en dit in hulle gedagte vaslê. Ek sal hulle God wees en hulle sal my volk wees") 'n einde aan die Torah sou bring nie. Volgens die bediening, impliseer die interpretasie van Jeremia 31:33 dat die Nuwe Verbond die wet insluit.

Vanuit die HRTI-materiaal kan daar geïllustreer word dat die Hebrew Roots-bediening geen onderskeid tussen seremoniële, rituele en morele wette tref nie maar dat dat alle gelowiges verplig is om die volledige wet te onderhou. Liebenbeg (2007a:21) meen leiers en leraars mislei gelowiges as hulle leer dat die 613 opdragte van die Mosaïese wet (Torah) nie op dissipels van Christus van toepassing is nie. Hulle is deur Satan mislei om oorgeërfde leuens en menslike tradisies, eerder as God se geopenbaarde Torah, te volg.

Die Hebrew Roots-beweging het nie 'n gestandaardiseerde belydenis van geloof nie, maar stem saam dat 'Wet' na die Pentateug se 613 voorskrifte verwys. Terselfdertyd kom in Hebrew Roots-literatuur verskeie variante van die wetsonderhoudinglering voor wat dit moeilik maak om die ideologiese en teologiese raamwerk vir die breë Hebrew Roots-beweging te peil.

Daar is 'n spektrum van wat verwag word van nie-Joodse gelowiges in terme van wetsonderhouding, en 'n paar voorbeelde daarvan is:

• Die Torah handel oor Jesus. As daar dus geloof in Moses se woorde is, sal daar geloof in Jesus se woord ook wees. Sou die woorde van Moses verwerp word, word Jesus se woorde in 'n sin ook verwerp (Wilber, s.a.).

• Die webblad van Jews for Jesus (Hamman, 2020) maak die stelling dat nie-Joodse gelowiges nie die Joodse godsdienstige wette hoef te onderhou nie, maar dat dit vir Christene voordelig is om meer te leer van en ruimte te maak in hul lewens vir die Joodse Sabbat en feeste. Om dit nie te doen nie word vergelyk met iemand wat na 'n vreemde land immigreer en nooit die tyd neem om die taal te leer en die kultuur te verstaan nie.

• HRTI se standpunt is dat daar slegs een "Wet" is, en dit is die Torah. As iemand 'n deelnemer van die Nuwe Verbond wil wees, moet die Torah op so iemand se hart geskryf staan en die Gees van God sal hulle leer hoe om dit te onderhou (Liebenberg, 2007a:31).

Dit wil voorkom asof die ideologies-teologiese perspektiewe van meeste van die Hebrew Roots-beweging die voorskrifte en opdragte van die Torah letterlik en bindend op alle gelowiges beskou. Hul hermeneutiese proses benader relevante teksgedeeltes vanuit die vooraf-ingenome standpunt dat dit letterlik vir alle mense van alle tye geld en dat die letterlike betekenis op die lewens van hedendaagse gelowiges toegepas moet word. Voorbeelde van stellings waarvan die ideologiese perspektief van die beweging afgelei kan word, is:

• Die letterlike betekenis van Yahweh se Woord moet onderskei word, en moenie vergeestelik word nie (Prock, 2020:69).

• Om regtig die ware betekenis van die Torah te verstaan, moet die inhoud daarvan letterlik toegepas en uitgeleef word (Ratzlaff, 2023).

• Die poging om terug te keer na die Joodse oorsprong van die Christelike geloof is 'n poging om te onderskei tussen die Skriftuurlike waarheid soos in die Torah vervat, en die menslike tradisies en interpretasies daarvan (Garr, 2006:10).

Daar bestaan ook nie wye konsensus by die verskeie Hebrew Roots-bedieninge te wees nie maar eerder 'n wye spektrum van wat die letterlike betekenis van God se woord is en hoe dit toegepas behoort te word in die lewens van gelowiges. Vervolgens word na die gebruik van etlike tekste in die Hebrew Roots-beweging gekyk met die doel om dit Pentekostalisties-hermeneuties te evalueer.

 

Petrus se visioen: Handelinge 10:13-16

Die Hebrew Roots-bedieninge leer dat nie-Jode die wet moet onderhou. Die stelling word begrond op die feit dat wanneer heidene by die geledere van Israel wou aansluit, moes sulkes ook die wette onderhou. Die bedieninge gebruik onder andere Petrus se visioen in Handelinge 10:13-16 om die lering te staaf.

Volgens sommige van die Hebrew Roots-bedieninge toon Petrus se visioen in Handelinge 10 nie aan dat die voedselwette afgeskaf is nie omdat dit nie alle kossoorte rein verklaar nie (119ministries, 2014). Die lering stel dat die visioen aantoon dat nie-Joodse Christene nie langer as "heidense" Christene geklassifiseer moet word nie maar as gelykstaande aan Israel beskou word. Dit impliseer dat dieselfde verpligting om die voedselwette te onderhou vir beide Joodse en nie-Joodse gelowiges, geld (Wahl, 2003a:2; Liebenberg, 2007b:28; Woods, 2012:172, Coetzee, s.a.:116).

Lukas verwys na die uitdaging van die integrasie van nie-Joodse en Joodse dissipels van Jesus in Handelinge. Hierdie saak, sowel as die wyse waarop die konflik hanteer is, is temas wat deurlopend in Handelinge na vore tree (Hand. 10; 15; 16:3; 18:18; 21:17-26; Keener, 2012:437-438).

Handelinge 10 is belangrik omdat dit na die verlossingsgeskiedenis van nie-Jode verwys. Aangesien Koning Agrippa 1 reeds sy troepe in 41-44 n.C. in Palestina gehad het, moes Cornelius voor 41 n.C. deel van sy regiment in die area uitgemaak het. Hieruit kan afgelei word dat die gebeure omtrent tien jaar na die uitstorting van die Heilige Gees (Hand. 2) afspeel (Keener, 1993). Die Goeie Nuus is eers aan Jode, daarna aan Samaritane en uiteindelik aan ander nie-Jode verkondig (Wiersbe, 1989:444). Schnabel (2012) verwys na Handelinge 10 as die spesifieke deel wat ter sprake is, i.e. Petrus se visioen van die onrein en rein kosse en die stem wat vir hom sê dat wat God rein verklaar, hy nie as onrein mag ag nie (vv 9-16). Die apostel sien 'n visioen van 'n doek met onrein diere wat neerdaal (vv 11-12). 'n Stem beveel hom om die diere te slag en te eet (v 13), maar hy weier omdat hy nog nooit voorheen onrein kos geëet het nie (v 14). Die opdrag word herhaal (v 15) en wéér weier hy. Die opdrag word 'n derde keer herhaal voor die visioen eindig (v 16). (Schnabel, 2012).

Petrus se visioen in Handelinge 10:9-16 is een van die sentrale gebeurtenisse wat die vroeë kerk gehelp het om die nuwe bedeling te verstaan. Dit behels dat God hom beveel om kos wat onder die wet van Moses as onrein beskou word, te eet. Hy weier aanvanklik maar die stem verduidelik dat wat God as rein verklaar het, geen mens onrein mag noem nie. Die tekstuele konteks is die versoek van die Romeinse amptenaar dat Petrus hom besoek nadat 'n engel van God kom die opdrag gee om Petrus te laat haal en na sy boodskap te luister.

Volgens Du Toit (2016a:89) het die visioen betrekking op die Joodse voedselwette wat vir Christene afgeskaf word. Dit impliseer dat as alle diere rein en alle mense heilig en rein verklaar word, gelowiges nie meer die voedselwette of enige ander godsdienstige reinigings- en heiligingsprosedures hoef te gehoorsaam nie omdat iemand se verhouding met God nie meer op wette, voorskrifte en prosedures gegrond is nie.

Die voedselwette waaraan Jode onderwerp was, kan slegs verstaan word vanuit die Ou-Testamentiese konsep van heiligheid, 'n essensiële faset van God se aard. Mense en objekte bestaan in een van vier moontlike toestande: heilig of onheilig, en rein of onrein (Schnabel, 2012). Mense is in drie afdelings ingedeel: heilig (priesters), rein (Israel) en heidens (die res van die mensdom). Diere is ook in dieselfde drie afdelings ingedeel: offerandediere (slegs rein diere kon aan God geoffer word), rein diere (Israel mag slegs rein diere slag en eet) en onrein diere (nie-Jode het geen onderskeid getref tussen watter diere heilig of onheilig in die Joodse sin is nie). Diere is as rein of onrein geklassifiseer terwyl nie-Jode as goddeloos of heidens, en nie as rein of onrein beskou is nie.

Op grond van die bogenoemde kwalifisering word nie-Jode word as moreel afvallig (goddeloos) eerder as "ritueel onrein", beskou. Die rede daarvoor was dat die reinheidswette slegs op Jode van toepassing was en nie op nie-Jode nie (Klawans, 2000:44). Nie-Jode was heidene (as die antitese van heilig) maar nie onrein nie omdat daar nie van hulle verwag was om die rituele of morele reinheidswette te onderhou nie. Rituele onreinheid verwys na Levitiese voorskrifte met betrekking tot reinheid (Lev. 11-15 en 19), en die tipe onreinheid is meestal onvermydelik. Morele onreinheid verwys na gedrag (seksueel en kulties) wat lei tot ontreiniging (Harrington, 2006:682). Die wet het duidelik uitgestippel watter diere as rein beskou word en deur Jode geëet kon word. Telkens wanneer Jode kos gekoop of voorberei het, is hulle hierdeur herinner dat hulle hulself van heidennasies moet afsonder (Schnabel, 2012). Rein en onrein dien in Levitikus 11 en Deuteronomium 14 om aan te dui wat die volk van God mag en nie mag eet nie (Larkin, 2006:471).

Teen dié agtergrond weier Petrus om die diere te slag en te eet. Die engel vermaan hom om nie dit wat God rein verklaar, onrein te noem nie. Die implikasie hiervan is dat die visioen wat oor die onderskeid tussen rein en onrein handel toon dat voedsel nie meer as rein en onrein beskou word omdat dit onreinheid kan veroorsaak nie. Die visioen het te make het met die toestand van voedsel en gelowiges (Hand. 10:28 "…geen mens mag as onheilig of onrein beskou word nie").

Normaalweg sou "rein diere" onrein word indien hulle kontak met onrein diere het wat impliseer dat rein Jode se kontak met heidense of "onheilige" nie-Jode hulle ook onrein sou maak (Keener, 2012:1772). Petrus hoor dat God heidene ook deur Christus rein en heilig maak. Die werkwoord wat as 'gereinig' [ekatharisen] vertaal word, word in die LXX (Septuagint, Latynse vertaling van die Bybel) gebruik om na priesters te verwys wat mense wat onrein was en die nodige reiniging ondergaan het, rein te verklaar (Lev. 13:6). Volgens Handelinge 10 verklaar God dus mense wat onrein was, as gereinig. By Hom is geen onderskeid meer tussen rein en onrein, heilig en onheilig nie; die voedselwette wat die skeiding tussen rein en onrein gemaak het, is nou in Christus vervul in Hom is daar nie meer onderskeid nie (Schnabel, 2012).

As alle mense wat in Christus glo nou rein verklaar word, mag Joodse Christengelowiges nie weier om wat voorheen onrein kosse was, te eet nie. Wat Joodse gelowiges verhinder het om met nie-Joodse gelowiges genootskap te hê of te eet (Keener, 2012:1769), verval dus nou ook. Petrus se verklaring van die visioen se betekenis, is dat alle kosse (Hand. 10:15) en alle mense (Hand 10:28) rein verklaar is. Op grond van daarvan is dit moontlik vir Jode en nie-Jode om interaksie te kan hê.

Paulus maak die stelling in Romeine 14:14 dat hy oortuig is dat niks opsigself onrein is nie. Dit lei tot die vraag: as beide Jood en nie-Jood rein verklaar word deur die soenoffer van Christus, hoe is dit moontlik dat rein of onrein kosse so iemand onrein kan maak? Romeine 14:3 ('Die een wat alles eet, moet die ander wat net groente eet, nie verag nie; en die een wat net groente eet, moet die ander wat alles eet, nie veroordeel nie, want God het hom aangeneem') argumenteer dat liefde en eenheid in die gemeenskap van gelowiges tussen Joodse en nie-Joodse bekeerlinge nou krities nodig is (Osborne, 2004:355). Paulus berispe die gemeente omdat daar konflik tussen faksies is oor watter kosse vir gelowiges aanvaarbaar is om te eet (14:1-9).

Die gevolgtrekking is dat gelowiges nie mekaar op grond van die gebruik van kos nie, beoordeel nie. Elkeen sal oor homself rekenskap gee (14:10-12) (Osborne, 2004:356). Enigeen wat rein verklaar is deur geloof in Christus, kan nie meer deur kossoorte weer onrein gemaak word nie. Dit is eerder iets wat iemand nie uit 'n volle geloofsoortuiging leef nie wat sondig is (Rom. 14:23).

Jode het van nie-Jode wat die Joodse geloof aangeneem het, verwag om hulle voedselwette en feesdae streng te onderhou. Dit blyk dat sommige vroeë Joodse gelowiges dieselfde van vroeë nie-Joodse gelowiges verwag het. Een van die funksies van die Joodse voedselwette was om verwydering tussen Jood en nie-Jood te bewerkstellig. Vir Christene was dit nie toelaatbaar nie omdat dit juis kameraadskap tussen Joodse en nie-Joodse gelowiges aanmoedig (Keener, 2009).

Reeds in Romeine 13 maak Paulus die verklaring dat wanneer iemand in liefde met hul naaste lewe hulle die hele wet gehoorsaam word. Gebruike en voorkeure mag nie gelowiges onderlinge verhoudinge belemmer nie. In Christus het die Levitiese wette wat onderskeid gemaak het tussen rein en onrein, heilig en onheilig, verval (Bruce, 1988:206).

Die verwysing na mense wat swak in die geloof is, verwys na diegene wat die wet streng probeer onderhou het. Hulle verstaan nog nie dat geloof in Christus vryheid van die wettiese verpligtinge bewerkstellig het nie (Osborne, 2004:357).

Wanneer Petrus dan hoor van die visioen wat Cornelius gesien het (Hand. 10:3-6), besef hy dat die Here van Jode verwag om anders teenoor nie-Joodse nasies op te tree. Nie-Jode het nie die wet gehad om te gehoorsaam nie, en dit is die rede waarom hulle nie rein en aanvaarbaar voor die heilige God kon wees nie. Wanneer Joodse feeste, onderhoud van die Sabbat, die besnydenis en rituele reinheidswette die eenheid van die geloofsgemeenskap bedreig (Harrington, 2006:688), moet Petrus leer dat diere, kos en mense rein is (Keener, 2012:1773).

Die Hebrew Roots-argument is dat die visioen nie die voedselwette afgeskaf het nie, en daarom is gelowiges steeds verplig om die wet van Moses te onderhou. Ook die apostoliese beraad in Handelinge 15 stel die leser in staat om die vroeë kerk se standpunt ten opsigte van gelowiges se verpligting teenoor die wet te bepaal.

 

Apostoliese beraad: Handelinge 15:1-35

Die Hebrew Roots-beweging leer dat die apostoliese beraad in Handelinge 15 tot die slotsom gekom het dat nuwe bekeerlinge aanvanklik net geleer moet word om vier sake wat in Handelinge 15:18-20 genoem word, te onderhou, maar dat Handelinge 15:21 verder gaan. Alhoewel nuwe bekeerlinge op die vier voorskrifte moet fokus, sou hulle weeklikse blootstelling aan die wet van Moses tydens hulle besoeke aan die sinagoges hulle leer om die volle wet te onderhou 119 ministries, 2017:7-8; Liebenberg, 2007a:30; Bugg, 2014).

Die konteks van die apostoliese beraad is Lukas se siening dat die werk wat deur Jesus Christus begin is deur die Apostels voortgesit is (Gervais, 2017:8). Lukas poog so om die teologiese perspektiewe van Paulus te regverdig. Handelinge 15 vervul 'n sentrale rol hierin. Joodse teenstand teen die apostels se werk is die primêre bedreiging vir die suksesvolle verkondiging van die Goeie Nuus, waarop Paulus se suksesvolle sendingwerk onder nie-Jode beklemtoon word (Gervais, 2017:9).

Christene uit Judea wat leer dat nie-Jode alle Joodse gebruike en voorskrifte moet nakom en ook dat hulle moet ook besny word voor hulle gered kan word, het tot die Apostoliese beraad aanleiding gegee. Paulus en Barnabas verskil met die lering, wat tot 'n heftige meningsverskil lei. Die gevolg is dat Paulus en Barnabas saam met nog verteenwoordigers deur die kerk in Antiochië afgevaardig word om by die ouderlinge en apostels in Jerusalem uitsluitsel hieroor te kry.

Die beraad in Jerusalem poog om die konflik en onmin wat uit die meningsverskil gespruit het, op te los. Paulus en Barnabas stel die saak van nie-Joodse bekeerlinge en argumenteer dat die waarheid van die evangelie niemand verplig om te leef asof hulle 'n Jood is nie. Christus verwag nie van mense wat nooit Jode was nie om nou te lewe asof hulle Jode is nie.

Petrus en Jakobus (wat as pilare van die kerk beskou was [Gal. 2:9]) lewer insette en Petrus stel voor dat geloof die enigste vereiste tot redding is. Volgens hom kon nog hulle nog hulle voorvaders die juk van die wet suksesvol dra; waarom dit nou op die nek van die gelowige nie-Jode plaas (Hand. 15:9-10)? Twee aspekte is belangrik, dat daar geen verskil is in die manier hoe Jode of nie-Jode die Heilige Gees ontvang en hulle harte deur geloof gereinig word nie en dat die wet nie verlossing kan bring nie, maar dat dit net genade is wat beide Jood en nie-Jood red. Die twee stellings kom ooreen met Petrus se woorde aan Kornelius dat God almal wat Jesus as saligmaker aanbid, aanvaar (Hand. 10:34-35).

Jakobus, leier van die vroeë kerk in Jerusalem, stem saam met Petrus dat nie-Jode nie Joodse gebruike hoef aan te neem om gered te word nie. Alhoewel hulle kwytgeskeld is van die onderhouding van die besnydenisritueel, die onderhouding van die Torah en veral die voedselwette (Walton, 2006:259), is dit wel volgens hom noodsaaklik dat hulle die volgende onderhou:

• Om nie vlees te eet wat aan 'n afgod geoffer was nie.

• Om onsedelikheid te vermy.

• Om nie 'n dier wat verwurg is, te eet nie.

• Om nie die bloed van 'n dier te eet of drink nie (Hand. 15:18-21).

Jakobus kwalifiseer die uitspraak deur te sê dat die voorskrifte van Moses immers van ouds af in elke stad aan die mense voorgehou word en aan almal welbekend is (Toussaint, 1983:354), insluitend nie-Jode. Met die uitspraak het die Jode ingestem dat nie-Jode nie verplig is om besny te word nie, en die nie-Jode het ingestem om hulle dieet dienooreenkomstig aan te pas (Wiersbe, 1989:464).

Die apostoliese beraad besluit om nie 'n las, behalwe die vier sake, op nie-Joodse gelowige te plaas nie. Die verwysing na die wet van Moses wat in die sinagoges gelees is, impliseer nie dat hulle verwag het dat die nie-Jode later die volle las van die wet sou aanvaar en op hulself sou neem nie. Die wet van Moses wat vir baie jare elke Sabbatdag voorgelees word, beteken dat Jode ten diepste geaffronteerd sou wees as nie-Joodse bekeerlinge nie die beperkings daarvan gehoorsaam nie (Newman & Nida, 1972:298, Keener, 2014:2279). Nou besluit die apostoliese beraad om dit moontlik te maak vir Joodse en nie-Joodse gelowiges om in gemeenskap met mekaar verkeer sonder dat heidense Christene die besonderhede van die wet moet onderhou (Keener, 2015:2287-2289).

Lukas se verslag oor die beraad verduidelik nie hoe Paulus hierop gereageer het nie maar daar is geen rede om te vermoed dat hy nie saamgestem het nie. Vanuit die uitspraak is dit duidelik wat van nie-Jode verwag word. Wat egter nie so duidelik is nie, is wat van die Jode wat tot geloof in Christus kom, verwag word. Moet hulle steeds die wet onderhou? Volgens Bock (2007:493) bied Paulus se voorbeeld twee maniere om die saak te benader. Eerstens kan die wet deur 'n Joodse wetsgehoorsame tot die letter gevolg word met die doel om Jode wat Jesus as Messias verwerp effektief met die evangelie te bereik. Tweedens kan 'n Jood tot geloof in Christus kom nie die wet streng onderhou nie met doel om nie-Jode effektief met die evangelie te bereik (1 Kor. 9:19-22; Rom. 14-15). Paulus sou dus die uitspraak kon aanvaar om sodoende diegene met 'n "swak gewete" (1 Kor. 8:10 - wie se gewete hulle aankla omdat daar kos geëet word wat aan 'n afgod geoffer was) tegemoet te kom (Du Toit, 2016b:4).

Die vraag kan gevra word of dit eerder 'n geval was dat die Jode tegemoet gekom is omdat hulle geloof nie sterk genoeg was nie en hulle nie die wettiese gebruike kon aflê nie? Dit blyk dat vroeë gelowige Jode se onvermoeë om te berus in die feit dat hulle alleen deur geloof geregtigheid kon beërwe, die knelpunt te was (Du Toit, 2016a:90).

 

Galasiërs 2

Daar bestaan verdeeldheid in verband met die datering van Galasiërs 2. Sommige meen die gebeure in Galasiërs 2 gaan die apostoliese beraad vooraf omdat Paulus nie na die besluite van die beraad verwys nie, terwyl ander meen dat daar 'n sterk argument is om Galasiërs ná die gebeure in Handelinge 15 te plaas op grond daarvan dat die probleme wat die beraad aangespreek het, nog nie die Galasiërs bereik het nie (Keener & Walton, 2016:2042).

Handelinge noem dat Paulus Jerusalem vyf maal na sy bekering besoek het. Hy besoek Jerusalem die eerste keer nadat hy Damaskus verlaat het (Hand. 9:26-30; Gal. 1:18-20), tweedens tydens 'n hongersnood (Hand. 11:27-30), derdens om die apostoliese beraad by te woon (Hand. 15:1-30), vierdens tydens sy tweede sendingsreis (Hand. 18:22) en sy laaste besoek ten tye van sy inhegtenisname (Hand. 21:15-23:35).

Dit is moontlik dat Galasiërs na die besoek ten tye van die hongersnood verwys. Paulus noem in Galasiërs 2:2 dat die besoek waarna hy verwys 'n geslote vergadering was, en het uit Paulus, Barnabas, Titus, Jakobus, Johannes en Petrus bestaan. Daarenteen was die apostoliese beraad in Handelinge 15 'n openbare vergadering waar die apostels en ouderlinge vergader het.

Alhoewel die tydsberekening van Galasiërs 2 in die lig van Handelinge 15 nie met sekerheid vasgestel kan word nie, is daar wel twee ander sake wat met die saak van die ontwikkeling van wetsonderhouding van die vroeë kerk verband hou. Wetsonderhouding as knelpunt in die vroeë kerk word in die brief bespreek as dit vra of nie-Jode besny moes word en die Joodse wette moes onderhou om ook as Christene beskou te word.

Volgens Galasiërs 2 was daar nie van Titus ('n Griek) verwag om besny te word nie, en net so was daar van geen nie-Jode verwag om die besnydenis te ondergaan om sodoende hulself as Christene te beskou nie.

In Galasiërs 2 het Petrus aanvanklik by 'n tafel waar beide Joodse en nie-Joodse vroeë Christene saam geëet het, aangesit. Petrus se gedrag in Galasiërs 2:11-14 ná die visioen van Handelinge 10:13-16 veroorsaak dat hy saam met nie-Jode eet (Gal. 2:12) maar nadat daar vroeë Joodse Christene (voorstanders daarvan dat nie-Jode ook besnydenis moet ondergaan om ware Christene te wees) van Jerusalem in Antiochië aankom, die nie-Joodse Christene vermy. Ander volg ook sy voorbeeld en twee groepe ontstaan. Die Joodse Christene ervaar dat hulle onder verpligting teenoor die Torah staan en daarom nie-Joodse Christene vermy (Campbell, 1983:595).

Paulus reageer hewig hierop. Volgens Galasiërs 2:14 het Paulus gesien dat hulle gedrag nie strook met die waarheid van die Goeie Nuus nie, en hy spreek Petrus voor almal aan. Hy argumenteer dat Petrus en die ander vroeë Joodse Christene deur hulle gedrag ontken het dat alle mense (Jood en nie-Jood) eenvormig, slegs op grond van Jesus Christus se dood en opstanding, aanvaarbaar en regverdig voor God verklaar kan word (Faussett, 1997:327). Paulus konfronteer Petrus met die volgende woorde: "Ons wat van geboorte Jode is en nie sondaars uit die nie-Joodse nasies nie, weet dat niemand deur die wet te onderhou deur God vrygespreek word nie. Net deur die geloof in Jesus Christus kan dit gebeur! Selfs ons het tot geloof in Christus Jesus gekom sodat ons deur geloof, en nie omdat ons die wet onderhou nie, deur God vrygespreek kan word. Niemand sal mos deur die wet te onderhou deur God vrygespreek word nie!" (Gal. 2:15-16).

Paulus groepeer homself en alle Joodse gelowiges (of hulle vanaf Jerusalem, Antiogië of Galasië kom) op grond van ras en godsdiens, saam. Hy verklaar dat hierdie groep se siening rakende die wet ooreenstem. Vers 16 kan op twee maniere geïnterpreteer word. Ten eerste kan daar met die gebruik van die voegwoord ἐὰνµή verstaan word dat iemand geregtigheid kan bekom deur sekere aspekte van die wet (soos besnydenis en dieetwette) te onderhou in samewerking met geloof in Christus. Alhoewel dit 'n moontlike vertaling is, staan dit in konflik met die res van die vers. Die tweede moontlikheid is dat die voorafgaande gedeelte ('niemand kan geregtigheid bekom behalwe") gekwalifiseer word deur ἐὰνµή': dit impliseer dan dat geregtigheid slegs bekom word deur geloof in Christus (Longenecker, 1990:83).

In Handelinge 15:22-35 het die apostoliese beraad tot dieselfde slotsom gekom. Die bepalings wat in Handelinge 15:21-22 gemaak word, is nie 'n verpligting van enigeen om die wet van Moses te onderhou en so geregtigheid met God te bewerkstellig nie. Wat dit wel vereis, is dat nie-Joodse Christene Joodse bekeerlinge se sensitiwiteit aangaande sekere gebruike in liefde in ag moet neem en gedrag vermy wat Joodse Christene sou skok en vervreem ten spyte daarvan dat niemand verplig is om die wet van Moses te onderhou nie (Brown, 1997:195).

 

Gevolgtrekking

Die ontwikkeling van die vroeë kerk as 'n groep onafhanklik van die Joodse geloof was kompleks. Vir twee diverse groepe, Joodse en nie-Joodse gelowiges, om in verhouding met mekaar te staan op grond van hulle onderskeidelike geloof in Jesus Christus die Messias het opofferings van beide kante geverg. Soms het hulle oor die noodsaak van wetsonderhouding verskil en dit het tot konflik gelei.

Die term "wet" in die Hebrew Roots-beweging word nie gestandaardiseerd gebruik nie. Vir sommige verwys dit na die 613 wette van Moses terwyl 'n kleiner groep die Mosaïese wet en geloof in Christus naas mekaar stel. Gelowiges is egter steeds verplig om die volle Torah te onderhou in sy letterlike betekenis. Dit maak nie onderskeid tussen morele, seremoniële en siviele wette nie wat impliseer dat Christene dit volledig moet onderhou.

Die eksegese van drie relevante tekste het getoon dat die vroeë kerk konsensus bereik het dat nie-Joodse gelowiges nie onder 'n verpligting is om die wet van Moses te onderhou nie. Handelinge 10:13-16 (Petrus se visioen) was die eerste teks wat ondersoek was. Sommige Hebrew Roots-bewegings gebruik die teksgedeelte om 'n lering dat die voedselwette nooit afgeskaf was nie maar dat nie-Joodse gelowiges nou as gelykstaande aan Israel beskou word, te ondersteun. Die implikasie daarvan is Joodse voedselwette deur Christene onderhou moet word. Vanuit die eksegese wat gedoen was, blyk dit dat 'n meer korrekte interpretasie van Handelinge 10:13-16 sou wees dat alle kosse en alle mense nie meer deur die wet as rein of onrein verklaar kan word nie (Hand. 10:15; Hand. 10:28), op grond daarvan dat Christus as soenoffer aan die vereistes van die wet voldoen het.

Rein en onrein kosse, besnydenis, feeste en Sabbatsdae het die onderlinge samesyn van gelowiges bedreig en die vroeë kerk het hul standpunt met betrekking tot die ernstige saak met die formele uitspraak in Handelinge 15 uitgestippel. Sommige Hebrew Roots-bedieninge leer dat die Apostoliese beraad dit as selfsprekend beskou het dat nuwe bekeerlinge elke Sabbat die Wette van Moses sou aanhoor en dat dit die nie-Joodse bekeerlinge sou aanspoor om die volle wet van Moses te onderhou. In gevolge die eksegese wat op Handelinge 15:1-35 gedoen was, blyk dit dat die vier vereistes waaraan nie-Joodse bekeerlinge moes voldoen, eerder veronderstel was om Joodse sensitiwiteite met betrekking tot Joodse en nie-Joodse interaksie te mitigeer. Die motivering daarvoor was om onderlinge samesyn tussen nie-Joodse en Joodse bekeerlinge aan te moedig en moontlik te maak.

Galasiërs 2 beaam die gevolgtrekkings wat vanuit die eksegese van Handelinge 10 en 15 gemaak was. Petrus het reeds in omstreeks 40 n.C. die visioen van Handelinge 10 ontvang, en het aanvanklik saam met nie-Joodse gelowiges aan tafel gesit. Met die aankoms van sekere Joodse bekeerlinge in Galasië (omstreeks 48 n.C.; Keener & Walton, 2016:1894-1894, 2042), het Petrus hom van die samesyn met nie-Joodse Christene onttrek. Die volg daarvan was dat Paulus Petrus streng aanspreek om konsekwent te wees oor sy posisie met betrekking tot die rol van wetsonderhouding van vroeë Christene te wees.

Die gevaar van die lering dat gelowiges steeds 'n verpligting het om die wet van Moses te onderhou, is dat mense dan hul eie geregtigheid deur wetsonderhouding bewerkstellig. Op die wyse word die soenoffer van Christus as enigste weg tot verlossing verwerp en die kern van die Christelike geloof bedreig.

Die groeiende behoefte onder lidmate na gesprekke rakende die relevansie van die Wet van Moses vir moderne Christene, spesifiek rakende die onderhouding van die Sabbat op die sewende dag, die Joodse godsdienstige feeste, vereis dat leraars en leiers hulself met kennis rakende die saak, moet toerus. Die relevante skrifte behoort goed bestudeer te word om te bepaal of die Hebrew Roots-beweging verantwoordelik met die Bybel omgaan wanneer hulle lering aanbied. Hierdie artikel het gepoog om ten minste vanuit drie relevante teksgedeeltes te bewys dat die vroeë kerk die wet as vervul beskou het, eerder as om nuwe bekeerlinge te motiveer om die Joodse godsdienstige praktyke aan te neem.

 

Erkennings

Hierdie artikel is gedeeltelik gebaseer op die proefskrif getiteld 'Beoordeling van Messiaanse Christene as wetsonderdouding vanuit 'n pentekostalistiese perspektief' vir die graad Doctor Philosophiae in Teologie, Noordwes-Universiteit Potchefstroom, 23 Oktober 2023, met promotor Prof Marius Nel.

Mededingende belange

Die outeurs verklaar dat daar geen finansiële of persoonlike verbintenisse is wat die skryf van hierdie artikel negatief kon beïvloed nie.

Outeurs se bydrae

L.M. is verantwoordelike vir die navorsing en ontleding van materiaal, en skryf van artikel met ondersteuning en oorsig deur M.N.

Etiese oorwegings

Hierdie artikel het alle etiese standaarde gevolg vir navorsing sonder direkte kontak met, en deelname deur mense. Bronne is met integriteit benut en noukeurige dokumentering van inligting daaruit verwerf, is omsigtig gedoen. Die betrokke beweging is regverdig beskryf vanuit gegewe literatuur.

Befondsingsinligting

Die outeurs het geen finansiële ondersteuning vir die navorsing, outeurskap en/of publikasie van hierdie artikel ontvang nie.

Databeskikbaarheidsverklaring

Datadeling is nie van toepassing op hierdie artikel nie omrede geen nuwe data geskep of ontleed is nie.

Vrywaring

Die menings en sienings wat in hierdie artikel uitgedruk word, is dié van die outeurs en weerspieël nie noodwendig die amptelike beleid of posisie van enige geaffilieerde instelling, befondser, agentskap of dié van die uitgewer nie. Die outeurs is verantwoordelik vir die inhoud van hierdie artikel.

 

Bronnelys

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Brown, D., 1997, 'The acts of the Apostels', in R. Jamieson, A.R. Faussett & D. Brown (eds.), Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the whole Bible, vol. 2, pp. 173-226, Logos Research Systems, Oak Harbor.         [ Links ]

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Correspondence:
Marius Nel
marius.nel@nwu.ac.za

Received: 25 Aug. 2023
Accepted: 14 Nov. 2023
Published: 15 Feb. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The future of Black Theology of Liberation: Narrative as epistemological resource

 

 

Eugene Baron

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The death of Black Theology of Liberation (BTL) has been announced, and many were invited to the funeral. This article rejects vehemently such a death as a myth, and provides two reasons why such a theology would have a place to address theologising in the world. It firstly argues that BTL attributes its birth through stories. These stories are captured in history; embodied stories that are told. Secondly, it is found in a broader epistemology than that provided by the Enlightenment paradigm. Therefore, it is not only found in conceptual, argumentative discourses, but other forms of knowledge systems, including stories, poetry, and personal storytelling. However, this has still not been equally appreciated and explored. Taking the above two reasons into account, the death of BTL cannot be announced by academics, since they were never the sole custodians thereof, only recipients of the tradition of an oppressed people.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article has implications for how theology is being done in all theology-related disciplines, moving from context, to scripture, to context in a continuous hermeneutical circle. It addresses the way in which all theological disciplines have been functioning within the Enlightenment paradigm, and how black theology itself has lent itself to it, but is continually reforming, because of its nature to be narrative in its approach.

Keywords: Black Theology of Liberation; story forms; narrative epistemology; eco-tones; post-foundationalism.

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Introduction

In this article, it is argued that the future of Black Theology of Liberation (BTL) lies not only in its systematisation and the logical systems that subscribe to an objectivist (modernist) framework, but within a narrative framework. Bosch (1991:353), in his magnum opus Transforming Mission, does make a distinction between the objectivist framework and its quest to secure truth. This, he argues, had a crippling effect on human inquiry, because he argues that one must realise that it becomes impossible to 'prove' truth, because truth can only be probed (Bosch 1991:353). The latter therefore suggests that multiple avenues of probing the truth are necessary, which Bosch argues is not only through 'language' (for which 'truth' cannot be verified in absolute terms), but inclusive of 'non-conceptual forms of theologising' (Bosch 1991:355). This is where 'narrative theology' and 'theology of story' become equally important as epistemological and theological resources. This article therefore argues that the future of BTL has been born in the cradle of narrative knowledge systems, and therefore would only maintain its existence within such an epistemological framework. In concise terms, within a narrative epistemological framework the future and the relevance of black theology are secured.¹ Black Theology of Liberation can only be dead if there are no more stories of black oppression. If black theology was a construct or an 'idea' within academic spaces, it could have long been smothered and killed. However, to be confronted with stories of oppression, academia must respond. There is a need to interrogate this within black churches and faculties of theology.

 

The difference between modernistic and a narrative theology

Bosch (Transforming Mission 1991) and Newbigin (Foolishness to the Greeks 1986) are among the many scholars that discuss the challenge and the negative impact of the Enlightenment project on theology. Bosch (1991:353) contends that it is because the Pentecostal and Charismatic, including other experiential religions used their experience to inform their hermeneutics that such a religion would grow exponentially in the face of those traditions that follow a narrow rationalistic approach. It is in this context that he also argues that a narrative theology and theology of story (Bosch 1991:353) is an epistemological category that needs to be taken seriously in the future. However, there is more in Bosch's assertion than merely the praxis of storytelling which within a modernistic framework has become ridiculed because it is regarded as less academic material.² Though story forms should be taken seriously, it is their positioning within a broader epistemological shift that is crucial to acknowledge by academics and theologians. Story forms are then made intelligent and credible. The legitimisation of such approaches to truth is found and made credible within discourses of theologians such as Bosch (1991), Newbigin (1986) but also South African scholars like Muller (2004, 2011a, 2011b, 2012) and Van Huyssteen (1997).³

The latter (story forms) begs for a different epistemological paradigm in theology; a breakaway from a foundationalist approach towards a post-foundational one.⁴ It is in this sense that Muller (2012) discusses as illustration church confessional documents as more than just propositional, but the becoming and evolving of it as storying documents.⁵ Though the abovementioned scholars have explained it more on a conceptual, philosophical level, Hooks (1994) also a black scholar, discusses a narrative pedagogy in the context of academic spaces and classrooms, and how theological students should be teachers by telling their own stories.⁶

The epistemological shift towards a more inclusive truth-seeking project in science has also to do with perceptions of reality. The question of what is real is at the foundation of discussions of seeking truth. In this regard, the objectivist framework David Bosch was referring to was to argue that reality is out there - a reality that has not been corrupted by subjective realities. In terms of developments within research, research paradigms have become important components when discussing one's research approach. In this regard much have been written, and quite extensively, but in theology, it is almost assumed that reality might either be approached from a positivist paradigm meaning only in the biblical text, or a social constructivist paradigm (often referred to as the hermeneutical turn), that is mostly embraced by practical, ecumenical theologians, that wants to take the context serious. Obviously BTL forms part of contextual theologies including feminist and other liberation theologies (Dalit theology etc.).

What has not been adequately added to theological paradigms is the critical realism. This is one in which Paul Hiebert (1999) has been making a crucial contribution asa theologian and missiologist. In a narrative epistemological framework, Africans' perspective on reality is also taken seriously. This is what Hiebert (1999), as a missiologist, is interested in, when he studies the lived reality, world, and stories of Africans. The social constructivism paradigm might be able to take stories seriously in only a subjectivist framework, but still does not take seriously the difference in worldview in which stories are told. It is therefore crucial to include the perspective of Hiebert in taking a narrative epistemological framework seriously. However, Hiebert would still argue that God and the Bible are part of the reality in which critical realism would function. The source of one's personal experience of God is the lens through which other realities are engaged with.

Perhaps another crucial important concept within the narrative theology discussion is the fact that truth is embodied, and not abstract theories but is emerging from persons, inclusive of the influence of emotions and cognitive experiences. This has been quite extensively discussed in the seminal work of Stephen Crites (Narrative Quality of Experience 1971) and his assertion that all sense-making of reality includes a conflation of body and mind. Therefore, a narrative theology would take the perspective of people seriously before the engagement with lifeless theories. Although one could argue that the theories at times originated from an embodied person, they should continuously be subjected to different contexts from a person's interaction with their environment as social change often changes the perspective of the person (Bevans 1992:3-27).

 

The origins of black theology as a narrative theology

Hopkins (2002:156) argues that black folk during the emergence of black theology thought critically 'about the nature of their faith and their relation to God'. He reminds us that when BTL started in America, it was not only professors that gave content to BTL, but the clergy, as well as Church administrators (Hopkins 2002:155). Evans (2012:309) argues that though BTL in America has been changing in content, it has always been able to answer concrete and real questions that black Americans were asking at the time. The content of black theology for James Cone was always to be the gospel of Jesus, and primarily liberation of the 'full humanity', and the 'practice of freedom for the economically poor, the broken-hearted, and the vulnerable on earth' (cf. Hopkins 2002:156). If black theologians approach the Bible, they would be more interested in 'history-like' stories of the Bible (cf Frei 1980) than mere metaphors or engage in an allegorical reading of biblical texts. To do this, BTL focussed on emotions and the cognitive (intellectual) and physical circumstances and embodiment of the gospel.

James Cone stressed the manifestation of the gospel in the affairs of the world and not merely spiritualising the gospel so that it does not address the concrete realities that black people are confronted with. These realities Hopkins (2002:157) refers to as mundane ones, such as freeing the poor in 1st-century Palestine from racial exclusion or economic disparities and 'mundane stress over fundamental issues such as shelter, clothing and food'. This is how Crites (1971) sees the quality of experience, the combination of the sacred and mundane stories. These were important to address because the gospel was for human beings, and therefore, human dignity included the message and content of the gospel. In mentioning this, Cone's work went beyond addressing pigmentation but the historical conditions that Jesus addressed.

Therefore, Hopkins (2002:158) starts by stating that there is nothing sacred about being black, and then focusses on the realities that the poor were struggling with. Those realities were also in the church, when white people, the first missionaries during colonial times, took control of the church as spaces of oppression (cf. Biko 1978; Hopkins 2002:187). Black theology went against the grain of the history-like stories - that narrate white missionaries and western ideology as the only stories of the Christian faith (Hopkins 2002:188). In fact, it is about whose mundane story has been told and narrates the reality of the oppressed.

Bosch refers to the early days of black theology, as a time when it was about what people felt. He (1974:6) tells that in the early days of black theology in South Africa, people who listened to the tape recording of American black theologians said, 'We feel … what Cones says in our bones' (see also ed. Mothlabi 1972). This links to what Paul Ricoeur would describe as the story which we are already part of and therefore the writing of it is merely the verbalisation of it.⁷ Ricoeur argues that we then only write the story that we are part of. Basil Moore (1991), the first proponent of the South African reflection on black theology in its beginning stages in 1971, states, that the gospel is always interpreted from the black experience. Perhaps one of Cone's important works that stress the story form of black theology is his book God of the Oppressed (1997). In this book, he states explicitly that for black theology to exist is for stories of oppression to exist (Cone 1997:24-26). Cone (1997:89-90) engages with the work of Satre,⁸ and therefore he argues that the experience of people is not only within the church but in everyday life, and there is no distinction between the two for him, in terms of sacred or mundane.⁹ Cone (2011:34), in his book The Cross and the Lynching Tree, weighs in on Niebuhr, who was following a Christian Realist approach.¹⁰ He mentions that for Niebuhr, the starting point was not God's revelation as Karl Barth argues, but 'the facts of experience'.

Therefore, Cone was at least in agreement with Niebuhr because for him it must start with the brutal realities in society, while for Barth it started with the 'Trinity, with a focus on the Word of God' (Cone 2011:34). Nevertheless, Cone underscores Niebuhr's shortcomings. He states that though Niebuhr was able to identify black suffering, he was not able to empathize with black suffering. This is the reason, he argues, why Niebuhr still applauded the founding fathers of America for their noble deeds and the establishment of freedom and liberty. This emotional element, which is absent in Niebuhr and his academic alignment with BTL, is paramount in a narrative approach that also calls for the embodiment of knowledge.

On the contrary, Cone (2011:42) argues that Dietrich Bonhoeffer was a doctoral student at the Union Theological Seminary in New York who was quite the opposite of Niebuhr because he was interested in black suffering, to the point where some of his white colleagues wondered why Bonhoeffer got so involved with the 'negros'! Therefore, Cone (2011:42) argues that Niebuhr's Christian realism was not only the source of his radicalism but also his conservatism.

He further makes other distinctive issues between Niebuhr and Bonhoeffer. For instance, Niebuhr believes that racial injustice must slowly erode. The problem that James Cone has with Niebuhr's radicalism, is that he was not so deeply involved and exposed to the black experience to provide his realism more depth. Cone (2011) therefore concludes:

Like most whites, Niebuhr did not realise the depth of black despair because he did not listen to Malcolm X and other black nationalists who were speaking at Temple no 7, and in the streets of Harlem, only a few blocks away. (p. 48)

This emotive element that was missing in Niebuhr was confirmed through his response on white liberalism in America. Therefore, Cone (2011) writes about Niebuhr:

… [liberalism] … lacks the spirit of enthusiasm. Not to say fanaticism, which is so necessary to move the world out of its beaten tracks. It is too intellectual and too little emotional to be an efficient force in history. (p. 56)

It is also important to note that BTL recognises that 'white theology' cannot claim 'rational objectivity', which presumes cultural and ideological positioning. In essence, black theologians argue that any white Christian is speaking and arguing from a specific cultural, historical and ideological perspective. That one's history and story form part of such ideological positioning is a given for black theologians (Mosala 1989:13). This is where BTL starts from (like any contextual theology), not with the Bible, but with the stories of oppression. Bevans' (1992:4-8) argument is that all reality is 'mediated by meaning'. He argues that we are all culturally conditioned. The implication is that our reading will always be from where we find ourselves within our own cultural (symbols, metaphors), and common personal experiences (e.g., death, birth, marriage), our social location (black, gender, race), as well as within the reality of social change, which is the idea that no context is static (growth, improvement, declining of context). It is these lenses that according to Bevans constitute the readers' contextual hermeneutics.

Mosala (1989:67) as a biblical scholar and black theologian, discusses the historical and cultural struggles of black people as a hermeneutical starting point for black theology. A black person, he argues, will read the story of the Bible from the liberation of their 'productive forces' (land, cattle, machinery, etc. that produce wealth). For him, the story lies in such captivity. Though under imperial reign, they claim to be going first to the text as the authority. Mosala (1989:20-21) argues that biblical texts were under the spell of imperial forces itself, and it was convenient for colonial masters to use the biblical scriptures to serve their ideals.

Therefore, Cone argues that the story of black people should also inform their biblical and contextual hermeneutics. Cone (1997:49) argues that the difference between the content and form of black and white theology in America is precisely the slave experience of black people. It is their story that informs their hermeneutics. He shows the difference between the content and form of the two knowledge systems as such:

The form of black religious thought is expressed in the style of a story and its content is Liberation. Black Theology, then, is the story of black people's struggle for Liberation in an extreme situation of oppression. Consequently, there is no sharp distinction between thought and practice, worship, and theology, because black theological reflections about God occurred in the black struggle for Freedom. White theologians built logical systems; black folks told tales. (Cone 1997:49)

Cone (1997:51) contends vehemently that black thought did not emerge from the studies on Darwin's publication on the Origin of Species, or any other academic discourse on Augustine or Calvin, or even Descartes's Cogito ergo sum. Black people did not always possessed the 'art of philosophical and theological discourse'. But was this necessary for their theologising? Therefore, as he asserts, it was never for black people a priority to engage in discourses on proving rationally¹¹ whether God existed or not. In fact, 'Divine existence was taken for granted, because God was the point of departure of their faith' (Cone 1997:50). However, the metaphysical was taken for granted. Still, for them, it was a departure from the 'real' which was the oppression that they were experiencing (Cone 1997:50).

Perhaps Cone (1997) argues strongly that the issue of black oppression would not be solved by philosophical debates (alone? or exclusively), but by engaging the issue from 'reality' (realism) and concrete history (real life stories). He (1997) states:

Slaves, therefore, had to devise a language commensurate with their social situation. That was why they told stories. Through the medium of stories, black slaves created concrete and vivid pictures of their past and present existence, using historical images of God's dealings with people and thus breaking up a future for the oppressed not known by ordinary historical observation. (p. 50)

Hopkins (2002:165) argues that black professors have become so occupied with publishing, and academic jargon that it has consumed much of their time, and left little time to be connected and involved in the black church. They had little time to be informed daily of the needs, and be rooted at the grassroots, which will enable them to firsthand taste and feel the suffering of the people. This links with Bevans' (1992:4-6) argument that because of the 'social change' that takes place in various contexts (and culture), one needs to be in sync with the changes that occur to remain relevant. This concurs with the argument of Klaasen (2012) that the narrative should remain open-ended. Hopkins (2002) states:

Clearly part of the gap between black professors and the church pew results from a well-organised educational system that demands time. Still, African American theologians must maintain creative and critical relationships with the black church - whether in the forms of teaching and preaching in the church, being associate pastors, leading workshops and seminars, consulting, or regularly sharing ongoing academic work with laypeople. (p. 165)

Hence, Cone (1997:51) asserts, 'God for Black people was also not a metaphysical idea, but was manifested in history, God made flesh through a peasant who came to set the captives free'. In terms of Cone's argument, black people can easily see God's work in their everyday life experiences. The content of black theology, therefore, could be found through 'preaching, singing, and praying' (Cone 1997:51), but also, as Baron (2022) argues, through personal testimonies in liturgical spaces.

Evans (2012:310) asserts that the problem is that black theologians think the content will stay the same for black theology. Therefore, they fail in future to listen to the cries of the oppressed, while the profile of the oppressed might also have changed since their last engagement with the masses. Therefore, Evans (2012:313) raises some contemporary challenges, such as that of the emergence of eugenics¹² and the threat of the prosperity gospel on black South Africans and for a BTL. He asks how a BTL would respond to neo-charismatics and pro-capitalist missionaries flooding developing nations. Therefore, for Evans, BTL has a new agenda, or a continuing agenda in society if it continues to engage the 'cries of the oppressed'.

 

The movement of Black Theology of Liberation as academic category

Hopkins (2002:163) notes that BTL is to speak from one's social location. Nevertheless, many black professors have become academic intellectuals and mainly dislocated from the struggles of the people. Therefore, they are socially located in some authority positions. This, he argues, poses a threat to the relevance of BTL because academics might become more pressured by 'structural authority' to 'blunt an accent on the liberation of social relationships on earth' (Hopkins 2002:163). Cone (2011:48) illustrates this best when he refers to Niebuhr that is rigorously engaging in the intellectual discourse but was caught with 'his pants down' when he had to radically confront and address the racism of his white friends.

Though most theology faculties claim a more 'objective' approach to teaching and learning, lecturers and academics do not always acknowledge the 'social location' that they are articulating from. However, to have a black lecturer in front of the class also does not mean that they might be speaking from a BTL epistemology. Still, even in such cases, it should always be placed within perspective and from which social location and which narrative or story is influencing the module or academic course or the hidden curriculum.

However, this would mean that the avenue for knowledge generation, even for BTL, has in most cases been reserved for black theology textbooks and a narrowed rational (excluding experience) discussion on black theology. Hence James Cone has warned against such a 'book learning' as the only means of knowledge production. Therefore, it is still open for scrutiny whether his followers and students have constantly been allowing themselves to be informed by the stories and treated the stories of the oppressed with the same academic value as with other 'rational' (conceptual) forms of knowledge production.

 

A narrative Black Theology of Liberation: Contesting for its future

Story forms in Black Theology of Liberation

Hopkins (2002:162) distinguishes between a BTL and a 'vague' BTL. The former would be for him one that focusses on 'good news for all broken humanity' while the other on 'maintenance of individual advancement and communal privileges'. The other for 'social change' and the other to 'preserve the status quo for black middle-class representatives'. He argues that BTL was never about an 'ivory-tower' exercise, or belonging to an 'individual', but liberation is God's gift to the poor, and working-class black people. He (2002:163) states, 'Black theology arose from a spiritual and physical life-and-death situation for the bottom of African American communities as they accepted God's movement for justice'. In a similar vein, the South African Black Consciousness leader, Steve Biko (1978:28) refers to 'spiritual poverty'. A situation in which the black man should come to themselves, and move from a position of self-depreciation to self-appreciation. Therefore his famous slogan, 'Black man, you're on your own!' There seem to be more 'self' appreciating stories to be told, which would not be articulated adequately within academic discourses.

The following quote from Biko (1978) illustrates the need for black people to tell their stories:

But the type of black man we have today has lost his manhood. Reduced to an obliging shell, he looks with awe at the white power structure and accepts what he regards as the 'inevitable position'. Deep inside his anger mounts at the accumulating insult, but he vents it in the wrong direction - on his fellow man in the township, on the property of black people. No longer does he trust leadership, for the 1963 mass arrests were blameable on bungling by the leadership, nor is there any to trust. In the privacy of his toilet his face twists in silent condemnation of white society but brightens up in sheepish obedience as he comes out hurrying in response to his master's impatient call. In the home-bound bus or train he joins the chorus that roundly condemns the white man but is first to praise the government in the presence of the police or his employers. His heart yearns for the comfort of white society and makes him blame himself for not having been 'educated' enough to warrant such luxury. Celebrated achievements by whites in the field of science - which he understands only hazily - serve to make him rather convinced of the futility of resistance and to throw away any hopes that change may ever come. All in all the black man has become a shell, a shadow of man, completely defeated, drowning in his own misery, a slave, an ox bearing the yoke of oppression with sheepish timidity. (pp. 28-29)

Nevertheless, Hopkins (2002:166) argues that the future of black theology also lies in establishing good theories, that would be able to work and contest with other disciplines. He (2002) states:

… the complexities facing the black community and church in the twenty-first century demand a more sophisticated theoretical framework. What structure of concepts can aid the liberation conclusions and practices of black theology? What insights might be taken from various academic disciplines and related experiences from liberation theologies in the Third World? What theories can help black theology move from its primary sources of African American experiences to its theological conclusions about God's intention for oppressed humanity? For example, how do those concerned with black religion take interviews with ex-slaves or the rap music of black youth and jump to conclusions about what Jesus Christ is telling poor black folk to say and do? Theory can become a vital tool for clarity in the story of God's working with the black poor to move them from being passive victims of oppression to being active people searching for a more compassionate and just lifestyle for all of creation. (p. 167)

Hopkins (2002) states the following that is near to a black theology of story:

Finally, the second generation will have to build and show models of basic Christian communities in local areas on the everyday level. Such locations, centred on a particular church or household meetings of African American Christians, would teach, preach, and practice a black theology of Liberation for all to see and hear. (p. 169)

It is needed for black churches to question the rigid forms of liturgy that have become a covert form of oppression that fails to speak the language of their suffering because it starts from the academic discourses on liturgy that are often limited to European thinkers, which accidentally have also been referred to as Reformers. Reformers for what context? Through the singing, as Cone (1997:51-53) suggests the contents should speak to their concrete context, not only spiritual salvation but salvation for the 'here-and-now'.

Therefore, it is strange that you still have Reformed Churches that critique many of the Pentecostal Churches, offering opportunities for members, mostly oppressed by their social, economic, and political realities, to tell their stories of Jesus' intervention, where they are allowed to express their emotions to the oppressing realities, and the God of history's intervention. Jacobs (2003:6) does offer some critique of 'personal testimonies' which is often self-glorifying than glorifying Jesus Christ, but this does not provide sufficient reason to jettison it and to elevate academic, philosophical content in the place of such a 'social' epistemology. There should be more other epistemologies used in worship services, such as poetry, music, personal testimonies than 'book-learning' pastors, as Cone (1997:53) warns.

A narrative approach in Black Theology of Liberation

Black Theology of Liberation can only be dead if there are no more stories of black oppression. However, a suggested storied approach for BTL is more than merely story forms¹³ (as the above section might suggest), but an approach which could be defined as providing epistemological 'ecotones',¹⁴ also vulnerable knowledge spaces, between different epistemologies, that would enrich the academic conversations, and arguments in search for a non-racial society. Muller (2017) offers this concept in his conversation of narrative not only as story forms but as a narrative approach that would allow the 'co-habitation' of knowledge systems to adapt and find ways to survive for the future. Emmanuel Katongole's (2009) idea of 'wild space' denotes a similar idea, which he argues is needed in response to the Rwanda genocide that took place between the Hutus and the Tutsis. The question remains what will a narrative approach render for BTL in the future? It can become instrumental especially in the context of racialised identities in the South African context.¹⁵ A postfoundational approach is an approach that does not work from universalised principles, but from 'fragments'¹⁶ bringing it in a domain with other 'fragments' or stories, to then develop, and co-construct with other oppressed, and oppressive story. Furthermore, this is not an ending process because what was created becomes another fragment, and so the 'constructing narrative' continues. This means that a post-foundationalist approach will work from a plurality of epistemologies, which BTL should espouse to keep its relevance.

For instance, Strauss anlysises the memoir of Van Wyk,¹⁷ which tells of his experience of race relations in the coloured¹⁸ township of Riverlea (Van Wyk 2014). He lauded, in one way, the Black Consciousness Movement for opening up avenues for 'interracial identification within which performances of colouredness - subsumed under the heading "blackness" - could be staged as resistance to apartheid'. He argues that this allowed for '…oppositional vocabularies forged by the BCM …' which broadened the identity narratives available to coloured South Africans by foregrunding intra-black connections'. However, he laments the limitations, '… despite its revision of interpersonal relations, Black Consciousness ideology did not always accommodate all oppressed groups equally' (2014:37-38).

Therefore at least the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) calls us towards 'self-identification', meaning that though apartheid might have forced such a racial classification, it does not own coloured people's culture that has developed as a result of such a 'forced categorisation' and the malicious reasons that went into it. Therefore, should someone call themselves a 'coloured' by their own choice, this would not be forced, but out of free will - to call them what they want (cf. Adhikari 2004). This would offer BTL the broader 'oppressive narratives'. It would assist coloured people in saying that their cultural identity matters; that their 'culture' should not be demonised or excluded from black epistemologies. Often coloured people 'forsworn' their history, for political correctness.

However, part of the black project would be to write up their storied histories from their oppression and suppression in society. Through this, a 'self-love' would develop to write 'black' stories also from the different ethnic, gendered communities. This would indeed enrich the 'texture' of black theologies. Coloured communities, therefore, become itself an 'epistemological resource' for black liberation theologies.¹⁹ The BCM would provide the cue for a 'broad epistemological base' for all oppressive histories and coloured identities to be at home.

Besides, the call for BTL to address oppressive identities such as 'racialised identities' in South Africa, we witness as well the call from women theologians to address the oppression of women in BTL,²⁰ as well queer ontology by queer theologians in South Africa.²¹ In pursuing a 'narrative approach' black theology become an engagement through an interdisciplinary, inter, cultural, inter-racial, and intersectional approach which a broader narrative epistemological approach would provide.

 

Conclusion

In this article, narrative was discussed both as a form and as part of a narrative approach. We are reminded of the words of Cone (1975:144), 'The [black people] did not debate religion on an abstract theological level but lived their religion concretely in history'. Though Cone has discussed and promoted narrative, there is still much to do to ensure a narrative approach is properly pursued within black theology.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

E.B. is the sole author of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Eugene Baron
barone@unisa.ac.za

Received: 17 May 2023
Accepted: 13 Nov. 2023
Published: 16 Feb. 2024

 

 

1 . See Cone's quotation in above.
2 . Lately, Baron (2022) has also made reference to the role that testimonies of Pentecostals within liturgical spaces can play in order to ensure the resilience of religion in times of adversity. These are acts that strengthen the integration between God and everyday life challenges. See his chapter, Baron (2022).
3 . See in particular his book, Van Huyssteen (1997).
4 . This should in no way be mistaken as 'anti-foundational' as anti-foundational will only assume some sort of static positioning, and in opposition to a foundationalist approach. In anti-foundationalism, it would mean to commence from no foundation. However, postfoundationalism suggests that we have some knowledge which is integrated knowledge, and continually undergoing changes.
5 . Muller makes specific reference to the Belhar Confession that was adopted by the then Dutch Reformed Mission Church (DRC) in 1986 in South Africa, and since embraced by the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa. It has, since the talks on unity between the black church and the white DRC, became a contentious document, and almost seen as the stumbling block towards organic unity between the two churches.
6 . Hooks was influenced by the work of Paolo Freire on liberative educational praxis. She, however, focussed more on black women in academic spaces. Her book Teaching to Transgress is here of particular importance.
7 . (See Kearney's explanation on this phase of storying by Ricoeur in his book On Stories)
8 . Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was a French philosopher.
9 . See for instance Stephen Crites' argument that there are two different experiences, 'sacred' and 'mundane'.
10 . See his Chapter 2, 'The terrible beauty of the cross'.
11 . This is obviously in Bosch's terms a narrowed understanding of rationality, which would exclude 'experience' as a rational category and source of knowledge production.
12 . According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, it entails 'the practice or advocacy of controlled selective breeding of human populations (as by sterilization) to improve the population's genetic composition'.
13 . See Ganzevoort's (2014:3) distinction between story forms and narrative approaches.
14 . Here is one of the definitions of ecotone, 'a transitional area of vegetation between two different plant communities, such as forest and grassland. It has some of the characteristics of each bordering biological community and often contains species not found in the overlapping communities'.
15 . See further the chapter of Baron, '"Racialised cultures" within a Black liberationist paradigm' in the forthcoming book, Solomons and Baron (2023).
16 . This idea, I have taken from the work of David Tracy, and his book Analogical Imagination.
17 . His book is named, Van Wyk (2014).
18 . The word 'coloured' here refers to the apartheid government in South Africa's racial classification for those not white, or African but from mixed descent. This was ratified through the Population Registration Act of 1950.
19 . See for instance the illustrative work done by Jodamus (2022) on the role of the 'Pinkster kerk' specifically the version on the Cape Flats. See also the article of Baron (2020) on the 'socio-political' history of the neo-Pentecostal church on the Cape Flats, and how their spirituality was from the context oppression and marginalisation, and the 'getuienisse' [testimonies] was not only spiritual, but from the wells of oppressed coloured people on the Cape Flats.
20 . See her thesis in 2018, 'A womanist dialogue with Black Theology of Liberation in the Twenty first century' an unpublished PhD thesis at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. See also Allan Boesak's book published in 2020 entitled, Children of the Waters of Meribah: Black Liberation Theology, the Miriamic Tradition, and the Challenges of the 21st Century Empire.
21 . See the chapter of Moshoadiba, M.W., 'Black Liberation Theology and Queer Ontology: A Dialogue' in the forthcoming book, Solomons and Baron (2023).

^rND^sAdhikari^nM.^rND^sBaron^nE.^rND^sBaron^nE.^rND^sBosch^nD.J.^rND^sCone^nJ.H.^rND^sCrites^nS.^rND^sEvans^nJ.H.^rND^sGanzevoort^nR.R.^rND^sJodamus^nJ.^rND^sKlaasen^nJ.S.^rND^sMoore^nB.^rND^sMuller^nJ.C.^rND^sMuller^nJ.C.^rND^sMuller^nJ.C.^rND^sMuller^nJ.C.^rND^sMuller^nJ.C^rND^1A01^nWillem H.^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver^rND^1A01^nWillem H.^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver^rND^1A01^nWillem H^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Θεός, Father and the 'Holy Trinity' in the New Testament

 

 

Willem H. Oliver; Erna Oliver

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History, and Missiology, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The term 'Holy Trinity', not known to the writers of the Bible, is still an elusive term to use nowadays, especially when one first reads the New Testament in light of the Old Testament and not immediately in light of the Creeds and Statements of Faith. This article discusses the roles of Θεός (God) and 'Father' in the New Testament with reference to the Holy Trinity. The conclusion is that the New Testament does not depict a Holy Trinity, but rather portrays Θεός as a coordinator, bringing a harmony between his anthropomorphic assignments 'Father', 'Son' and 'Holy Spirit', as well as all the followers of Θεός on Earth.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: On the first level, this article covers the disciplines of Old Testament, New Testament (NT) and Practical Theology. On the second level, it makes use of philosophy and logics to help determine the 'truths' in the Bible. Who is Θεός? We propose that the NT depicts him as coordinator of his three revelations, 'Father', 'Son' and 'Holy Spirit'. Using anthropomorphic terms, Θεός reveals himself to his followers on Earth. The Bible is used as the main source, with references to the three Creeds and four Statements of Faith.

Keywords: God; Yahweh; Father; Holy Trinity; Jesus; Holy Spirit; Bible.

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The human being naturally seeks wisdom. A sign of this is that all human cultures inevitably seek to derive ultimate explanations of reality. These typically function as final principles of explanation, and as references for motivation and moral justification in practical action. (White 2022:1)

 

The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit - The 'Holy Trinity'

In this article the authors investigate the way in which the Bible portrays the usages of the terms Θεός (God) and 'Father'. This article acts as a continuation of three articles on the topic of the Trinity, which are already published by the authors.¹ The relevant Creeds and Statements of Faith are also shortly reviewed. This article discusses the usage of the terms Θεός and 'Father', focussing on the New Testament (NT) - with reference to the 'Holy Trinity'.

 

Preliminary notes on the Holy Trinity

When we as Christians or theologians discuss or are inquired about our faith, the first source we rightly resort to is the Bible, as the Bible forms the basis for our belief in God. Together with the Bible, the Reformed Christians adhere to three Creeds, namely the Apostles' Creed (CRC 2023c),² the Nicene Creed (CRC 2023d),³ and the Athanasian Creed (CRC 2023e).⁴ Many Reformed Christians also observe four Statements of Faith, namely the Heidelberg Catechism (CRC 2023f),⁵ the Belgic Confession (1561),⁶ the Canons of Dort (CRC 2023b)⁷ and the Confession of Belhar (1986).⁸ These Creeds and Statements, most Christians believe, are in perfect synchronisation with the Bible. Thus, if the Bible is not explicit (enough) about a theological issue, these documents are there to give or add the necessary information.

When we are therefore questioned about a theological topic like the Holy Trinity, we first take the Bible as reference point. As the Bible does not use the term or has a doctrine on the Holy Trinity (cf. Snyman 2022:1 of 7), we then interpret the contents of the Bible in terms of the Creeds and Statements to verify our thoughts about the Trinity 'containing three "Persons" in or sharing "one essence" (or "being" or "nature")' (Tuggy 2020:27).⁹ Interestingly, of the mentioned Creeds, only the Athanasian Creed (more recent than the other two) uses the term 'Trinity' - six times - and of the Statements, only the Belgic Confession refers to the Trinity - five times.¹⁰ In fact, the Heidelberg Catechism also refers to the Trinity twice, without using the term. Let us take a cursory look at these applications.

Connected to the term 'Trinity', the Athanasian Creed¹¹ very adamantly states that only those who hold the catholic faith will be saved (CRC 2023c [emphasis added]):

That we worship one God in Trinity and the Trinity in unity…Nothing in this Trinity is before or after, nothing is greater or smaller; in their entirety the three Persons are coeternal and coequal¹² with each other. So in everything, as was said earlier, we must worship their Trinity in their unity and their unity in their Trinity. Anyone then who desires to be saved should think thus about the Trinity. (p.1)

The Creed unequivocally argues that if someone wants 'to be saved', that person has to think in the same line as the Creed. When one takes a look at the Bible, this primary source of our belief (system) supplies us with the following picture about salvation, specifically where the clause 'will be saved' is used:

• Joel 2:32 (Jo 3:5 in the Hebrew Bible) states: 'And everyone who calls on the Name of Yahweh will be saved'.

• In Romans 11:26 we read how Israel will be saved: '…in this way all Israel will be saved. As it is written: "The deliverer will come from Zion; he will turn godlessness away from Jacob"'.

• Matthew 10:22 (cf. 24:13; Mk 13:13, 16) states that everyone who stands firm (ὑποµένω[in their faith?]) to the end, will be saved.

• In John 10:9 Jesus narrates that everyone who chooses him as the 'gate' will be saved.

• Acts 2:21 claims that 'everyone who calls on the Name of the Lord [κύριος (Jesus?)] will be saved.'

• Acts 11:14 relates how the message of Peter saved a man (and his family?).

• In line with John 3:16, Acts 16:31 claims, 'Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved' (cf. also Rm 19:13).

• Romans 10:9 clarifies it more elaboratively: 'If you declare with your mouth, "Jesus is Lord", and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved'.

These verses from the Bible paint some other picture than the references by the Creed, that did not once refer to a Holy Trinity or the three Persons of the Trinity to be saved. The above statement by the Athanasian Creed should therefore be regarded as positivistic and not fully in line with the Bible. Branson (2022:9) correctly premises that '[i]f a later catholic teaching contradicts a central New Testament teaching, Christians should reject the former and accept the latter'. It is therefore better to rely on the biblical truth.

The Belgic Confession refers to the Trinity in Articles 8, 9 and 11. Let us first look at Article 8:

Article 8: The Trinity

In keeping with this truth and Word of God, we believe in one God, who is one single essence, in whom there are three Persons, really, truly, and eternally distinct according to their incommunicable properties - namely, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Father is the cause, origin, and source of all things, visible as well as invisible. The Son is the Word, the Wisdom, and the image of the Father. The Holy Spirit is the eternal power and might, proceeding from the Father and the Son. Nevertheless, this distinction does not divide God into three, since Scripture teaches us that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit each has a distinct subsistence distinguished by characteristics - yet in such a way that these three Persons are only one God. It is evident then that the Father is not the Son and that the Son is not the Father, and that likewise the Holy Spirit is neither the Father nor the Son. Nevertheless, these Persons, thus distinct, are neither divided nor fused or mixed together. For the Father did not take on flesh, nor did the Spirit, but only the Son. The Father was never without the Son, nor without the Holy Spirit, since all these are equal from eternity, in one and the same essence. There is neither a first nor a last, for all three are one in truth and power, in goodness and mercy. (Belgic Confession 1561:31-32)

The same argument given at the Athanasian Creed also applies here. In line with the Athanasian Creed, the Belgic Confession adds that 'the Father was never without the Son, nor without the Holy Spirit' (Belgic Confession 1561:32). The implication here is that the three Persons are together from eternity. However, just a few lines above this statement, the Confession clearly refers to the Holy Spirit as 'proceeding from the Father and the Son'. Is this not an indication that the Father (and the Son) preceded the Spirit (cf. Jn 15:26)?¹³ Added to these, do the given Names not in itself depict a hierarchy and not an equality - especially the terms 'Father' and 'Son' (cf. Branson 2022:21)? Furthermore, why is the Holy Spirit as a Person so 'silent' in the NT - not speaking much if ever (directly) - although many actions are ascribed to him?¹⁴ Also, is it not strange to refer to a Person as a 'spirit'? When asking questions like these, the proponents of the Trinity simple answer in line with the Creed, 'It's a mystery' (cf. Krill & McCullouch 2022; Tuggy 2020:28; Van De Beek 2022:4 of 9; White 2022:2, 4, 21). The disruptive reaction to this statement could be: 'Was it the intention of Yahweh or Θεός to shroud himself (themselves?) in a mystery through all the centuries, or are the Christians throughout history the culprits doing it?'

Article 9 of the Belgic Confession refers to 'The Scriptural witness on the Trinity' (Belgic Confession 1561:32). Verses used as proof that the Old Testament (OT) depicts a plurality of Yahweh within himself, are Genesis 1:26-27 and 3:22. However, as argued by Westermann (1984:145; cf. also Oliver & Oliver 2019:2), these verses designate 'a plural of deliberation, in fact referring only to one Person'. The verses from the NT that are used as witness to the Holy Trinity are Matthew 3:17, 28:19, Luke 1:35 and 2 Corinthians 13:14: All these verses are clear references as to how Yahweh (called Θεός in the NT) revealed himself in anthropomorphic terms to his people as three (separate) Persons, working in very close proximity with each other - after the birth of Jesus. It therefore seems that the three Persons as such are not coeternal, specifically not in Yahweh's revelation to his people. To our mind, therefore, these verses do not depict a three-in-one Holy Trinity. Having stated these, Tuggy (2020:28) is seemingly correct when he argues: '[T]here is no idea of a triune God in the Bible'.

Interestingly, the Heidelberg Catechism (1563:76) refers to the Holy Trinity in questions 25 and 53, without using the term. Question 25 asks: 'Since there is only one divine being, why do you speak of three: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit?' Then follows the almost correct answer: 'Because that is how God has revealed himself in his Word: These three distinct persons are one, true, eternal God'. What is correct is the fact that this is how God has revealed himself - but only in the NT and not the entire Bible. Then, it is true that these three Persons are One true God, but it is seemingly not true to refer to the three Persons as 'eternal', as Yahweh did not reveal himself in the OT in the same way as in the NT. This also goes for Question 53 (using the term 'eternal').

These decisions taken at the formation of the above Creeds and Statements on the Trinity have become the Christians' 'Bible' with reference to the Trinity. On account of these decisions, Christians have construed an entire epistemology and ontology about and for the Trinity, without really taking into consideration what the Bible states in this concern.¹⁵ Additionally, even to this very day the church confirms that the points of view being labelled as heresies by the Ecumenical Councils (e.g. Council of Constantinople 381; Council of Nicaea 325) during these times (e.g. against Arianism, Modalism [Monarchianism] and Sabellianism) are currently still in contrast with 'God's word', without taking the Bible as the main source to verify these allegations.

This way of reasoning has caused scholars - in line with these Creeds and Statements, read together with decisions taken by specifically the Councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (Council of Constantinople 381) - to allow themselves the freedom to bring about their own 'metaphors' about the Holy Trinity, implying that these are in line with the Bible (cf. Marmion & Van Nieuwenhove 2011:16-17, 244). A prime example of this is the metaphor given by Bentley (2023):

So how do we bring this (transcendence, immanence and experienced reality) together in a metaphor that is true to the doctrine of God as Trinity and our belief that we are beings who are in the image of God? Let me suggest the following metaphor…In this metaphor, I would like to suggest that the first person of the Trinity is represented by the reflection on the pane of glass [inside the projector]. It also represents transcendence, that which is beyond the scope of our reason, experience or understanding. The second person of the Trinity is represented in the image on the screen. Being the exact image of the first person, the second person of the Trinity makes the infinitely inaccessible accessible in human form. This is the Word that has become flesh. The second person does not take anything away from the first person, nor adds to it [sic.], but is, because the first person is. The light which binds the image on the pane of glass and the image on the screen, represents the third person of the Trinity. As Augustine described, the Spirit is the bond of love between the Father and the Son. None of the three persons of the Trinity can be without the others. The persons cannot operate independently and are isolated from each other. The persons are the three-in-one. (pp. 6-7)

This is such a striking metaphor, encapsulating the Christians' view of the Holy Trinity and in line with the decisions taken by the Christian Creeds and Statements. However, the question that we should bluntly ask, is: Is this metaphor based on the Bible or just in line with the Creeds, Statements and Councils? It really looks as if the Bible is more on the realistic side with reference to the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, as portrayed in the NT, while the Creeds, Statements and Councils started to move over to the mysterious side with a concoction called 'the Trinity'. Let us take a look at Figure 1, reworked from the one published by Oliver and Oliver (2021:2 of 8):

With reference to Figure 1, we are currently living in the era between Jesus' birth and his Second Coming, after his Ascension. Before this era, Yahweh revealed himself as One to his people, as it is portrayed in the OT. During the current time, Yahweh (now called Θεός) is presenting and revealing himself in anthropomorphic terms to his people, as Father, Son and Holy Spirit - three separate Persons working in a close relation and proximity - according to the Bible and in line with the mentioned Councils. However, in line with the Bible, this article argues that the NT does not depict Θεός as a Trinity in which the Father, Jesus and the Holy Spirit are mysteriously enshrined, captured or captivated in one entity, but that these three Persons are the way in which Θεός revealed and is revealing himself to humankind, using anthropomorphic terms to do so. According to 1 Corinthians 15:14-28, this way in which Θεός is revealing himself to humankind, will most probably end after Jesus' Second Coming.

The idea of a Trinity ('three Person and one Being') being drafted and implemented by the mentioned Creeds and Statements was obviously unknown to the biblical authors. The NT therefore rather propagates the idea of Θεός, the main Deity, revealing himself through three Persons, the Father (of Jesus Christ), Jesus (his Son) and the Holy Spirit. In many verses in the NT, we read about the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, each with his own characteristics. Concomitant to Figure 1, it makes sense within this period between Jesus' birth and his Second Coming. The term יְהֹוָה is applicable to the time before Jesus' birth and most probably after his Second Coming, indicating that (1) Yahweh was never shrouded in a mystery of a Trinitarian unity: He is who he is(cf. Ex 3:14), and (2) after Jesus' Second Coming, Yahweh (Θεός) will then (most probably) cease to reveal himself in an anthropomorphic way and once again only present himself as One to his people (in Heaven) (cf. 1 Cor 15:28 within the context of 1 Cor 15:[12]20-28).

To summarise our view about Θεός, we contrast the definition of Branson' Unitarian Theology to Trinitarian Theology (cf. Branson 2022:17-18), but then we add our part to it, distinguishing us from both:

Trinitarian Theology:

• There are three eternal divine Persons.

• There is only one God.

Unitarian Theology:

• There is exactly one divine Person or individual - the Father.

• There is exactly one God.

Our God-as-One view:

• There is only one eternal God and/or divine Person, called יְהֹוָה (Θεός).

• Between Jesus' birth and Second Coming he reveals himself in anthropomorphic terms to his people as Father, Jesus Christ (Son) and Holy Spirit.

 

Introductory notes on Θεός

The term Θεός in all its declensions appears more than 1300 times in the NT. The general translation for the term is God. However, to whom does this term refer? Most scholars argue that, in line with the common faith held by Christians all over the world, the term refers to or includes the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit - the Holy Trinity (cf. Bentley 2023:2 of 7; Branson 2022:22; Zizioulas 1983:40-41, 88-89). This assumption needs verification from NT texts that should confirm it. Research should clearly indicate where the term Θεός in the NT is a clear reference to three Persons.¹⁶ A good case could be made that the term is just used as a continuation of the term יְהֹוָה used in the OT, equalling Θεός to יְהֹוָה (cf. below). This implies that the term Θεός does not refer to a tripersonal deity (cf. Branson 2022:10, 12), but to a unipersonal (not tri-personal) deity - one God (Ga 3:20; 1 Cor 8:4, 6 [Father]; Jas 2:19) - who after the birth of Jesus, has revealed himself as Father, Son and Holy Spirit (anthropomorphic terms) - according to the Bible.

Although there are a few texts referring to Jesus as Θεός (e.g. Jn 1:1; Tt 2:13, and 2 Pt 1:1) - creating the allusion that Jesus could be equated with Θεός (which should not be ignored) - the Holy Spirit is not directly referred to as Θεός. Even in NT texts referring to the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit in combination, like Matthew 28:19 and 2 Cor 13:14, they are not referred to as a triune entity, but as three separate Persons acting in close proximity.

Many scholars argue that Θεός only refers to 'the Father' (cf. Szymik 2020; Tuggy 2020) - called a Unitarian view (Branson 2022:8; Tuggy 2020:28)¹⁷ - with reference to quite a few texts in the Bible where the authors refer to the 'God and Father (of Jesus Christ)' (cf. Rm 15:6), therefore equating Θεός with 'Father'.¹⁸ These scholars could have a point, as there are at least 40 texts in the NT referring to Θεός as Father.¹⁹ However, the big difference between being unitarian (equating them to each other) and referring to Θεός as Father, is that in the latter instance, the Father is complemented by his Son and the Holy Spirit. Additionally, there is a myriad of texts in the NT referring to 'the Father', implying that the authors may have Θεός in mind (cf. footnote 14). Then there are texts that clearly refer to Θεός (the Father) and Jesus as separate Persons, and to different relations between Θεός and Jesus (cf. Section 4.2.1), especially to Jesus being his Son. Θεός is even sometimes called the 'Θεός (and Father) of Jesus Christ' (cf. Rm 15:6). There are, however, also many texts referring to Θεός as such, without attaching any other term to it. These texts will be discussed in more detail below and must act as indicators of how we should reason about Θεός - the God whom we worship.

This article aims to indicate that Θεός himself in the NT times (and up to today) is an autonomous (in fact solitary) Person, called 'God', revealing himself as Father, working together with his Son, whom he has sent to Earth (cf. e.g. Lk 1:26-35; Jn 5:37, 6:44, 57, 8:16, 18, 42, 12:49, 14:24, 20:21; 1 Jn 4:14), and the Holy Spirit, whom he has sent after his Son (cf. e.g. Jn 14:16, 26, 13:3; 15:26; 16:27, 30; Ga 4:6), all three as separate and autonomous Persons - anthropomorphically speaking. As will be discussed below, in this sense, Θεός therefore acts as some kind of a coordinator in the NT, revealing himself as the Father, Jesus, his Son and the Holy Spirit, working in close proximity.

A very applicable question is, Is Θεός of the NT the same God as Yahweh of the OT? A counter-question could be, Is there any difference between them, like the God of the OT being a God of wrath (Carson 1999) compared to the God of the NT being a God of grace (Piper 2013)? This article suggests that he has remained the same God - Yahweh - whom we discover in both Testaments (cf. Section 4.1). Nowhere in the NT is it indicated that we now have a 'new God' working with his people, and that he has therefore replaced the 'old God'. We in fact discover a continuation from the OT to the NT - the texts will be discussed below. Nowhere in the NT the question is even asked whether this God that Jesus proclaimed was a new God. Not even the Jews who opposed Jesus, thought so. They rather accused Jesus of stating that he would 'destroy the temple of God (in fact Yahweh's temple) and rebuild it in three days' (Mt 26:61), or that he was the Son of God (here they also had Yahweh in mind) (Mt 19:7).

The three main differences (for this article) between the two Testaments are (1) the language in which they are presented, (2) the presenters themselves - the authors and (3) the time in which they were written. Furthermore, from a Christian perspective, the NT is a continuation of the OT. In fact, the two Testaments form one entire Testament, which is God-breathed (2 Tm 3:16), being written over a couple of centuries by different authors, living in different places (communities) with different ways of thinking.

Just like the OT depicted Yahweh as One, Θεός is also depicted in the NT as One; however, in anthropomorphic terms, revealing himself as a 'company of three Persons', namely the Father, the Son, called Jesus (Christ) and the (Holy) Spirit - where the latter two are both being sent from Θεός to his people (as indicated above). Nowhere in the NT one gets the indication (or feeling) that the term Θεός is referring to the Father and the Son simultaneously or for that matter to all three Persons simultaneously. Here we will focus on the NT where the term Θεός is used in different ways or combinations with other terms:

1. Θεός as reference to and continuation of Yahweh (the God who made Heaven and Earth).

2. Θεός as the Father (of Jesus) in the NT.

In line with the previous research (being referred to in footnote 1), this article supplies only marginal notes to all the scholarly articles already being written on this subject. The contribution that these articles want to make, is to add an alternative to the general, traditional, reformative view that interprets the NT (more than oft including the OT) as a narration about a Trinity. We would rather like to resort to an analytic theology (not a Trinitarian theology per se), performing an analysis of the terms in which the terms referring to God are expressed specifically in the NT.

This research links with Nils Dahl, who, in the previous century, has argued that God is the 'neglected factor' in NT theology (Dahl 1991:153-163). He claims that there are three reasons for a lack of literature on the theme of God (Dahl 1991:154-156):

• Scholars tend to study and discuss the NT from a Christological perspective.

• A lack of thematic formulations about God in the NT.

• Mostly, references to God in the NT are made within contexts referring to some other theme.

Even today, although many scholars (like Chen 2005; eds. Downs & Skinner 2013:back cover; Thompson 2001) may claim that these words are not true anymore, this premise of Dahl still rings true to some extent: We should do more research on how Θεός revealed himself in the NT times to his people (cf. Branson 2022:7), specifically what we read about him in the NT, instead of resorting to metaphors about the Trinity (cf. Van De Beek 2022:8 of 9).

 

The use of the term Θεός in the New Testament

Θεός as continuation of יְהֹוָה

In the Greek NT, the term θεός is used as translation for the Hebrew יְהֹוָה. Interestingly, Θεός is in fact the Greek translation for the Hebrew אֱלֹהִים, while κύριος is the Greek translation for יְהֹוָה. However, most of the time, the term θεός is used in the NT when referring to יְהֹוָה, while κύριος is used ample times with reference to Jesus (cf. e.g. Mt 17:4; 18:21; 20:30). In the NT, there are many verses referring to the OT, indicating that Θεός of the NT is in fact equated to and a continuation of יְהֹוָה in the OT (mostly given below in chronological sequence). In these verses Θεός as Person is in many cases not a direct reference to the Father, the Son or the Holy Spirit, but an autonomous entity, just like יְהֹוָה. The following verses are references as to where the term Θεός in fact refers to יְהֹוָה:

• Θεός was there from eternity (Jn 1:1-2).

• Θεός created the world - the Heavens and the Earth, the universe - everything (Mk 13:19; Ac 14:15; Ac 17:24; 2 Cor 4:6; Eph 3:9; He 11:3; 2 Pt 3:5; Re 4:11).

• (Invisible) qualities of Θεός (Rm 1:20).

• The sin of the angels (2 Pt 2:4).

• Θεός made the first humans (Mk 10:6, 9).

• Θεός and Abel (He 11:4); Enoch (He 11:5); Noah (1 Pt 3:20).

• The followers of Θεός²⁰ are serving the same God as their ancestors (2 Tm 1:3).

• Θεός gave his people the 10 Commandments (Mt 15:4; Rm 7:22).

• Θεός was/is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Mt 22:31; Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37; Ac 3:13; 5:30; 7:32; 13:17; Ac 22:14; Ac 24:14).

• Θεός and Abraham (Ac 7:2-7; Rm 4:2, 3, 20, 21; Ga 3:6; He 6:13, 17; 11:10, 17, 18, 19; Jas 2:23); Melchizedek (He 7:1, 3); the twins (Esau and Jacob) (Rm 9:11); Joseph (Ac 7:9).

• Θεός and Moses (Jn 9:29; Ac 7:25, 35, 37, 44; He 3:2; He 3:5; 11:25; Re 15:3); Aaron (He 5:4); Joshua (He 4:8).

• The covenant of Θεός with his people (2 Cor 6:12, 18; He 8:10; 9:20; 13:20).

• The Law of Θεός (Ga 3:17).

• Θεός drove the nations out of Canaan (Ac 7:45).

• Θεός gave his people judges in Canaan (Ac 13:20).

• Θεός and David (Ac 13:22; 13:36; Rm 4:6); Elijah (Rm 11:4); the prophets (2 Pt 1:21).

• Θεός spoke to the ancestors of Israel through the prophets (He 1:1).

• Θεός was the teacher of his people (Mt 22:31; Jn 6:45).

• Θεός overlooked their ignorance (Ac 17:30).

• Θεός once turned away from his people (Ac 7:42).

• Θεός gave his people promises, also about Jesus (Ac 13:32; Ac 26:6; Ga 3:18; Tt 1:2).

• Θεός entrusted his people with his words (Rm 3:2).

• Old Testament Scriptures used in the NT referring to Θεός (Rm 2:24; 4:17; Rm 9:26; 11:2, 8; 14:11; Rm 16:26; 1 Cor 2:9; 2 Cor 6:2; Ga 3:8; He 1:8; 3:4; 4:4, 7; 13:5; Jas 2:23; 4:6).

• Prophecies/messages ascribed to יְהֹוָה (Ac 2:17, 30; 3:18; 10:36; Rm 1:1-2; 3:21).

These verses are a clear indication that the God of the NT is just a continuation of the OT God, only in a different language and with a 'new' Name.

Θεός as the 'Father' in the New Testament

According to Szymik (2020:498), Jesus can be regarded as 'the source and starting point of the New Testament theology of God the Father'. John 20:17 implies that the Father is God. The term Θεός, referring to Father in the NT, is used in at least four categories, namely as the Father of his Son, Jesus,²¹ as the Lord of Heaven and Earth,²² as the Father of his people (according to Ac 17:29, God's people is his offspring),²³ and in a general way, being just referred to as 'the Father'.²⁴ Al these verses indicate that the Early Church was familiar with the Name 'Father' when referring to Θεός. The Early Church derived it from OT citations that have constituted the origin for calling Θεός the Father during Jesus' stay on Earth (Szymik 2020:489). However, individual Jews did not have the privilege to call God this way (Szymik 2020:486). The term 'Father' (אָב) referring to Yahweh, only occurs in the OT on a few occasions (cf. e.g. Dt 32:6; Is 9:6, 63:16 [2x], 64:8; Jr 3:4, 19; Mal 2:10), while there are other texts referring to the Fatherhood of Yahweh and the sonship of his people, Israel (cf. Ex 4:22; Hos 11:1; Is 63:16; Jr 31:9), linked to the words of God's covenant with his people, being established for the first time between him and Abram in Genesis 15 (short version in Gn 17:7 […to be your (Abram's) God and the God of your descendants after you;] cf. Ex 6:7) and Leviticus 26:12 (the more elaborated version: I will walk among you and be your God, and you will be my people) (cf. Ringgren 1977:3-5, 16-17; Schrenk & Quell 1966:959-974).

Θεός as the Father (of Jesus) in the New Testament

We will only elaborate on this point of how Θεός revealed himself in the NT, and not on the other three categories indicated in the section above. The Gospel according to John can be regarded as the 'culmination of the development of the NT idea concerning God as Father' (Szymik 2020:496). Szymik (2020:486) regards Jesus as the 'first source', referring here to the NT, who used this term.²⁵ It resulted in the Son-of-God Christology, with specific reference to Matthew 11:27 and Luke 10:22. It is important to mention here that the use of the term Αββα did not depict a sweet loving nickname, but rather a very deep relationship between the earthly Jesus and his (heavenly) Father (cf. Barr 1988; Jeremias 1988:73).

In the section above, all the verses resorting under the first category are referring to Θεός as the Father of Jesus. In the NT, Jesus constantly made use of anthropomorphic terms to indicate his relationship with God to his people, referring to God as (my) 'Father', sometimes 'Abba'²⁶ (Aramaic) or on a rare occasion, the combination, 'Abba Father' (Mk 14:36).²⁷

We also read in the NT that God refers to Jesus as his Son (Mk 1:11; 9:7), implying therefore that he is the Father of Jesus Christ (cf. Col 1:3). Even before Jesus' birth, the angel Gabriel already called him 'Son of God' (Lk 1:35), his people referred to him as the Son of God (Mt 14:33; 16:16; Jn 11:27; Ac 9:20), a Pharisee called him the Son of God (Jn 1:49), others admitted that he was the Son of God (Mt 27:54), and ultimately he himself has claimed to be the Son of God (cf. Mt 27:43; Lk 22:70; Jn 5:25). Interestingly, even the demons referred to Jesus as the Son of God (Mt 8:29). In 1 Corinthians 11:3, we read that God is the head of Christ. Ephesians 1:17 and Revelation 1:6 even state that he is the God of Christ. John 14:28 elaborates on this, stating that the Father is greater than Christ (in contrast to the Athanasian Creed).

The term 'Father' was already used - though not widely - for Yahweh in the OT, in verses like Psalm 89:26, Isaiah 63:16, 64:8, Malachi 2:10 and Jeremiah 3:4, 31:9. In Exodus 4:22, Hosea 11:11 and Jeremiah 31:9, 20, one finds that Israel is referred to as the 'son of Yahweh'. These OT instances are regarded as the primary contexts or bases for the NT referrals to God as Father, although it was not used as a dominant theme, specifically in the OT (Szymik 2020:491). In the NT, we find the close relationship between Jesus and his Father depicted in texts like Mark 8:38 and 13:32 (cf. also Jn 8:54) and between the disciples and the Father in Mark 11:25 (cf. Mt 6:14).

However, to commonly equate the term Θεός in the NT with 'Father' is incorrect (against Tuggy [cf. e.g. Tuggy 2020] and Branson [cf. e.g. Branson 2018a, 2018b, 2018c]), except where he is pertinently called 'God the Father' or where the context indicates it. This intitulation has its origin in the Egyptian diaspora during the 2nd century BCE (Szymik 2020:489). Jesus fondly referred and spoke to his 'Father in Heaven' (cf. e.g. Mt 7:21; 10:32; 26:29-42). In the Sermon on the Mount, he even referred to 'your Father [in Heaven]' (cf. Mt 5:16, 45, 48; 6:1, 4, 6, etc.) when he spoke to the crowd of followers.

Jesus' statements in the Gospels reveal the 'unique relationship of closeness between the Father and the Son' (Szymik 2020:494), indicating that he had full knowledge of his Father, complemented by full access to him (cf. Jn 10:15, 30). When he taught his disciples to pray, he even indicated to them to start with '(our) Father' (cf. Mt 6:9; Lk 11:2). However, nowhere do we get the indication that Jesus equated himself to his Father. The closest that he got to that is where he has stated that he and his Father are one (Jn 10:30, 17:11, [21-]22). We also do not read that Jesus depicted himself as part of a mysterious connection with the Father and the Holy Spirit.

Conclusion to this section

From what we have read in this section, we conclude that the term Θεός was used as a continuation for the term יְהֹוָה of the OT, indicating that the God of the OT continued to be the God of the NT. The use of the term 'Father' in the NT is much stronger than in the OT, and in anthropomorphic terms applied to Θεός as the Father of his Son, Jesus Christ. This does not mean that Θεός was in fact just another Name for Father, as there are too many usages of the term in the NT where 'Father' is not implied. However, it is clear from the information that 'Father' is equated to Θεός and not by any means subservient to Θεός. This could be the reason why scholars like Tuggy and Branson postulate that 'Father' = Θεός.

With what can we compare the actions of Θεός in the NT? Contrasting to the Trinity theory, we can identify Θεός in the NT as some kind of a coordinator.

 

Θεός as 'coordinator'

The NT mostly refers to God with the term Θεός. The term '(Θεός the) Father' is also used often, thereby indicating that he was well known to his people as Father. Only on a few occasions Jesus is referred to as Θεός, while the Holy Spirit does not have that intitulation in the NT. When looking at all the activities and functions ascribed to Θεός in the NT, it creates the impression that he acts as some kind of a coordinator between his three revelations, Father, Son (Jesus Christ) and Holy Spirit. The following verses could be used to witness to that:

General (read together with what is said above of Θεός)

• Θεός is the saviour of his people (believers) (1 Tm 1:1; 1 Tm 2:3; 4:10; Tt 1:3; 2:10; 3:4;).

Revelation as Father

• Discussed above.

Revelation as Son

• Θεός gifted Jesus ('his Son') to the sinners (Rm 5:16-17; Ga 4:4); [The Father has sent Jesus: Jn 5:37; 6:44, 57; 8:16, 18, 42; 12:49; 14:24; 20:21; 1 Jn 4:14;]; [The Father glorifies Jesus: Jn 8:54];

• Θεός made Christ a (great) priest forever (He 7:21; 10:21);

• Θεός raised Jesus from the dead (1 Cor 6:14; 15:15; Ga 1:1; Col 2:12; 1 Pt 1:21);

• Christ is now seated at the right hand of Θεός (Col 3:1; He 10:12, 12:2; 1 Pt 3:22; Ac 2:33);

• Christ is the mediator/advocate between Θεός and humankind (1 Tm 2:5; 1 Jn 2:1);

• Θεός made Jesus the head over everything for the church (Eph 1:22);

• Christ Jesus will act as judge with his Second Coming (2 Tm 4:1).

Revelation as Holy Spirit

• Θεός gave the Holy Spirit (as a deposit) (2 Cor 5:5; Ga 4:6; Eph 1:14; 1 Th 4:8; 2 Tm 1:7; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5);

• Θεός gifted the Holy Spirit to his people (1 Cor 2:12; 2 Cor 11:4; 2 Tm 1:7; 1 Jn 3:24; 4:13; He sent him to his people (Jn 14:26; 15:26; Ga 4:6); The Spirit went out of the Father (Jn 15:26); the Holy Spirit was sent from Heaven (1 Pt 1:12);

• Christ has received the Holy Spirit from the Father and poured it out on his people (Ac 2:33);

• The followers of Θεός have access to him 'by one Spirit' (Eph 2:18).

In his revelations as Father, Son and Holy Spirit, it is obvious that Θεός plays the decisive role in determining what each Person does - in fact, what he does through each Person. However, Θεός does not only coordinate the three mentioned Persons, but he also ensures that humans live in a close relation and proximity to his three revelations:

• Humans are the handiwork of Θεός (Eph 2:10);

• Humans are the special possession of Θεός (1 Pt 2:9);

• Humans become the Imago Dei²⁸ - like Θεός (Eph 4:24);

• Humans become the heirs of Θεός (Ga 4:7);

• Θεός has equipped humans with full (spiritual) armour (Eph 6:10-20);

• Humans become a dwelling place for the Holy Spirit of Θεός (Eph 2:22);

• Humans become co-workers for Θεός (2 Cor 6:1);

• Humans become stewards of the grace of Θεός (1 Pt 4:10);

• Θεός has given his people eternal life (1 Jn 5:11);

• Θεός has given his people his Scriptures, which are God-breathed (2 Tm 3:16);

• The word of Θεός is alive and active between humans (He 4:12).

Θεός, who is the Creator of Earth, therefore takes good care, specifically of the humans that he has put on Earth, in order to give them the full opportunity to live according to his will. He has therefore created a 'visible' harmony between his creation (especially his followers on Earth) and his threefold revelation.

 

A last word

Just as it should not be our priority to try and understand the OT in light of the NT (instead of vice versa), so it should not be our focus to understand the NT (and for that matter the entire Bible) in light of the Creeds, Statements of Faith and Councils. The NT should rather be understood in light of the OT and in light of the NT itself, being self-revelatory. The question, however, could be posed: But what about the Councils then? The Councils can be regarded as an interpretation of the Bible, especially the NT - for its time. However, that time has already passed long ago. Instead of looking at the Bible from an Early Church perspective, the time is ripe for the people of God to convene a new (world) Ecumenical Council and interpret the Bible anew from a 21st-century perspective, also with reference to the Holy Trinity.

Having stated all the above, it is important to add that we will not know Θεός in his fullness before the Second Coming of Jesus Christ: 'God is more than our collective efforts to understand, capture or define God, which points to God's transcendental nature' (cf. Bentley 2023:4 of 7). However, this does not imply that we must hide Θεός behind terms like 'mystery' and 'transcendence'. Added to these: The best document to look for answers about Θεός is the Bible. In most cases, it would be better to change the term 'best' to 'only', as all the other literature is, like this article, only an interpretation of the Bible.

According to this research, God is mostly depicted in the NT as the Father of his people and of Jesus Christ. Jesus is sent by God (the Father) to his people to act as saviour for them. The Holy Spirit is also sent by God.

Although God is depicted as three separate Persons in the NT, these are only his revelations, as he remains One, although, for the sake of his followers, he has revealed himself as three separate Persons. It therefore looks as if the NT does not have a theology of a mysterious Trinity in itself. Van De Beek (2022:1 of 9; emphasis added) makes a very true statement (from his point of view): '[T]he Trinity is not more than a formula for telling that the Father, the Son and the Spirit are real [P]ersons, and really [O]ne, as well'.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exist.

Authors' contributions

W.H.O. contributed to conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, writing - original draft, project administration, software, data curation, resources, writing - review and editing. E.O. contributed to methodology, formal analysis, investigation, project administration, writing - review and editing.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Willem Oliver
wh.oliver@outlook.com

Received: 31 Oct. 2023
Accepted: 22 Nov. 2023
Published: 19 Feb. 2024

 

 

1 . Three articles (Oliver & Oliver 2019, 2021, 2023), written by the authors, precede this one. It is suggested to read these articles before engaging with this one.
2 . The Apostles' Creed is an interpretation of the apostles' teachings, produces in the 4th century CE and acts (and is used) as an ecumenical symbol of faith (CRC 2023c).
3 . The Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed (the other name for this creed) reflects the orthodox faith held by the early Christians, mostly based on the Councils of Nicaea (325 CE) Constantinople (381 CE). Whereas the Eastern and Western church agreed on its contents, they held one difference, calling it the 'filioque' clause. In the Western Church they included the clause 'and the Son' with reference to the procession of the Holy Spirit, while the Eastern Orthodox Church erased it. Whereas the Council of Chalcedon accepted the Creed in 451 CE without the clause, Pope Leo 3 (East) agreed to keeping out of the creed, while Pope Benedict 8 (West) officially added the clause (cf. Butler 2021).
4 . The Athanasian Creed got its name from Athanasius, who championed the attacks against Arius concerning the doctrine of the Trinity. Interestingly, Athanasius was not the author of this Creed, but it was commonly ascribed to him up to the 17th century. The Creed has a Latin (Western) origin and was not accepted by the Eastern church because of the filioque clause (cf. Branson 2022:14).
5 . This Catechism was compiled in 1563 as a teaching document, but later on also became a guide for preaching (CRC 2023f).
6 . The Confessio Belgica was composed in 1561 by the Reformers in order to take a clear stance against the Spanish inquisition. The primary author was Reformed pastor Guido de Brès (a former student of Calvin), and with the assistance of the theologian, Francis Junius, and he addressed it to King Philip 2 of Spain to prevent him from killing all the Protestants under his jurisdiction. This Confessio points out that the Reformed belief system was just a continuation of the ancient Christian creeds (CRC 2023a). It was accepted by the Synod of Dort 1618-1619.
7 . This polemic document against the Arminianism (under the leadership of Jacobus Arminius [the Latin form for the Dutch Jakob Hermanszoon] - who died in 1609 and was a theological Professor at Leiden) originated at an international Reformed synod, held in Dordrecht from 1618 to 1619. These canons articulated the Calvinistic beliefs, encapsulated in a really professional document (CRC 2023b).
8 . Cf. an elaborated history of this Confession in CRC (2023g). Although the Confession of Belhar is indicated here as the fourth Statement of Faith, not all Reformed Christian institutions in South Africa regard it as such. We have included the Confession of Belhar, as some Reformed churches in South Africa have accepted this Confession, e.g. the Dutch Reformed Church in Africa, already in 1991 (Fortein 2021:1 of 17).
9 . Van De Beek (2022:1 of 9) correctly adds: 'Most trinitarian theologians call on texts of the patristic period for developing their argument'.
10 . It seems as if the term 'Trinity' or references to a single triune God were not common among the theologians of the first three centuries (Hurtado 1998:2; Prestige 1952:93; Tuggy 2020:28). These include the authors of the Bible. Branson therefore correctly concludes: 'No form of Trinitarianism is consistent with the New Testament'.
11 . As we have already indicated in footnote 4, this Creed was not accepted by the Eastern Church and can therefore 'hardly be appealed to as any sort of sine qua non of Trinitarianism in general' (Branson 2022:14; original emphasis).
12 . Branson (2022:24) refers to this kind of view as the 'egalitarian' or 'symmetrical model' of the Trinity, thus branding it as 'Egalitarian Trinitarianism'.
13 . This will be discussed in the follow-up article.
14 . These include Mary being impregnated by the Holy Spirit (Lk 1:35) and his outpouring at Pentecost in Acts 2.
15 . Tuggy (2020:28) puts it this way: '[The] arguments from the Bible to the claim that there is a triune God…[are] slippery and contentious, not obvious and compelling'.
16 . Branson (2022:9) distances himself from this assumption.
17 . According to Marmion and Van Nieuwenhove (2011:Introduction), Western Christianity has a 'supposedly more Unitarian approach'. Branson (2022:7) adds to it, stating that 'all the fourth century church fathers' accepted the doctrine of the Monarchy of the Father, therefore depicting the Father as the head of the Godhead.
18 . Tuggy (2020:27), however, in line with Branson (2018a, 2018b, 2018c), grounds his argument on the fact that 'in about the first three Christian centuries the teaching was that the one God just is the Father' (Tuggy 2020:27). With a very small difference, and based on the more than 40 verses in the Bible, the Apostles' Creed (cf. Heidelberg Catechism 1563:69) that Christians recite every Sunday during public worships all over the world, also (only) refers to the Father as Θεός, thereby equating them to each other: 'I believe in God, the Father almighty', but fortunately with the one difference that it does not only refer to the Father as the only one that Christians believe in. Even in the explanation of this article by the Heidelberg Catechism (1563:77), Θεός is depicted as the 'eternal Father of our Lord Jesus Christ', 'is my God and Father' and 'God is…a faithful Father', which is therefore close to the unitarian idea although distinct from it.
19 . Cf. Romans 1:7; 15:6; 1 Corinthians 1:3; 8:6; 15:24; 2 Corinthians 1:2, 3; 11:31; Galatians 1:1, 3, 4; Ephesians 1:2, 3, 17; 4:6; 5:20; 6:23; Philippians 1:2; 2:11; 4:20; Colossians 1:2, 3; 3:17; 1 Thessalonians 1:1, 3; 3:11, 13; 2 Thessalonians 1:1, 2; 2:17; 1 Timothy 1:2; 2 Timothy 1:2; Titus 1:4; Philemon 1:3; 1 Peter 1:2, 3; 2 Peter 1:17; 1 John 3:1; 2 John 1:3; Jude 1:1; Revelation 1:6. Added to these are the Creeds and Statements of Faith that also equates Θεός to 'Father' on more than one occasion (cf. e.g. the Belgic Confession articles 12, 13, 15, 17 and 20 - Belgic Confession 1561:36, 37, 40, 41, 44).
20 . In this article, the 'children of God' will be called 'the followers of Θεός', who were in fact called 'people of the Way' (Ac 24:14) in the NT.
21 . Father-Son (relationship): Matthew 11:25, 26, 27; 12:50; 15:13; 16:17, 27; 18:10, 19, 35; 20:23; 25:34; 26:29, 39, 42, 53; Mark 8:38; 13:32; 14:36; Luke 2:49; 9:26; 10:21, 22; 22:29, 42; 23:34, 46, 49; John 1:14, 18; 2:16; 3:35; 5:17, 18, 19, 20; 6:32, 40; 8:10, 19, 27, 49, 54; 10:17, 25, 29, 37; 11:41; 12:26, 27, 28; 14:2, 7, 20, 21, 23, 31; 15:1, 8, 10, 15, 23, 24, 16:23, 25, 32; John 17:1, 5, 11, 21, 24, 25; 20:17; Acts 1:4; 2 Corinthians 1:3; 11:31; Ephesians 1:3; He 1:5; 5:5; 1 Peter 1:3; 2 Peter 1:17; 1 John 1:3; 2 John 1:3; Revelation 2:27; 3:5, 21; 14:1.
22 . Father as Lord (of Heaven and Earth): Mattew 11:25.
23 . Father (in Heaven) of his people: (Mt 5:16, 45, 48; 6:1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 15, 18, 26, 32; 7:11, 21; 10:20, 29, 32; 13:43; 18:14; 24:36; Mk 11:25; Lk 6:36; 11:2, 13; 12:30, 32; Jn 4:21, 23; 20:17; Rm 1:7; 8:15; 15:6; 1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 6:18; Ga 1:3, 4; 4:6; Eph 1:2; 3:14; 5:20; Php 1:2; 4:20; Col 1:2; 1 Th 1:3, 3:11, 13; 2 Th 1:1; 2 Th 2:16; Phm 1:3; Jas 1:27; 3:9 [Lord and Father]; 1 Pt 1:17; 1 Jn 1:3; Re 1:6). The Jews 'who had believed Jesus' (Jn 8:31) added to this: 'The only Father we have is God himself' (Jn 8:41).
24 . Father (in a more general sense) (Jn 5:21, 22, 23, 26, 36, 37, 43, 45; 6:27 [God the Father]; 6:37, 44, 45, 46, 57, 65; 8:16, 18; 8:28, 38; 10:15, 32, 36, 38; 12:49, 50; 13:1, 3; 14:6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 24, 28, 31; 15:9, 16, 26; 16:3, 10, 15, 17, 26, 27, 28; 18:11; 20:17, 21; Ac 1:7; 2:33; Rm 6:4; 1 Cor 8:6; 15:24; Ga 1:1; Eph 1:17; 2:18; 6:23; Php 2:11; Col 1:3, 12, 17; 1 Th 1:1; 1 Th 1:2; 1 Tm 1:2; 2 Tm 1:2; Tit 1:4; He 12:9 [Father of spirits and life]; Jas 1:17; 1 Pt 1:2; 2 Pt 1:17; 1 Jn 1:2; 2:1, 14, 15, 22, 24; 3:1; 4:14; 2 Jn 1:3, 4, 9; Ju 1:1).
25 . However, Jesus was not the origin of this term (cf. Szymik 2020:486). This is in line with Jeremias (1966) and contra scholars like D'Angelo (1992:616).
26 . Αββα (from the Aramaic term אבא) was used here as a status determinatus or emphaticus (Szymik 2020:487).
27 . The other two places in the NT where 'Abba Father' are used, are linked to the Holy Spirit (Rm 8:15; Ga 4:6) and addressed to God.
28 . Bentley (2023:3 of 7) identifies Imago Dei as follows: '[T]he image of God refers to the notion of the immanent Trinity, namely that the nature of the relationship between the persons of the Trinity extends to find expression in the lived experiences of humanity'. This is a very good definition, provided that the term 'Trinity' be replaced by 'God'.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Reverend Frank Chikane as a catalyst for shifts in Pentecostal beliefs and practices

 

 

Mnyalaza T. Masuku

Research Institute for Theology and Religion, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Reverend Frank Chikane represented shifts in Pentecostal beliefs and practices. He found it difficult to accept Christians who spoke in tongues on Sundays but oppressed others on Mondays. He found this hypocrisy to be the worst contradiction he had to contend with. He recognised the separation of spiritual, physical and social. He divided the church's service to the world into three categories. The first is the 'status quo', that is the church, which ensures stability as long as the political system gives it space to proclaim the gospel. He called the second category 'passage theology'. This refers to those who see themselves as passers-by in this troubled world, and therefore do not care about the politics of this world. The third category is the 'involvement' category. Of these three categories, Chikane chose the third. Based on the category of involvement, the author argues that Chikane is the epitome of shifts in Pentecostal beliefs and practices. To this end, the author will uncover and examine the core beliefs and practices of Pentecostalism, setting out the factors that gave rise to Chikane and also highlighting those that mark shifts in his spiritual agency. In the end, the author concludes that Chikane is indeed a catalyst for shifts in the practice of the African Pentecostal tradition today. The pattern of methodological approach followed in this article is the study of synthesised literature from libraries, particularly the sources that assisted me to gain insight into Chikane.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article argues that Rev. Frank Chikane, through his ministry praxis, epitomises shifts in Pentecostal beliefs and practices. Although it is located in the field of missiology, it also has interdisciplinary implications for disciplines such as sociology, practical theology, and church history.

Keywords: Chikane; Pentecostalism; shifts; Africa; Evangelical Christians; beliefs and practices; Azuza street experience; SACC.

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Introduction

Traditionally, evangelical Christians support, the government of the day passively and are reluctant to take a stand on political issues. Under apartheid, this represented a dilemma for black evangelicals. Most of them experienced the evil effects of the regime on a daily basis. But they were unable to articulate their opposition to apartheid in religious terms (Denis 2021:706).

The world has witnessed shifts and changes in various aspects over the years. These waves of change did not stop at Pentecostalism in terms of beliefs and practices. These changes have been referred to as the transformation of Christianity or 'the change in Christianity's centre of gravity' (Anderson et al. 2010:13). This phenomenon has been observed since the founding of this movement in Jerusalem 2000 years ago until today, as it grew and touched different contexts of the world. Anderson et al. (2010:13) recognises that Pentecostalism, in all its diversity, both within and outside of older churches, was probably the world's fastest-expanding religious movement in the 20th century, spreading to almost every nation on earth by the beginning of that century.

Africa was also one of the key places where this Christian movement experienced major shifts and transformations in beliefs and practices. Although this movement has experienced remarkable growth over the years, the impact in this regard has been more dramatic than ever, particularly at the beginning of the 21st century. Agencies for change in Africa could be located within the experiences gained in the political, economic, social, religious, military, technological sectors, among others. In addition, Africa also experienced pandemics such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), among others. All these dynamics led to shifts and changes in Pentecostalism, which also impacted related beliefs and practices.

Mzondi (2021:87) has correctly identified Dr. Frank Chikane as undoubtedly the most renowned African Pentecostal leader in South Africa (SA). Denis' warning (2021:709) is therefore important in locating Chikane's spirituality from the beginning, when he reiterated: 'All Pentecostals are evangelical but not all evangelicals are Pentecostal'. Chikane proved to be one of the most important symbols, catalysts and embodiments of shifts and change in Pentecostal belief and practice in SA. The author therefore seeks not only to identify and display but to examine and interrogate Chikane's beliefs and practices from his stance as a Pentecostal Christian. He argues that Chikane is the embodiment of changes in Pentecostal beliefs and practices regarding the practice of ministry in the 21st century. The author's strategy will be to uncover and question the core beliefs and practices of Pentecostalism, outline factors that gave rise to Chikane, and highlight those that marked changes in his ministry praxis. In the end, the author concludes that Chikane is indeed a catalyst for shifts and change in contemporary African Pentecostal practice.

 

Uncovering and examining the sine qua non of Pentecostal beliefs and practices

There is a considerable confusion over the use of the term Pentecostalism. Journalists and even scholars often refer to Pentecostalism as if it were one phenomenon, whereas in reality it is a complex social movement with many different strains. For example, there are the classical Pentecostal denominations, such as the Assemblies of God and Foursquare Gospel Church, and then there is a plethora of indigenous and independent Pentecostal churches. Some of these churches emphasise the prosperity gospel of health and wealth, while others focus on evangelism, healing, and ecstatic worship (Miller & Yamamori 2007:1).

It is well documented that Pentecostalism is an expression of Christianity that dates back to the 1st century. This occurred when the Holy Spirit visited the disciples of Jesus Christ, who then spoke in tongues and thereby healed the sick, prophesied, and founded a network of churches throughout Asia Minor. This ecstatic experience of the early Christians was domesticated, although Christianity was a state religion under Constantine and this religion was consequently organised into a hierarchical structure in the following centuries (Miller & Yamamori 2007:17). It must be recognised that it is not a uniform phenomenon as it has many faces as it spreads around the world (p. 19).

The so-called Azuza Street Revival in Los Angeles, United States of America (US) in 1906 could be viewed as modern Pentecostalism in the 20th century. Kgatle (2022:1) observed an attitude of non-racism at this event that attracted more black people in the South African context. From this experience, classical Pentecostal missionaries carried this religious movement to other parts of the world, including Africa, particularly SA and Liberia, between 1906 and 1912. Chikane (2019:365) interprets the Azuza experience as the implementation of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in Jerusalem, as described in Acts 2:1-13. Anderson et al. (2010:1) are therefore correct when they argue that the majority of Pentecostals are found in non-Western countries, and that by spreading their wings they have managed to adapt to different cultural contexts. Lindhard (2014:3) confirms that 'during the first half of the twentieth century, missionary Pentecostal churches were established all over sub-Sahara Africa …'.

Kgatle (2022:1) locates the arrival of Pentecostalism in SA with the arrival of two American missionaries: J.G. Lake and T. Hezmalhalch who founded the Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) in South Africa in 1908. The AFM was not racist from the start. Kgatle (2017) describes how this church developed into racial divisions:

The AFM started as a non-racial church. Early attempts to introduce racial separation in worship were resisted by the founding missionaries. When the missionaries left the country to return to their homelands, the church was set on a course of racial separation in compliance with the racial ideology of the country. (p. 2)

Other scholars dispute the Azuza experience as the origin of Pentecostalism. For example, Asamoah-Gyadu (2004:11) argues that elements of Pentecostalism such as speaking in tongues were observed before the Azuza experience, citing countries such as India and Haiti as examples. In addition to India on this list, Smith (2010:1) also adds Chile to point out that it is to some extent questionable to consider the Azuza experience as the sole source of modern Pentecostalism.

Kgatle (2022) follows Miller and Yamamori (2007:25ff.) and identifies five types of Pentecostalism. Firstly is classical Pentecostalism, represented in Pentecostal denominations such as the Assemblies of God, which have a connection to and are influenced by the Azuza experience. Secondly is indigenous Pentecostal denominations with no connection to North America. An example of this is the Winners Chapel, which was founded in Nigeria in 1983 and spread throughout Africa (p. 26). Thirdly is independent neo-Pentecostal churches that have one or more branches but refuse to develop into a denominational form of organisation. They are founded by entrepreneurs who are not satisfied with the current religious environment (Miller & Yamamori 2007:17). Their charismatic pastors lack formal seminary training or theological training (p. 27). Fourthly is charismatic renewal movement, whose origins are linked to St. Mark's Episcopal Church in Van Nuys, California, where a spontaneous outbreak of speaking in tongues occurred in 1960 (p. 27). Fifthly is proto-charismatic Christians. They do not belong to a Pentecostal or Charismatic church, but rather embrace the qualities of these traditions and do not identify as such. They seek to follow the example of Jesus Christ and follow the model of the early Christian church, which they believe is filled with the manifestation of the Holy Spirit (p. 28). However, Kgatle (2022:4; cf. Kgatle 2019) adds prophetic Pentecostalism as his fifth type. Here members sometimes approach the Prophet one-on-one for advice about their life challenges, which usually involves paying a fee.

Miller and Yamamori (2007:2) describe progressive Pentecostalism as those typical Pentecostal movements that attempt to promote social action. He agrees that Pentecostalism was otherworldly, emphasising personal salvation and excluding any attempt to deal with social realities. This also confirms the apocalyptic return of Christ. However, this social action refers to projects such as community development exercises without addressing their causal factors. Miller and Yamamori (p. 2) speaks of Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians who have joined right-wing repressive governments. He also points to Pentecostal churches that emphasise conversion as their sole mission to the world. He recognises that for Pentecostals the Holy Spirit is everywhere in their lives, in their prayers, in worship and in daily life (p. 3).

Although Miller and Yamamori (2007:4) describe progressive Pentecostalism as socially friendly, he cautioned that they do not take the same approach as social gospel or liberation theologians, and that they are relatively apolitical. They do not try to reform social structures or question government policies. They embrace capitalism and work within government systems. Denis (2021:706) indicates that they could passively support 'the government of the day and are reluctant to take a stand on political issues. Under apartheid, this represented a dilemma for black evangelicals'.

It is understood that this movement is too diverse and that not all Pentecostals agree on the validity of its characteristics. However, Miller and Yamamori (2007:29) argue that there are four elements that affect all types of Pentecostals. Firstly, they are legalistic and otherworldly. Legalism lays its emphasis on the prohibition of membership, for example prohibition of jewellery, makeup, ballroom dancing, consumption of alcoholic beverages, long-sleeved dresses for women. Secondly, they are prosperity gospel, health and prosperity churches. This is characteristic of independent churches and indigenous denominations. These are more common in poor communities where televangelists play a common role. Thirdly, there is a progressive group that rejects sectarian tendencies and participates in community development programmes. They were modelled on the work of Jesus, who preached and cared for people's social needs. Fourthly, it is is the routine Pentecostal movement. They shed their sectarian heritage and adopted elements of contemporary culture. However, they are still full of spirit, but in a controlled way. For example, speaking in tongues is an orchestrated ritual rather than a spontaneous expression of the presence of the Holy Spirit.

Miller and Yamamori (2007:16) suggested what a typical Pentecostal service might be. He shows that the first part consists of 30 min of worship music led by a band, youth choirs can perform as well as dancing cheerleaders. There is also a performance during the offering. This is followed by a 45-min sermon and another service. There's an upbeat band that gets people dancing as they leave the church. According to Miller and Yamamori (p. 17), Pentecostal services are more ecstatic and lively than the routine liturgical forms of the mainline churches. Kgatle (2021) presents a definition of African Pentecostal worship that reflects the same sentiments when he says:

… worship in an African context is holistic, concerned with the body, soul and spirit, allowing the worshiper to participate and be part of what God is doing through the Holy Spirit. Therefore, every worshiper must feel the presence of God through the Holy Spirit when gathering to worship God. (pp. 169-170)

The main characteristics of Pentecostalism were identified by Anderson et al. (2010:1) based on his interpretation of the Azuza experience as: speaking in tongues, healing and prophesying. Smith (2010:12) adds that the sine qua non of all variants of Pentecostalism is belief in the immanence of God, direct, personal access to the divine with the accompanying spiritual power. He also recognised, 'holiness in social behaviour, baptism in the Holy Spirit, healing, Biblical literalness, emphasis on prayer, and fervency of worship' (p. 21). Anderson et al. (2010:3) also observed that leadership is predominantly male and uses communication technology (p. 3). The divine healing and prosperity gospel is also added by Brown (2011:3). Brown prefers the term 'divine healing' to 'faith healing' or 'spiritual healing' because it emphasises the love of God as the source of healing rather than human faith (p. 4). Monique and Amos (2015:262) adds music to the Pentecostal liturgy, while Smith (2010:9-10) further identified spontaneity.

 

Factors that gave rise to Chikane

Chikane was raised as a conservative, evangelical Pentecostal (Sider 1988:9). He was born and raised in the AFM, which was white-controlled and considered very conservative. Mzondi (2021:89) confirms that Chikane was 'taught that African Pentecostal Christians should focus on heaven and distance themselves from addressing prevalent injustices caused by apartheid'.

His parents were James and Erentia, a family of eight children, five boys and three girls (Chikane 1990:23). His father became the pastor of a church which, according to Mzondi (2021:87), was affiliated with the AFM. Kgatle (2022:1) identified the AFM as the largest Pentecostal church in SA. Chikane was born on 03 January 1951 in Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga province, then called Eastern Transvaal. Since 1957, his father had a house in Soweto and the children came to him for better education, while his mother remained in Bushbuckridge and only came to live with them permanently around 1962 and 1963 (Chikane 1990:23-24). Chikane completed his primary and high school education in Soweto with excellent results in mathematics. This prompted him to enrol for the BSc. degree from the then University of the North (now University of Limpopo), Pietersburg (now Polokwane) in 1972 (Chikane 1990:41). Mzondi (2021:87) states that he did not complete his studies because he was expelled because of his involvement in student politics.

His activities at the university in student affairs suggested the direction he would take in his ecclesiastical practice. Mzondi (2021) is therefore correct in saying that:

Chikane ascribed his involvement in politics to his role in student politics and the influence of a senior pastor in the AFM West Rand who observed and shared with him that God had called him. (p. 87)

For example, when some students were imprisoned or were on the run from apartheid forces, he saved the situation. Chikane was therefore elected to head the Students Legal Aid Fund. He catered for the well-being of incarcerated students, their families, and the student body (p. 25). He was one of the students who celebrated Mozambique's freedom at the so-called Frelimo Rally in 1974 (p. 25). They were harassed by apartheid police for this action. He also provided testimony to the Snyman Commission, whose mission was to determine the causes of the campus riots of September 1974 (p. 25). He testified against the university and the police, which jeopardised the completion of his university studies.

His courage and determination were evident in the fact that he persistently followed his thoughts despite his mother's discouragements. At some point they were attacked by police with sjamboks and dogs for holding unlawful gatherings on campus, resulting in injuries and detention of many students. This created a leadership vacuum in the Student Representative Council (SRC) and he had to fill this void with the few remaining students. He sacrificed his studies as he was supposed to write his BSc final exam amid this cloud of student protests. Because he forced himself to write in these conditions, he fainted during exams and was admitted to Polokwane Hospital. Despite the medical certificates he submitted, he was subsequently refused the aegrotat test. This interruption of his studies caused him to complain; 'Thus, although I had done all my work for the degree, I had been ground down. All my work and knowledge remained "non-certificated"' (Chikane 1990:26-27).

In 1974, Chikane began training to become a pastor in the AFM at what was then Potgietersrus (now Mokopane, Limpopo Province). Because of what he described as 'some personal pressures from home', coupled with the lack of adequate teaching staff at the college, he requested training through correspondence (Chikane 1990:43). From 1975, he worked as a temporary teacher of mathematics and physics in Soweto (p.43). During this time, he also did some evangelistic work until he completed his pastoral training in 1979, was placed on probation for a year, and was ordained a pastor in early 1980 (Chikane 1990:47).

 

Chikane's spiritual agency towards shifts on Pentecostal beliefs and practices

So when it comes to the evangelical and Pentecostal faith I can say like Paul that if any person thinks that he or she has reasons for confidence in the Spirit, I have more; born and brought up by a devout Pentecostal family, a Pentecostal of Pentecostals; as to evangelism, an evangelist at heart and, as to God's power, a believer in the works and deeds of power in the name of the Lord. (Chikane 1990:49)

Chikane was born into a Christian family. His father was pastor of AFM in Soweto since 1975. A house church was founded in his parents' home, which later became a branch of his church. Although he took his first steps into congregation responsibility at the age of eight, at the age of 18 in 1968 he served as secretary of the congregation and a member of the parish council (Chikane 1990:31). The AFM that shaped Chikane's spirituality was a classic Pentecostal gathering. It has characteristics of Pentecostalism, which generally include participatory services, sharing of individual experiences throughout the week, and prayers with and for the sick (Chikane 1990:31).

Having addressed the sine qua non of classical Pentecostal beliefs and practices, attention now turns to areas of these phenomena in which Chikane made shifts in his ministry praxis.

Spirituality

When it comes to spirituality, Pentecostals are notoriously distant from the realities of the world. Pentecostalism is based on an otherworldly community that is engaged in social services and takes into account the holistic understanding of the Christian faith. According to Wacker (2003:19), Pentecostals felt alienated in this world, 'pilgrims passing through foreign territory' who felt 'homesick at home', a restless celestial orientation evident throughout their lives. Miller and Yamamori (2007:212) points out that this differs from the social gospel of mainline churches because it is modelled on the example of Jesus caring for people's physical needs. Wacker (2003:20) referred to them when he stated; 'Holy Spirit-filled believers not only lost interest in politics but also proved oblivious to many of the day-to-day recreations that most people considered simple and legitimate pleasures of life'.

In contrast, Chikane represented a holistic form of spirituality. He argues in terms of his spiritual upbringing, which was influenced by his traditional African cosmology:

There was no conception here of a dualistic world of the spiritual which was different from that of the social. Our services of worship, our spiritual activism was launched within the very social dynamics of our society. In any case, the African world-view of life and its conception of some form of deity was never dualistic. Africans' total life experiences were understood and interested in relation to their God. (1990:33)

In light of the given quote, Chikane believed in a God who is not indifferent to people's problems but is deeply involved in their sufferings. He did not join a God who created the world, retreated to some heavens, and thus turned against his creation. Likewise, in a situation of injustice, God cannot be a spectator, but rather actively side with the victims of oppression.

In terms of biblical hermeneutics, the question posed by Miller became important when he said; 'How literally or metaphorically the Bible is to be understood' (2007:148)?

Literalism

Pentecostals lean more towards the side of literalism. Miller and Yamamori (2007:148) argues that Pentecostals do not dismiss the role of reason, but simply give weight to the narrative of God's supernatural intervention in the world and downplay the importance of tradition. The Holy Scripture thus simply embodies God's thoughts (p. 73). If the Bible is to be taken literally, its teachings must be vigorously defended and articulated.

In contrast, Chikane (1990:51), who was confronted with this situation, began searching for the liberating side of the Bible. He did this by reinterpreting and rereading the Bible in light of the South African political context. He defended himself by arguing that white people were misusing and interpreting the Bible to achieve their own oppressive goals. He further argued that the church's practice unfortunately contradicted its own mission and that the Bible needed to be freed from this captivity (Chikane 1990:51).

Another dimension of Chikane's use of the Bible could be seen in light of the torture he experienced. This was evident in his constant harassment by apartheid security forces, who even poisoned him (Chikane 2020:10; Lubbe & Ferreira 2008:165). The picture of his torture is well explained by him as follows:

I couldn't walk because they beat me up so much. They really assaulted me badly. There was blood all over that interrogation room. They made me clean up my own blood. They attempted to crush my testicles, and did all sorts of other things. It was quite a horrifying experience. (Sider 1988:10)

From that point on, he began to question the Bible and ask God profound questions in the light of his own suffering. He therefore asked the question about the meaning of loving one's enemy, the meaning of the gospel in his situation, the power and concern of God, why God would allow this evil and whether he cares. Chikane viewed the experience of Jesus Christ's redemptive act on the cross as an encouragement for his own suffering, the fact that Jesus did not let the cup pass for the sake of humanity. The experiences of the apostles, who also experienced persecution and even death, kept Chikane alive. The following Bible texts also kept him going: 1 Peter 3:14-18; 1 Peter 4:13; Colossians 1:24. Chikane consoled himself by ultimately understanding these texts to mean: 'Christ suffered and called us to be prepared to suffer to complete the work he had started by laying down his life for the world' (1990:55).

Intellectualism

Regarding intellectualism and academia, the element of neglect of intellectualism and academia is elaborated by Onyinah et al. (2018) as follows:

Unlike established traditions, however, Pentecostals did not go about writing academic treatises until recently; rather, their missionary fervour and ethos is reflected in songs, prayers, testimonies, and missionary biographies.

He further points out that their missionaries were largely inexperienced but prided themselves on a common qualification: the overwhelming conviction that they had been filled with the Holy Spirit to spread their message to the far corners of the earth. At times they defied the conventions of the time and in some cases gave their lives for their cause. Smith reiterated this lack of intellectualism as follows:

Pentecostals appear anti-intellectual, poorly trained in leadership, and their claim to be a latter day apostolic movement along the lines of primitive church described in the Book of Acts seems extremely presumptuous, elitist, and indifferent to two thousand years of intervening church history. (2010:10)

Contrarily, Chikane advocated intellectualism. Mzondi (2021:87) displays his credentials so well that he has 'a master's degree in public administration, and he is a visiting professor at the School of Governance at the University of Witwatersrand'. His resume shows that after earning his diploma in counselling from the Pan African Bible College of the AFM in 1979, he also earned a Master of Public Administration from the J.F. Kenney School of Governance in 1995. In 1992, he earned a master's degree in religious studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal. As a result, Chikane authored books, academic articles, and read articles at academic conferences at home and abroad (Chikane 2020:10). Chikane (1990:70) was particularly keen to extend service to the intelligentsia as he felt that they were being ignored while the poor were being given attention. His insistence on attending university in 1972 was also driven by his desire to better understand the black intelligentsia in order to serve them effectively. Maserumule (2013:93) after reviewing his book; 'Eight days in September, the removal of Thabo Mbeki', led him to describe Chikane as 'an intellectual hero'.

Temperament

In terms of temperament, Pentecostals hold a view of life in the heavenly world or sacred space in which the timeless, true, and universal values of Scripture unquestionably prevail. In this real world, they see themselves as aliens or pilgrims crossing a foreign territory (Wacker 2003:19). The heavenly mindset dominated Pentecostal thinking and lifestyle. It was observed that those who spoke in tongues seemed to live in another world. They took pride in spending hours or even days in prayer and singing, to the point of forgetting to eat. They had no interest in political elections or the politics of this world (p. 20).

In contrast, Chikane pointed out that pastoral care has two dimensions that must be kept in 'creative tension'. He stated that there are spiritual and social sides that are vertical and horizontal. The ability to strike a balance between these two was essential to effective ministry in the oppressive context of apartheid SA. His Pentecostal spirituality emphasised the vertical dimension of spirituality over the horizontal. Balancing this pendulum was necessary for relevant official practice in the oppressive scenario. Chikane put it this way: 'I needed a deeper form of spirituality beyond my evangelical and Pentecostal training' (1990:49).

Theological training

Regarding theological training, Kgatle (2021:174) acknowledges that '… many African Pentecostal pastors have never received a formal theological training'. Miller and Yamamori (2007:195) also add that Pentecostal pastors were trained in areas other than theology. Their only basic theological training was based on reading the Bible. This highlights the fact that Pentecostals are missionary by nature and place this aspect at the centre of their spiritual practice. Onyinah et al. (2018) captured it as follows: 'Pentecostals have always been wary of the overly academic nature of theological education'. Guided by Paul's words that 'the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life' (2 Cor. 3:6 NRSV), Pentecostals have always relied on the inspiration of the Spirit in their 'theological education'. For example, Nathan Harriman urged his disciples not to waste their time searching for a 'Systematic Theology' but to absorb the Word through their spiritual pores (Wacker 2003:82).

Chikane contradicted this principle even further and studied theology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, where he obtained a master's degree in religious studies in 1992 (Chikane 1990:70). Mzondi (2021:87) furtherpoints out that in addition to a master's degree in theology, Chikane also had a diploma in theology. He also began studying theological literature privately to expand his understanding of the theology of mission Chikane (1990:60). Williams (1998:1) noticed the influence of theological education in Chikane when she stated; 'Frank Chikane had been shaped by certain kinds of theological education and experiences in church during the struggle'.

Politics

Regarding politics, Pentecostals are known to be detached to the realities of the world such as racism, politics, and other social issues or ills or society. Wacker (2003:20) touched on their detachment from politics when he stated: 'Holy Spirit-filled believers not only lost interest in politics but also proved oblivious to many of the day-to-day recreations that most people considered simple and legitimate pleasures of life'. But Afro-Pentecostalism according to Yong and Alexander (2011:5) had to deal with a variety of reality of problems such as economic and political realities, spirituality, ethics and so forth. He further adds that black Pentecostal church leaders historically had to wrestle with problems such as the relevancy of theology, mission strategies, gender roles, mission strategies, among others.

In contrast, Chikane took a different approach. De Gruchy (1995:211) shows Chikane, who supported prophetic ministry. As general secretary of the South African Council of Churches (SACC), he praised social programmes of this body for their significant contribution to the democratisation of SA. Referring to the SACC programme called; 'Standing for the Truth Campaign', Chikane stated:

… it did contribute significantly, within the context of the Mass Democratic Movement spearheaded by the UDF, to the events that led to the unbanning of the liberation movements in February 1990. (De Gruchy 1995:211)

Mzondi (2021:88) states that Chikane subscribed to 'non-dichotomous perspective of Ubuntu'. This is a perspective of non-separation between church and politics. Therefore, it is understandable when Makofane and Botha (2019:88) identified and listed Chikane among some of the well-known religious leaders such as Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Rev. Dr Beyers Naude, Dr Allan Boesak, and Dr Brigilia Bam, who are considered champions of prophetic witness against apartheid in SA.

Because Chikane pursued what he described as 'horizontal ministry' (1990:12) that promotes participation in socio-political and economic issues that affect people's lives, his church, the AFM, at some point accused him of involvement in what they said called politics. Pursuing the aforementioned non-dichotomous perspective of ubuntu, he struck a balance between vertical and horizontal ministry. Mzondi (2021:87) states that, 'He was suspended as the pastor of the Kagiso AFM church because of his political views, and was detained as a political prisoner several times'. While Pentecostals chose to pursue the vertical dimension of ministry over the horizontal, Chikane wanted to strike a balance between them through social engagement. Matthew 22:36-40 considers both dimensions of ministry (Chikane 1990:63). Chikane was therefore tortured and suspended by both the state and the church between 1977 and 1978 (1990:61). Denis (2012) projects the experiences of Chikane so well:

The case of Frank Chikane, a pastor of the Apostolic Faith Mission who was twice detained, tortured in the presence of a deacon of his church and dismissed from the ministry for his political opinions in the early 1980s, showed the impasse with which black evangelicals were confronted. (p. 708)

The background to this view, as Wacker (2003:196-198) further pointed out, is that Pentecostals viewed themselves primarily as religious beings and only secondarily as social beings. Pentecostals expected that the Lord would return at any time, so social issues meant little to them.

Liberation theology

In relation to liberation theology, Miller and Yamamori (2007:214) argue that Pentecostals tend to have an organic tone that emphasises harmony and purity. They further argue that liberation theologians tend to use metaphors that suggest images of opposition, conflict and struggle, thus reflecting their Marxist orientation. Chikane calls this the status quo approach of the church (1992:1).

Boundaries

In terms of boundaries, in the light of Wacker (2003:177), what was the relationship of converts to one another or to outsiders? Why did they draw boundaries? Some conflicts with outsiders brought them to court. Disputes arose with religious bodies, men and women, who held Pentecostals' deepest convictions on matters of faith and church practice. In contrast, Chikane (1990:59) widened the net beyond the Pentecostal line to include outsiders. He promoted relationships with members of other denominations. For this reason, in 1978 he founded an interdenominational Christian youth club in Kagiso, Krugersdorp. Furthermore, Chikane (1992:1) embraced the entire Kagiso community beyond Pentecost. His church eventually became the lifeline of the entire community in terms of community assistance and development programmes. He was also ecumenically involved, having served as general secretary of the SACC.

Pentecostals and society

What does Pentecostal ethics mean for society? Wacker (2003:196-199) argues that they viewed themselves as religious beings first and social beings second. They expected the lords to return at any time, so social matters meant little to them. First generation converts interacted with the external environment in various ways. They were forced to come out of their corner because they had to make a living, for example, educating children, preparing for death, starting a household, among others.

In contrast, Chikane made it clear before the West Rand District Committee while his church expected him to focus only on spiritual dimension of ministry and when he responded; 'the social is not a secondary ministry but the very essence of my work as a pastor' (1990:63). He understood the Pentecostal conundrum so well when on the basis on Matthews 22:36-40 stated; 'My contention was that the Pentecostals and most evangelical churches emphasise the first commandment over above the second'(p. 63).

The nation (State)

What do Pentecostals think about the nation? Wacker (2003:217) defines nation as a symbol for country and state. Land represents cultural and emotional symbols associated with the place. The state represents political and governmental structures. The nation represents both. The early Pentecostals were determined to separate themselves from the state. No loyalty to the state as this was seen as an earthly invention. The state, like the Tower of Babel, signalled at best human arrogance, at worst the enthronement of godlessness, immorality, greed and violence. No double followers of the Kingdom of God and the Emperor (p. 218).

In contrast, Chikane's relationship with the state could be derived from two opposing states, namely apartheid and democratic states in SA. He was an opponent of apartheid and had no loyalty to it. On the other hand, he was loyal to the democratic government, in which he even served but later opposed it when it became corrupt (Chikane 1990, 1992). By this approach, Chikane believed in what De Gruchy (1995) called, 'critical solidarity'. This he explains:

It means that the church remains prophetic in its stance towards a new democratically elected government, that it must continue to stand for the truth, but now on the basis of shared commitment to the realisation of national reconstruction. (p. 222)

Leadership

Regarding leadership ethics, Wacker (2003:141) warns that the early Pentecostals did not claim to have leaders because the Holy Spirit directed everything. Of course, certain men and women seem to be able to handle things. Those who operated in the pulpit, arranged meetings and published periodicals viewed themselves only as instruments or vessels directed by the Lord. They claim that the revival came about without human leadership and that this is how they have operated ever since. One author, Aimee McPherson, did not claim authorship of his book; This is that, but said that he was only an instrument of the Holy Spirit. Smith (2010:10) argues that Pentecostals are poorly trained in leadership. However, contrary to Wacher's view, Pentecostal recognise and respect their leaders with the understanding that they are dependent on the anointing of the Holy Spirit.

In contrast, Chikane's leadership qualities, from high school, were clear. His activities at the university in student affairs gave clues to the direction he would take in his ecclesiastical practice. For example, he stood up and took a stand to save the day when there was a gap in student leadership, when some were arrested or fled from apartheid security forces. Chikane was therefore elected to head the Students Legal Aid Fund, with the other two serving as joint trustees. He was also General Secretary of the SACC (1992:1). De Gruchy (1995:214) acknowledges the contribution of his leadership to peace initiatives as Secretary General of the SACC. The leadership path becomes even clearer when one considers that he was and still is; Pastor and President of Apostolic Faith Mission International; Deputy President of the SACC; Moderator of the Church Commission on International Affairs of the World Council of Churches; and former director of the Institute for Contextual Theology (Chikane 2019:363).

Worship services

Regarding worship services, praxis appears to have been compromised. This can be understood from Wacker (2003:99-100), who argued that Pentecostals did not theorise their worship services. He further argued that these services oscillated between anti-structural and structural impulses, thus emphasising the practical aspect more than theory. Planned church services, such as those held in the so-called mainline churches, were viewed as nominal Christianity. Acts such as public crying, screaming, death-like prostration, among others were viewed as signs of repentance to God. An important part are the miracles when the Holy Spirit heals the sick. Wacker called this approach, a planned spontaneity.

The worship service that informed Chikane was structural, which might have laid his foundational format that shaped his subsequent worship structure. What is unfamiliar is an item of sharing the text among congregants after the sermon. Chikane outlines this service as follows:

Services for worship are participatory. People sing together, share their individual experiences during the week, and pray with and for those who are sick. The pastor … selects a text, preaches on it and lets as many members of the congregation as possible, express their view about the text, or respond to it. (1990:31-32)

Testimonies

In terms of testimonies, personal faith stories about spiritual journeys were important to Pentecostals. They believed this had normative implications for others. Most of the time in their services was devoted to witnessing. According to Wacker (2003:58), testimonies reflected a three-stage sequence: The first was about the problem that led one to seek spiritual assistance (i.e., accepting Christ as personal Saviour), the second was about the event itself in detail, and the third was about explaining the benefits. Chikane's statement was not only theorised but also put into action, conveying a gospel message that was clear to those outside the Pentecostal faith and practice. For this reason, Sand convincingly concluded:

Frank was a good man. He had suffered cruelty and needlessly. His sin was that he was a peacemaker. At one point he held out his hands to us and said, they have never even held a live gun!. (in Chikane 1990:30)

War

Regarding the ethics of war, Wacker (2003:223-224) argues that Pentecostals adopted pacifism and just war theory. In contrast, Chikane was a member of a liberation movement. This liberation movement had a military wing called uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK). He was also an apologist for the participation of communist countries in the struggle of the oppressed, which included military assistance against Western and apartheid propaganda (1990:119). Another militaristic element became apparent when he analysed the two options, which Mr. P.W. Botha will face if he does not end apartheid. These options were either pressure from some Western countries or direct confrontation by apartheid forces and the oppressed masses, which could lead to a bloodbath (p. 138).

 

Conclusion

Chikane proved to be a committed Christian who lived according to his spiritual beliefs as a faithful servant of Christ and as a result felt the stigmata of the cross from his church and apartheid state. He was expelled from the church and tortured by police because of his Christian beliefs and practices. In his ministry praxis, he challenged classical Pentecostal beliefs and practices in many ways.

As shown in this study, this servant of God made progress in challenging the sine qua non of Pentecostal belief in various areas, namely Spirituality, biblical hermeneutics, intellectualism, temperament, theological education, politics, liberation theology, customs, boundaries, society, nation, leadership, worship, testimonies, and war.

Chikane looked like a rebel in the eyes of his church. Ironically, he was finally honoured when he was elected to the senior leadership positions in his church such as; head of Composite Division of the AFM and in 1996, deputy president of the united AFM of SA, and the president of AFM international. This reconciliation and happy ending in his church suggested that his church had reached a point where it accepted him as he was, with his ministry practices which it had previously rejected as political. His acceptance by his church showed that he was therefore an epitome of shifts in Pentecostalism today.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

M.T.M. is the sole author of this research article

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Mnyalaza Masuku
masukumt@penta-net.co.za

Received: 21 Sept. 2023
Accepted: 18 Nov. 2023
Published: 27 Feb. 2024

^rND^sChikane^nF.^rND^sChikane^nF^rND^sChikane^nF.C.^rND^sDenis^nP.^rND^sKgatle^nM.S.^rND^sKgatle^nM.S.^rND^sKgatle^nM.S^rND^sKgatle^nM.S^rND^sLubbe^nH.J^rND^sFerreira^nG.M.^rND^sMakofane^nK.^rND^sBotha^nN.^rND^sMaserumule^nM.H.^rND^sMzondi^nA.M.M.^rND^sSider^nR.^rND^sWilliams^nJ.^rND^1A01^nAyanda^sMdokwana^rND^1A01^nAyanda^sMdokwana^rND^1A01^nAyanda^sMdokwana

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Towards a Grieving Church: Theo-ethical considerations for homophobic violence in South Africa

 

 

Ayanda Mdokwana

Department of Philosophy, Practical and Systematic Theology, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Hetero-masculine violence in South Africa continues to be an obstacle to peace. As indicated by crime statistics in South Africa, heterosexual women, heterosexual men and LGBTQI+ community have been victims of murder. Many continue to be victims of sexual violence as a result of hetero-masculine violence. While some Christian confessional traditions in South Africa have evolved and have become more welcoming to the LGBTQI+ community, this evolution has not made much difference to the public violence the LGBTQI+ community is exposed to in South Africa. Using the intersections of Caputo's radical ethics and Meiring's body theology, I propose a new theological framework that will assist and encourage confessional ecclesiological traditions in South Africa to deal with their own internal contradictions influenced by masculinist heterosexist discourse. This is an attempt to meaningfully contribute to the discourse on violence experienced by the LGBTQI+ community in South Africa. This article contends that the intersections of body theology and radical ethics assist ecclesiological traditions to recognise and embrace the fragility of metaphysics even in the face of discomfort. I argue that the exercise of continuously embracing the fragility of metaphysics assists ecclesiological traditions to be open to their own flaws. This gives them an authentic voice to constantly reconstruct and effectively speak out against the rejection of and violence perpetuated against the LGBTQIA+ community in South Africa.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This paper draws on conversations from Christian theology, ethics and their engagement with LGBTQI+ and public homophobic violence in South Africa.

Keywords: LGBTQI+; metaphysics; ecclesiological confessions; radical ethics; body theology; masculine violence; theological anthropology; ethics.

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Introduction

Homophobic violence and discrimination in South Africa continue to be an obstacle to peace. The wounded and slain bodies of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex (LGBTQI+) individuals such as the late Lindokuhle Cele, Sphamandla Khoza, Pinky Shongwe, and many others have left indelible marks in our memories. It is important to recognise the prevalence of gender and sexual violence in South Africa. According to the South African Police Service (SAPS), 6289 murders and 10 512 rape cases were recorded for the first quarter of 2023 (Cele 2023). What is most notable, however, is the fact that these statistics do not expose the counts of murder and violence perpetrated as a result of homophobia in South Africa. Recognising the importance of exposing the counts of these murders and how they occur, violence and murder as a result of homophobia are not usually listed as a category such as carjacking, assault, robbery and others.

The nature of these statistics is considered important in a country where the majority of citizens are affiliated with Christianity. The discourse in this paper is signified by the context in which ecclesiological Christian traditions and Christian beliefs have wrestled with the acceptance of the LGBTQI+ identifying individuals in South Africa.¹ This wrestling, I contend, contributes to metaphysical violence perpetrated against LGBTQI+ identifying individuals. One of the key themes in Langa's study on township masculinities in Alexandria was the depiction of same-sex relations as un-Christian (Langa 2020). According to Langa, all participants in his study believed that discrimination experienced by gay boys at school was valid. It is important to note that this discourse is not new. Van Klinken (2016:112) exposes anti-same sex sentiments that have been prevalent in African Christian circles such as the Pentecostal tradition. In light of the spate of violence experienced by the LGBTQI+ community, the crucial question this paper seeks to address is the extent to which ecclesiological Christian traditions in South Africa publicly legitimise violence enacted against LGBTQI+ in their communities.

In an effort to address discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in Christian churches in South Africa, a number of academic discourses have made significant contributions to this pressing issue. Davids (2020:301-317) proposes that Christian ecclesiological traditions such as the United Reformed Church of South Africa use the Belhar Confession as an inclusive hermeneutical approach in dealing with discrimination perpetrated against LGBTQI+ identified individuals. Mtshitshelwa (2010:767-789) points out his challenge with the textual interpretations of Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13 in the Methodist Church of South Africa. Mtshitshelwa's textual problem with this is the rejection of same-sex relationships using these texts without taking into account the socio-historical context of the text and its relevance for a contemporary society. Noting this particular challenge, Mtshitshelwa calls for an African centred hermeneutics with regard to same-sex relationships that will be sensitive to the realities of the African context. The preference for African-centred hermeneutics by Mtshitshelwa is pursued because such an approach centralises the significance of human relationships and interaction, a common principle in African life.

Similar to Robertson and Nadar (2021:1-16) who question queer theological and biblical ecclesial research conducted from the premise of creeds and policies, this paper concerns itself with the extent to which these enable masculine heterosexist violence and discrimination against the LGBTQI+ community. In an attempt to address marginalisation the LGBTQI+ community is exposed to, Robertson and Nadar propose ecclesial research premised on institutional culture that allows itself to be informed and transformed by bodies it excludes. The paper questions the extent to which a particular hermeneutical framework centred around specific texts allows itself to acknowledge and act against its metaphysical failures. This is in its attempt to address discrimination and violence meted out against the LGBTQI+ individuals in South Africa.

This paper concerns itself with the fragility of text and meaning metaphysically in as far as the lives of the LGBTQI+ individuals are concerned. The very premise of institutional policies is shaken by metaphysical fragility as exposed by what Caputo calls the 'flux'.² The very foundation upon which institutional culture allows the ecclesia to shape and transform it is found wanting in the face of the flux as noted in Robertson and Nadar (2021).

Recognising the wounds and slain bodies of the LGBTQI+ members as an important primary theological source, I argue that violence enacted against the LGBTIQI+ identifying individuals in the public and in some confessional ecclesiological traditions in South Africa have one thing in common: the failure to grieve metaphysical fragility.³ Using Caputo's ethics of dissemination, I argue that hetero-masculine violence perpetrated against LGBTQI+ individuals in the public and ecclesiological traditions in South Africa is produced by a firm grip unto the dead flesh of an ethic of masculine metaphysics. This I do firstly, by introducing Caputo's radical ethics. Secondly, I discuss the notion of masculine ethos and violence perpetrated against LGBTQI+ individuals. Thirdly, I discuss the contribution of Mering's body theology called Theology of the Flesh to this discourse (Meiring 2016). Fourthly, I provide a brief discussion of the relationship between different ecclesiological confessional traditions in South Africa and propose a new theological framework that will assist ecclesiological confessional traditions dealing with their challenges. Challenges in this instance are with specific reference to the LGBTQI+ community.

This paper makes a theological contribution by proposing a theological-anthropological framework grounded in John Caputo's ethic of dissemination and Jacob Meiring's body theology in the analysis of violence perpetuated against the LGBTQI+ community. I argue that the intersections of Meiring's body theology and Caputo's radical ethics are3 one considered way churches can overcome their internal contradictions. The internal contradiction refers to the discrimination church traditions enact against LGBTQI+ community while speaking out against the public violence experienced by this community. This, I contend, will positively contribute to discourse around masculine violence expressed towards the LGBTQI+ in South Africa.

 

Caputo's radical ethics and/or ethics of dissemination

Caputo's ethic of dissemination is situated within his radical hermeneutics that is concerned with the floundering of metaphysics (Caputo 1987). The central critique Caputo offers in his radical hermeneutics against metaphysics is its inability to capture absoluteness of life in time. For Caputo, this is exposed by what he calls the flux: that which exposes the deep-seated flaws of metaphysics and its attempts to imprison life within its frameworks of meaning and truth. Caputo's problem with metaphysics is its comfortability with itself in the face of the flux: avoiding the difficulties that always threaten its constructs of meaning, truth and reality.⁴ It is within the face of a crumbling metaphysics that Caputo introduces this ethic of dissemination. This is an ethic that exposes itself to the flux by embracing it. It is an ethic that is constantly subjected to the flux. He develops this ethic of dissemination in his book entitled 'Against Ethics' (Caputo 1993). Caputo attempts to separate his ethic of dissemination from a metaphysical ethic, usually constructed in the form of ethical theories (Caputo 1993).

Caputo's problem with metaphysical ethics presented as universal ethical theories is that they imprison the possibilities of life. They exist as a way of subverting the flux and seeking comfort in the face of other possibilities (Caputo 1987). The flux is a phenomenon that metaphysics fails to grasp because of its incapacity. The flux is the moment in time where and when metaphysics fails to capture the experience of life through its language and understanding of truth. Thus, for Caputo an ethic of dissemination therefore is coming to terms with the failures of metaphysics in the ethical sense. It is embracing life, living and learning how to live it in the constant and endless crumbling of metaphysics. He also separates his ethic from Martin Heidegger's primordial ethic, an ethic that seeks comfort in the eschatological visions of history (Heidegger 1972). Heidegger's primordial ethic is the attempt to revert to historical ways of living in aspiration of a coming future. Caputo's criticism against such an ethic is its failure to recognise disagreements, assuming unity in history and ignoring those who are excluded by history.

For Caputo, an ethic of dissemination is a radical ethic that allows other voices through the cracks of metaphysics (Caputo 1987). These voices come from queer, blacks, and women. These voices challenge the realities of metaphysics. According to Caputo (1987):

The task of Radical Ethics is to disrupt that momentum, to assert difference, to preserve the right to dissent, to allow the idiosyncratic its rights. This is done to remain true to the flux. (p. 261)

Caputo's ethic of dissemination calls upon ethics and ethical theory even within the context of the body, to come to grief. Caputo (1993), who is firmly against ethics, that is, metaphysical ethics, calls for its deconstruction. He exposes the fact that names are metaphysically constructed and carry experiences of particular times and places. Metaphysics fails when it attempts to transmit these names as generalisations when it encounters the flux. For Caputo, the use of these generalisations in the face of the flux is an attempt to hide from time and experience. It is this failure of metaphysics that forces Caputo to stand against ethics, that is, against metaphysical ethics. According to him, obligations that are called for by moral principles constructed by metaphysics therefore are counterfeit obligations. For Caputo, obligations are open ended. They are an alarm, with no owner, not justified by reason but responds to disaster because of the failures of metaphysics. They respond to the flux.

It is for this reason that he is of the view that we call into question the names of justice from the context of ethics (Caputo 1993). This is because the term 'justice' usually has a metaphysical frame. For him, justice always requires one to ask the question of 'what?' as a form of recognition of the weakness of its metaphysical frame. Justice is not just an act. Engaging justice in this sense requires a deep critical reflection and internal analysis of metaphysical cracks within the self before making any attempt to remain true to the idea of justice. Admittingly, Caputo's ethic of dissemination acknowledges that the word 'justice' is slippery. It is so slippery that when we act, we do nothing but always attempt to get to the true idea of the word. This for him is one way of doing ethics: doing ethics in grief of metaphysical ethics. This can of course be extended to other key terms in ethics such as love, hope and others.

In his book entitled The prayers and the tears of Jacques Derrida, Caputo (1997) advances the idea of the messianic as a necessary form without content. He criticises ethics as that which sets guidelines, patrols and protects particular ideations of the messianic in order to prevent the metaphysically different. For Caputo, ethics prevents the impossible messianic possibility from shattering its metaphysical fragility. In this notion of the messianic without content, he recognises the contribution of bodies that have passed on and how they contribute to the messianic without content. This is reflected by what he calls 'hauntology'. Describing justice in the context of a messianic without content, Caputo (1997) says the following:

For justice means responsibility, and we are responsible to the dead, to their dying and heritage they inherited through their death, as well as the not yet born. (p. 121)

In no way is this determinable messianism for him in the sense that these dead bodies and the 'not yet born' form the messianic content. It is the way these very bodies, the lived experiences of the dead and the not yet born call us to account and have the ability to shatter what he calls determinable messianisms.

What should be noted is that determinable messianism is comprised of a particular metaphysics with ideations (Caputo 1997). Determinable messianisms can be defined as idealised messianisms, that exclude and marginalise. The central challenge for Caputo with determinable messianism is the extent to which the limitations and boundaries of such ideations protected by ethics, legitimise injustice (Caputo 1997). Its legitimation of injustice is its inability to capture the future and its possibilities of meaning in time. Taking Caputo's ethic of dissemination into account, this article is concerned with a masculine ethic, a way of being and acting from the masculine.

 

Masculine ethos in South Africa

In South Africa, traces of a masculine ethos can be identified in Zenani who clearly outlined the roles of a man in ancient Xhosa Culture. According to Zenani 'Life begins with a man' (Zenani 1992). According to Zenani, it is the man, who is the leader and the initiator of the home. It is a man who gives guidance (Zenani 1992).

Zenani's experiences could be compared to the complexity of Zulu manhood in the work of Waetjen (2004) who outlines some difficulties of Zulu men in colonial South Africa. These men where marginalised by the migrant labour system and lost their authority and a sense of identity (Waetjen 2004). According to Waetjen, the existence of Inkatha Freedom Party was premised on the political restoration of the dignity of the Zulu man in the home. This was a form of resistance against colonialism. Critical to note therefore is that a metaphysical masculine ethos is an ethos constructed from a particular understanding of being, that is masculine informed by time, experience, context and culture.

Walker's advocacy for a constitutional sexuality at best exposes the nature of the masculine ethos in a post-apartheid South Africa (Walker 2005:225). A masculine ethos from the Constitution of South Africa could be described as a masculinity that is fundamentally premised and informed by the Constitution of South Africa. Walker for instance argues that masculine violence in South Africa is prevalent because traditional or indigenous conceptions of masculinities are struggling to adjust to a new democratic dispensation or to the new South African constitutional ideals. Walker contends that notions such as gender equality in a post-apartheid South Africa have created a crisis for traditional masculinities by transgressing traditional indigenous gender roles. The complexities of the notion of a masculine ethos are also exposed by Xaba (2001:105-123) who unmasks how 'struggle masculinities' became problematic in the new South African constitutional dispensation. According to Xaba, 'struggle masculinities' refer to strong and liberation masculinities which became subordinated in a post-apartheid South Africa. According to Xaba (2001), this subordination was stimulated by the birth of 'post-struggle masculinities' which dominated after 1994 and was legitimised by the constitution.

Xaba (2001:105-123) asserts that the new democratic dispensation in South Africa required education and qualifications in order to get employment. As a result of this, Xaba asserts that struggle masculinities suffered significantly as their main purpose was liberation not education before 1994. According to Xaba, in a post-apartheid South Africa, men who were part of the liberation struggle but did not have an education, failed to secure meaningful employment and therefore failed to provide for their families as head of homes. Xaba argues that these men became delinquents and resorted to crime in this 1994 democratic dispensation in order to provide for themselves and for their families. This is because providence was deeply attached to how they understood their manhood and what they were supposed to do.

Considering the LGBTQ+ community, Langa (2020) notes how heterosexual boys avoided the company of gay boys to avoid being labelled as gay by heterosexual girls. Masculinity for these boys was attached to their actions, one of these being avoiding gay boys. It is by recognising the importance of gender differences in South Africa that I argue that masculine violence enacted against the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer/questioning, asexual (LGBTQIA+) in South Africa is the hold unto the dead metaphysical flesh of a primordial masculine ethos. This I argue, is an attempt to subvert the flux.

 

Masculine violence and LGBTQI+ community in South Africa

South Africa continues to face the ever-present reality of hate crimes perpetuated against the LGBTQI+ community. Bonang Gaelae, Nonhlanla Kunene, Nathaniel 'Sspokgoane' Mbele, Khulekani Gomazi, Phelokazi Mqathana and many others are the names we remember when we think of hate crimes perpetuated against the LGBTQI+ community in South Africa. What should be crucial to note is the difficult realities of tracing reliable statistics of hate crimes perpetuated against the LGBTQI+ in South Africa. This is because of a number of reasons that include but are not limited to the number of crimes related to sexual orientation reported to the SAPS and the failure of SAPS to include hate crime as a result of sexual orientation in their statistical reports. According to Jeffery (2021), approximately 42 hate crimes were committed against the LGBTQI+ community in 2021. Out of the 42 then pending cases, 30 were for murder and 12 were for rape. What should be considered in the context of gender and sexual violence in South Africa is that they are not only under-reported but not many are successfully prosecuted (Machisa et al. 2017).

This suggests that statistics around rape and sexual victimisation are not reliable. Mgolozeli and Duma (2020:11-13) expose the reason why men feared reporting sexual violence to the SAPS. According to Mgolozeli and Duma, these reasons included but were not limited to the fear of experiencing homophobia at police stations, the fear of being stigmatised, and the fear of being ridiculed.

In his deliberations on why it was difficult to deal with same-sex crimes, Jeffery (2021) suggested that crimes perpetuated against LGBTQI+ identifying individuals continue to be perpetuated because of three reasons. The first reason he provides is that such violence is perpetuated because of societal attitudes, which are anti-LGBTQI+. The second reason he provides is that information about such crime is not being brought forward to the SAPS. The third reason he provides is that there is a difficulty of implementing policies and laws that protect the LGBTQI+ community. Jeffery's claims should be viewed in light of a South Africa that has experienced these crimes despite having a constitution that protects its citizens on the basis of sexual orientation and gender difference.

Various social institutions such as the SAPS and prominent leaders in the country have in fact expressed this masculine ethos of metaphysical violence. This is exposed by secondary victimisation the LGBTQI+ community is subjected to by the SAPS. This ethos of metaphysical violence enacted against the LGBTQI+ community is best expressed by a metaphysics, which attempts to subvert Caputo's flux. Gordons (2018:71) exposes this by using the experience of two dating lesbian women in Soweto who were brutally attacked because they were lesbian. According to Gordons, when reporting this crime, the police officer who assisted this couple noted that the complainant was 'So beautiful to be gay'. The view of the police officer carries the implicit assumption that being lesbian is not appropriate. Gordon notes that the complainant was arrested for one night without food because of a counter charge and the case was subsequently withdrawn without notifying the complainant.

Such a fierce claim subjects not only lesbians but gay and bisexual men to imperial masculine metaphysical ethos that attempts to subvert that which it cannot grasp or understand. This masculine metaphysical ethos is a moral construct firmly premised on ontological descriptions and beliefs of the masculine in South Africa of a particular time. Caputo's concern about the staleness and the failures of metaphysics in his radical hermeneutics and his critique of ethics is what I consider critical in the context of masculine violence in South Africa. This is because of the violent consequences of a masculine metaphysical ethos that the LGBTQI+ community has been exposed to in South Africa. The vulnerability of hetero-masculine ethos is exposed by its inability to capture life fully and attempting to hide behind reasons it constructs to justify its failure to come to terms with someone its metaphysics cannot comprehend. This is something its metaphysics is unable to account for. Such attempts to subvert the flux have significant ethical implications for South Africa considering the counts of crime experienced by LGBTQI+ identifying individuals because the SAPS is a critical part of our criminal justice system.

Masculine metaphysical violence is exposed by the words that were made by Former President Jacob Zuma in Kwa Dukuza at a Heritage Day celebration in 2006. According to News24 (2006), these were the words of the former president:

When I was growing up, an Ungqingili (a gay man) would not have stood in front of me. I would knock him out. (n.p.)

What should be critical to note about this statement of the former President is that hegemonic masculine violence is directly used to subvert what the metaphysical ethos cannot account for. This is the point where masculine metaphysics flounders. This metaphysical masculine ethos in this case attempts to subvert the flux using violence. In the case of Ungqingili, it assumes gay to be an alien to the masculine. Alien in this sense refers to alien from hegemonic hetero-masculine framework that assumes hetero-sexist normativity as concrete. Such hetero-sexist normativity is usually expressed in private and public life in South Africa.

 

Grief of metaphysical masculinities in the flux

Attempts to avoid what this masculine metaphysics and ethos cannot grasp are at best expressed by the type of crimes the LGBTQI community is exposed to. Gordon (2018:70) who uses the case study of two lesbian women in Soweto provides two possible reasons for their victimisation. According to Gordon, the first is sexual unavailability expressed by the rejection of romantic advances of the perpetrators and for the complainant being too masculine. Critical within this context is that hegemonic metaphysical masculine ethos absolutely claims masculinity. Masculinity as metaphysically conceived by those who adhere to its ethos cannot be expressed by women and should not be expressed by women. This can be attributed to cultural norms and values in Africa where the man is masculine and the head of the home as one can note in Hadebe (2010).

Same-sex relations, however, have problematised these notions of gender and sexuality in the colonial-contemporary African context. This placed social arrangements according to gender in Africa in crisis. The expression of this metaphysical masculine crisis is best expressed through two hate crimes with contrasting nuances in South Africa. The first is corrective rape and the second is gay bashing. According to Di Silvio (2011:1469), corrective rape is a term used to describe the act of correcting a woman's sexual orientation and subordinating them to 'womanhood', believing that homosexuality is a white disease. Zukiswa Gaca was followed by a man who knew she was lesbian, and this man raped her in the midst of his friend and claimed that he was going to show her that she was a woman (Carter 2013).

Contrastingly, gay bashing presents a different nuance of masculine violence in South Africa. Mfundo Ngobese recalls the words of men who assaulted him (De Barroz 2022):

They kept on saying, they hate gays, I believed I was being punished for my sexuality. (n.p.)

Lulu Ntuthela was found in a shallow grave after being humiliated for his sexual orientation the previous day (Maurice 2021). It is important to note that Musa Xulu was shot dead in broad day light on Freedom Day for being gay (Singh 2022).

Gay men and bisexual men are seen as traitors of the hegemonic metaphysical masculine ethos in South Africa. Although gay men are also raped, not all experience homophobic violence through rape. Hetero-masculine violence is also expressed as a form of disdain and disgust to a different masculinity with the same biological framework; a man with a penis who alters the binary epistemological framework of hetero-masculinity. Being gay, bisexual and transgender alters these binary masculine epistemological frameworks and in turn challenges the hegemonic heteropatriarchal masculine ethos. The crucial concern is whether ecclesiological theological confessions can act against institutional and structural violence experienced by the LGBTQI+ community. If they can act, the question that should be asked is, why does such critique not have sustainable influence of pervasive hetero-masculine violence enacted against the LGBTQIA+ community in South Africa?

 

Confessional ecclesiological traditions and the LGBTQI+ community in South Africa

The LGBTQI+ community in South Africa had a turbulent relationship with the Christian church that has evolved and continues to evolve over the years. For some, this relationship has moved from rejection, tolerance to acceptance in many denominational confessional traditions. Focussing on evolving mainline ecclesiological theologies, turbulence experienced by the LGBTQI+ community can be noted in Mtshitshelwa (2010:769-787) who was highly critical of the Methodist Church's interpretation of Leviticus 8:22 which forbids 'Men laying with other men as with a woman'. Davids (2020:301-317) exposes this turbulent experience in the URSCA by proposing a hermeneutical framework which utilises the Belhar confession as its basis for being inclusive to the LGBTQI+ community. Robertson and Nadar (2021:1-16) note how ecclesiological research is centred around heteronormative policies and how their implementation excludes queer individuals. Robertson and Nadar argue for the utilisation of a transformative research approach focussing on institutional culture instead of policy in ecclesiological traditions. According to Robertson and Nadar, research informed by institutional culture takes note of the experiences of that which enters a particular institution and is excluded by it. These observations allow these experiences to inform and shape its transformation.

What is critical to note is the difficulty of the Church to be firmly vocal about masculine violence perpetuated against the LGBTQI+ community. An example of this can be noted in Anglican Church's refusal to bless same-sex marriages while Archbishop Makgoba wrote a letter to the Anglican Church of Uganda criticising the country's anti-LGBTQI+ bill (Igual 2023). It is plausible therefore to note that ecclesiological confessions centred around heteronormative policies and practices are prisoners of hetero-masculine metaphysical ills in time: in contradiction to what Caputo calls the flux. This reluctance of acknowledging the flux has caused these ecclesiological traditions to bear the internal contradictions of their rebuke to violence and their exclusion of the LGBTQI+ as pointed out in the case of the Anglican Church. This is done by uplifting an ideo-hetero privileged historicist confessional morality. The ideo-privileged historicist confessional morality that many ecclesiological traditions support are centred on the creation doctrine of hetero-binarism: God, created male(hetero) and female(hetero).

What must be noted is that theological evolution within confessional theologies have become the way of subverting this flux. This is noted in the perpetual struggle of confessional theologies over the years with the acceptance, marriage and the ordination of LGBTQI+ individuals in their denominational confines. The evolution to the acceptance of gay pastors within the Dutch Reformed Church is evident in the work of Van Loggenberg (2015:1-9). In as early as 2010, Reverend Ecclesia Delange's ministry was cut short in the Methodist Church of South Africa after she notified the Church of her intention to get married to her partner (Dlamini 2019:61). Critical to note is that confessional theologies have evolved over the years and have become more accepting of the LGBTQI+. It must be noted that consequently, congregants from various church traditions have also become more accepting of LGBTQI+ individuals and community (Kotze & Loubser 2018). What must be noted is that little change has been effected from this evolution in as far as violence experienced by the LGBTQIA+ community is concerned.

The central critique of this paper, however, is how ecclesiological traditions in South Africa have become victims of the ills of masculine metaphysics in time. These hetero-masculine metaphysical ills are birthed from historicist confessional moralism where historical doctrines are theologically clarified over a period of years for their own heteronormative sake in tolerance of the LGBTQI+ community. This is exposed by the progression and evolving nature of beliefs and doctrines around issues of sex and gender. Hetero-masculine history expressed by a contemporary historicist confessional morality is not held accountable for its metaphysical flaws. It escapes the flux through theological evolution as noted in confessional theologies and theologies in African Independent Churches. For the African Independent Churches, this is exposed by the theology of hetero-male headship that has subjected women to discrimination and violence, evolving to a more tolerant atmosphere that is largely still patriarchal (Molobi 2008:1-14).

The challenge with historicist confessional morality can be likened to the challenge Caputo has with Gadamer's framework of truth: the assumption of progress from foundation (Caputo 1987). This is its failure to come to grief when it is exposed by the flux. Confessional historicist morality crumbles in the face of the flux. Relying on Mering's body theology which calls our attention to the corporeal turn, my contention is that similarly to Caputo, there should be great caution against metaphysical complacency in as far as the body is concerned.

Caputo's concern with the problem of the failure of metaphysics in the face of the flux and Meiring's corporeal turn to the body in theological anthropology have similarities. Firstly, both are uncomfortable with the failures of metaphysics (Caputo 1987). Secondly, while Caputo's ethic recognises the uncomfortable necessity of metaphysical grief, Meiring's body theology cautions us against the fragility of ontological descriptions of the bodies in theological anthropology (Meiring 2016). Meiring suggests that the solution to this issue is to recognise the body and its experiences by asking questions about the body in pursuit of discovery. It is by using the intersections of both Caputo's ethic of dissemination and Meiring's body theology that I propose a new theological framework that will assist the church in dealing with its own internal contradictions in as far as violence is concerned. This is particularly as it relates to the LBTQI+ community in South Africa.

 

Meiring's body theology

Mering introduces us to a body theology of embodied sensing (Meiring 2014). In his theology, he uses an interdisciplinary approach to recognise and affirm bodily experiences and their contribution to theological discourse. The theological anthropology of Mering recognises the body and its experience as sources of knowledge: making the effort to listen to the body and its experiences in relation to creation (Meiring 2016:5-8). Using an interdisciplinary approach towards understanding the body, Meiring contends that bodily insights through experience provide critical insights and avenues of engagement.

Meiring's body theology is premised on three pillars. The very first pillar is the role language plays in theology. For Meiring (2016:1-8), language is made up of words that capture particular experiences of lived bodies. He argues that it is for this reason that language cannot objectify the body but must be subject to it theologically. This suggests that language should be under scrutiny in theology when it comes to evaluation of the body. The failure to constantly question language in theology makes it an imperial enterprise. This becomes a significant disadvantage to the learning experience and development of theology. For Mering, because language fails to capture all experiences, listening to the body becomes critical in the context of theologising about notions of sin and other notions in the Christian discourse.

The second pillar of Meiring's body theology is the 'lived body' (Meiring 2014). For Meiring, the body is a source of knowledge and revelation. For Meiring, the body is not just a mere sociological construct but a subject of other faculties and sciences such as biochemistry, natural science, and psychology. He notes that the body interacts with animals and other bodies. This requires that the body be listened to attentively in theology. The third pillar of Meiring's body theology is his concept of 'More Than'. Understanding the failures of language and the body as a lived experience requires us to be careful of how we think of others. There is more than one body in the world with different experiences. This means that bodies are not homogeneous. This particularity requires careful consideration in judgement about other bodies.

Central to Meiring's body theology is the corporeal turn (Meiring 2014). According to Meiring, the corporeal turn is that which is deeply critical of the mind-body discourse wherein the body is taken for granted while the mind is granted superiority over the body as a result of cartesian dualism. According to Meiring, theoretical frameworks produced by the cartesian dualism take for granted the bodily experiences. Meiring (2014) makes use of Sheet-Johnstone who sees the corporeal turn as a discourse of an open-ended continual spiral of gaining understanding that produces more questions about the body. Meiring contends that, not only is the corporeal turn within body theology dependent on experiences of the body but is also an interdisciplinary exercise. What is important for him then is the intersections of a theological anthropology, its groundings, and the complex relations it has with the body in light of the corporeal turn. Similar to Caputo in his ethics of dissemination, Meiring's body theology calls into question the metaphysical complacency in theological anthropology in as far as the complexities and the makeup of the body is concerned.

Merring's body theology is very important considering the way in which the bodies of LGBTQIA+ identifying individuals are viewed. Recognising his theological anthropology and its relationship with the body, the crucial question is: to what extent has the church in South Africa transgressed the body and prioritised the goals of cartesian dualism that signifies the mind over the body?

This paper that makes use of Meiring's body theology calls into question a theological anthropology that is not interdisciplinary in as far as the bodies of the LGBTQI+ individuals are concerned. Then, relying on Meiring (2014) and Caputo's ethic of dissemination: this paper problematises the metaphysical complacency of the Church in South Africa when it comes to the bodies of LGBTQIA+ identifying individuals. I contend that it is precisely the prioritisation of cartesian dualism that has made the church complicit in hetero-masculine violence enacted towards people in the LGBTQIA plus community.

 

Theological framework using body theology and Caputo's ethic of dissemination in the analysis of masculine violence in South Africa

If confessional ecclesiological traditions want to meaningfully contribute towards discourses centred around the alleviation of hetero-masculine violence, such theologies and theologies in African Independent Churches, doctrinally speaking must be able to grieve. In the face of the flux, heteronormative doctrines must grieve. In the attempt to address issues related to same-sex relations, confessional ecclesiological traditions have made progressive decisions without acknowledging the metaphysical fragility of doctrines and traditions. They have not owned the existing possibility of constant metaphysical failure of their doctrines and traditions in decision making. It is because of this that the correction of a particular belief through development or progression can be confused with the grieving of a church on a particular issue such as same-sex relations. This is not grief.

Grief in Caputo's sense means becoming vulnerable by acknowledging the shortcomings of the tools one uses to make sense of life. For Caputo, for instance, each human must forge a way of living, this is inevitable regardless of how that takes place. There are certain tools such as language, sense and other factors that help us to capture meaning and understanding of life to survive. Metaphysical grief in this sense means to clearly understand that these tools we use to make sense of life, the ones we cannot live without, are frail and incapable of capturing life in its entirety. Noting one of Meiring's pillars of body theology, these tools are products of experiences in particular contexts and historical periods that cannot account for other contexts and all disciplinary discourses on the body. These tools are always victims of time as noted by Caputo despite their necessity and both by context and diverse interdisciplinary discourse on the body as noted by Meiring. In an ethic of dissemination, metaphysical grief means embracing this discomfort where the fragility of language and sense in the formation of knowledge production is constantly exposed by change in time. Metaphysical grief in the sense of the Church in South Africa requires that one accepts the impossibility of living without language and sense in forging ways of living while acknowledging their constant metaphysical shortcomings.

Grief for confessional theologies is an acknowledgment of the failure of theological language to capture a universal human experience. It is the acknowledgement of the failure to live up to justice in Caputo's sense of the word because of the weaknesses of metaphysics. Grief for confessional theologies requires that the bodies of LGBTQI+ individuals be recognised as sources of knowledge and revelation. Grief means acknowledging metaphysical failure and being open to the flux. Recognising Robertson and Nadar (2021:1-16) grief means, the acknowledgement of the Theo-ideological compromises that are the source of metaphysical violence.

A grieving church is a church that constantly acknowledges the metaphysical fragility of its doctrines. A grieving church is a church that mourns the inhumanity that is caused by the metaphysical fragility of its confessional tradition and doctrines. It is a mourning of constant metaphysical failure in the face of the flux, a mourning constantly inspired by the intentions of justice whatever justice might mean. This ethic according to Caputo, is an ethic of humility in the face of a metaphysical tornado. Such a theological orientation is inspired by intentions such as love but recognises the very fragility of the enactment of such terms. It is a prophetic love that requires observation and attentive listening.

 

Concluding remarks

This paper sought to expose the challenges of masculine violence that is not only a public phenomenon but an ecclesiological one too. This has forced heteronormative ecclesiological traditions to bear with the internal contradictions of their views against homophobic violence and exclusive practices they enact against the LGBTQIA+ community. These contradictions even as they take a progressive and evolutionary posture I argue are a way of subverting what Caputo calls the flux. Using Caputo's ethic of dissemination and Meiring's body theology, I argue for the adoption of a Theo-moral framework of ecclesiological traditions that will always allow itself to be deformed by the flux. This is because the flux exposes ideo-metaphysical flaws in its engagement with society. This exposure embraces the discomfort of metaphysical flaws within church tradition and church doctrine. It is only this posture, a posture of an ethic of dissemination that will allow the church to be effective in its engagement about violence against the LGBTQI+ community.

 

Acknowledgements

This article is an edited version of an article presented at the Annual Meeting of the Theological Society of South Africa in 2022.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

A.M. declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the College of Human Sciences Research and Ethics Review Committee and ethics consent was received on 12 September 2023. The ethics approval number is 818463_CREC_CHS_2023.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this article.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Ayanda Mdokwana
ayandamdokwana@gmail.com

Received: 13 Sept. 2023
Accepted: 01 Dec. 2023
Published: 27 Feb. 2024

 

 

1 . Ecclesiological discomfort with same sex relations is discussed later in the paper.
2 . The flux can be defined as state of change or an event in time which the language of metaphysics cannot account for because of its limitations. It is the moment in time that presents itself as a disturbance to the rigidity of metaphysics. The state of such a moment of disturbance is one which exposes the flaws of truth and meaning as we know it, and the premise upon which these are built.
3 . Metaphysical fragility refers to the state of metaphysical instability that is constantly exposed and challenged by the flux. In the context of church tradition, the concept of metaphysical fragility is used to describe the nature of church doctrines, laws and their formation, and their metaphysical weaknesses.
4 . In philosophy, the 'flux' is a term that has been used to describe the constant change of things in life. The philosopher who made use of the term was Heraclitus.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Rebuilding the broken walls of Zimbabwe with the Church, leadership and followership

 

 

Kimion Tagwirei

The Unit for Reformational Theology and the Development of the South African Society, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Biblically and historically, Christianity is meant to enlighten people, transform lives, and develop responsible and effective leaders and followers who influence life-building change across generations and borders. Somehow, even while churches mushroom everywhere, selfishness, irresponsible citizenship, moral decadence, systematic corruption, and related travails proliferate and are sinking Zimbabwe into monumental political, economic and social crises. Meanwhile, the holistic mission of the Church has been narrowed down to proclamation, while demonstration of the gospel has lost attention, and the integral mission has become socialised and secularised. As a result, Christian principles of leadership and followership, such as stewardship, servanthood, responsible citizenship and all-encompassing service delivery, have become correspondingly elusive. The ruling government of Zimbabwe has been militantly silencing dissenting voices and the nation has a dire need for a prophetic voice to speak about reformation. Meanwhile the Church is sheepish, divided, erratic, somewhat inaudible and this submission addresses that gap. Some Church members appear helpless and hopeless, while countless others are migrating to cool off in neighbouring countries, to seek greener pastures, political and socio-economic relief. Thus, many Zimbabweans - those who are scattered and those still in Zimbabwe - are in critical need of a great revival. By reflecting on the rebuilding of Jerusalem's broken walls by Nehemiah, and employing an in-depth analysis of available transformational leadership and Christian literature, this article calls for an inclusive, spiritual, strategic and integrally missionary revival, to achieve a revolutionary transformation of leadership, followership, and nation building.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article interfaces ecclesiology and transformational leadership with politics for inclusive transformation.

Keywords: crises; Church; revival; leadership; followership; integral mission; rebuilding; transformation.

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Introduction

The predicament facing the Church and State attracts nostalgia in Zimbabwe, and across Africa. A number of scholars, such as Bosch (1999) and Pillay (2017), affirm that ecclesiology is biblically and historically transformational. Confirming their assertion, the Early Church, Medieval Church and Reformation Church professed and propelled inclusive transformation for the benefit of all people. The authority and basis of Christianity - the Bible - speaks through Matthew 5:13-16, by stating that believers should be the salt and light of the world, which means, metaphorically, that they should be good examples of purity and uphold the right standards for life, such as honesty, conscientiousness, morality and diligence in work, speech, conduct and thought, while influencing others to do the same.

Africa has been struggling with social, economic and political evils; yet, as Galal (2023), McClendon (2017) and Jenkins (2016) reveal, Christianity is regarded to be the main religion on the continent, and the majority of Africans are Christians. Considering that the Christian gospel is predominantly inclusive and transformational and fosters the Christ-like tenets of righteousness, stewardship, servanthood and responsible citizenship, it is paradoxical that most African nations are struggling with a variety of social, economic and political evils, such as substance abuse, corruption, vote-rigging and selfishness. In this context, the vehicle of transformation - the Church - is presently viewed as a cold, sleeping and dying giant. In attempts to revive her and effect the needful integral transformation in Zimbabwe, this article overviews Christianity, unpacks Zimbabwean crises, delineates Missio Dei, redefines the Church and anatomises Missio Ecclesiae in Africa. Subsequently, it overviews transformational leadership and followership, and explores a possible revival to curb the identified crises.

 

Reviewing the context: Unpacking the Zimbabwean crises

Zimbabwe was born on 17 April 1980 after a protracted war of independence. Before independence, the country was known as Southern Rhodesia, after Cecil John Rhodes, who had been the inspiration for Britain's colonising Pioneer Column into the territories now known as Zimbabwe. In 1965, White Rhodesians issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence via Britain. The war of independence was fought against White Rhodesians by various nationalist groups, and it eventually resulted in a peace settlement being signed at the Lancaster House Conference in London in 1979. The conference led to elections in 1980, which were won by Robert Mugabe, who was eventually removed from power by a military-assisted coup in November 2017 (Asuelime 2018) after he had been in power for 37 years.

This context is imperative for comprehension of the matter under study (Dohn, Hansen & Klausen 2018:1-17). It forms the foundation for our review of the Zimbabwean situation, which is done to demonstrate the necessity of reviving the Church, transformational leadership and followership, and to transform Zimbabwe. The country has been facing an unsettling political and socio-economic catastrophe during the long reign of Mugabe, throughout the militarised rise of incumbent President Emerson Mnangagwa, who took power in November 2017, to today (Assubuji 2016; Cook 2017:1; Noko 2022; Tagwirei 2022:9-10). Zimbabwe remains riddled with political conflict and violence (Tarusarira 2014:93). Masunungure and Bratton (2018:1) comment that President Mnangagwa, when he entered power, promised reformist governance, but is yet to fulfil this promise. Consequently, the cost of living has risen, stimulating a massive exodus of millions of people, and depriving the economy of the highly skilled workers who are needed for industrial growth (Chitiyo et al. 2019:4). Since the main opposition leader, Nelson Chamisa, devoted himself to Christianity, engaged spiritualities, and churches have been appealing for free and fair elections in 2023, most Zimbabweans raised hope for political change in a troubled state (Chitumba 2023). However, as observed by Chan (2023), the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission, which runs elections, promulgates

deliberate and targeted 'ineptitude' - illegalities and technicalities, plus briberies and threats of violence - which mark elections. These abuses were called out by observers, notably those of the Southern African Development Community led by former Zambian vice president, Dr Nevers Mumba, who faced sustained abuse for his findings and critical judgement that the election had not been free and fair. (n.p.)

Consequently, Zimbabwe experienced severe structural degeneration, immense deindustrialisation, and informalisation of its economy. As Kanyenze, Chitambara and Tyson (2017:6) observe, the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) has also politicised, corrupted and weakened public institutions, scared potential investors away by continuous political instability, and instituted policy inconsistencies that undermine business confidence. Muronzi (2022) notes that runs of the highest inflation rate in the world have caused living standards to plummet and the majority of citizens to fall into extreme poverty. I agree with Chitiyo et al. (2019:25) that the state of affairs in Zimbabwe has upset households, businesses, and the social fabric of the country. In this context, endemic and multifaceted corruption, criminality, substance abuse, and mental ill-health have increased, as citizens struggle to survive through unconventional means amid tragic hopelessness and helplessness. Bearing in mind that 85% of the Zimbabwean population profess to be Christian (Gaga, Masengwe & Dube 2023:69), the prevalence of political, social and economic ills is a paradox.

As Christians are expected be the salt and light of the world (Mt 5:13-16), that they have little impact and influence on politics, economics and society is a cause for concern. Is the Church still in the world, yet not of the world (Jn 17:16-17)? It is public knowledge that the majority of incumbent leaders in high social, economic and political offices are Christians. For example, the ruling president, Mnangagwa, describes himself as a born-again Christian, in spite of his nickname:

[T]he Crocodile' because of his ruthlessness… who analysts judge more autocratic than his predecessor and lacking Mugabe's intellectual flair and ideological vision… Having presided over a collapsing economy marked by hyperinflation, unemployment, and corruption allegations. (AFP 2023:n.p)

Christian leaders, such as Uebert Angel (born Hubert Mudzanire), who was appointed by Mnangagwa to be ambassador-at-large to the Americas and Europe in 2021, purportedly to market Zimbabwe as 'open for business investments' (Murwira 2021), were recently exposed for being entangled in a fraudulent gold Mafia that also involves the president's family (Al Jazeera Investigative Unit 2023). Dube (2021) argues that, instead of playing a prophetic role, by speaking against evil and advancing transformational leadership and being as the salt and light of the world, a number of them, such as Prophet Walter Magaya, Bishop Nehemiah Mutendi, Apostle Andrew Wutaunashe, and White Garment Church leaders are, instead, regime enablers. Whether such leaders are co-opted or self-submit to court prophecy, they must confirm the need to revive and transform Zimbabwean Christianity, leadership and integral mission to attend all issues affecting the nation. If Christians and leaders can be revived and transformed, they should, together, be able to revive and transform Zimbabwe holistically. Before exploring the integral revival Zimbabwe needs, it is paramount to delineate the mission of God on earth (Missio Dei), redefine the Church in Zimbabwe, anatomise Missio Ecclesiae and overview transformational leadership and followership, as prerequisites to addressing Zimbabwean crises.

 

Delineating Missio Dei

Missio Dei is a Latin theological expression that means the mission of God. Scholars agree that Missio Dei is predominantly a call for the Christian community to worship God as he is. It belongs to and serves graciously holistic purposes, for God to reconcile and redeem humanity with him, and with each other. Arthur (2009:2) says that the mission of God has an overarching purpose to see people living in communion with each other and with himself, and to bring about reconciliation in a broken cosmos. Thomas Schirrmacher, through his book, 'Missio Dei, God's missional nature', defines Missio Dei as the sending of Jesus Christ to the world by God and the Church to serve humanity through the Church, up to the end of time (2017:12). This explanation is based on John 17:18, which reads, 'As you sent me into the world, I have sent them into the world', and Mark 16:15, 'Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation' (NIV).

Flett (n.d.:75-77) adds that Missio Dei is a divine engagement that calls the Church to participate in God's all-encompassing transformative mission in the world. Wright (2006:71) posits that Missio Dei demonstrates that salvation belongs to God who sits on the throne (with reference to Rv 7:10), and the Bible is principally about the life-bearing story of how God brought about his salvation for the whole cosmos. Mission belongs to God, and it is the prior reality out of which flows any mission we get involved in. Thus, in agreement with Harold (2019:3), 'the church is an instrument used by God to bring about well-being to the world. The bringing out of well-being calls for an understanding of the Missio Dei that includes justice and compassion'.

Thus, Missio Dei is not merely salvific, but comprehensively inclusive. Otiso (2022:25) studied the understanding of Missio Dei in the Global South and observes that Missio Dei is taken from its origination with God, and begins when a community of believers understand the work and call to the communion of, and with, the personage of the Trinity. Therefore, the mission of the Church can only be appropriately derived from the mission of God. As such, it is an extension of God through inclusive delivery of the gospel in correspondence with contextual circumstances. All in all, Missio Dei refers to the work of the Church as part of God's integral work in the world. Therefore, it is important to review the current state of the Church in Zimbabwe, to redefine it and observe how she can serve the mission of God effectively.

 

Towards redefining the Church in Zimbabwe

The Church in Zimbabwe is currently a mixed and confusing entity because of various images that are used to portray her. The term church is often assigned different meanings that depend on circumstantial references (cf. Howard 2017). In the Zimbabwean context, the term can refer to various perspectives, which equate the church to a workshop, market place, theatre, salvationist embassy, or a burial society.

The Church as a workshop

The majority of, if not all, Zimbabwean churches presently portray themselves as workshops where people's lives can be fixed. Just as a car is brought to a workshop for mechanical work to diagnose and fix a problem at a price, a workshop church is where people are brought to be prophesied to and to have their problems addressed, for which they are charged through tithes, freewill offerings, seed, and other offerings. This approach is most popular in prophetic Pentecostalism, which promotes 'a serious overreliance on the prophets that turns them into mediators of God's blessings to their followers' (Magezi & Banda 2017:2). Citizens facing Zimbabwe's deep crises desperately crave solutions to their economic, social and political problems, and they are hoodwinked by prophetic voices who present themselves as super-spiritual authorities who believers must rely on, as they are mediators between believers and the Trinitarian God. As observed by Biri and Togarasei (2013:81), Zimbabwean tradition means they are accustomed to consulting soothsayers when they face crises in their lives. The Zimbabwean predicament has made many citizens so desperate that they seek divine intervention anywhere.

The idea of the Church as a workshop is not only a Pentecostal phenomenon, and scholars such as Bishau (2013:5) and Ramantswana (2019:1-2) report that even evangelical and mainline churches are now ministering healing, miracles and prosperity. Because the health delivery system in Zimbabwe has collapsed and there has been an escalation of complications and an increase in incurable illnesses such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and cancer, people suffering from various illnesses engage either traditional healers or Pentecostals to address their issues, as a way of 'protesting against the missionary church's failure to deal with their spiritual, social or family problems as reasons for their deviation' Rugwiji (2019:7). Therefore, it is important to redefine the Church in Zimbabwe.

The Church as a marketplace

The Church, especially the Pentecostal grouping, in Zimbabwe is also sometimes presented as a marketplace where miscellaneous ideas and goods are traded in cash and kind. This phenomenon is widely reflected through the commodification and commercialisation of the gospel, by which Pentecostals sell a range of items, such as anointing oils, car stickers, wristbands, one-on-one prophetic or healing consultations, and counselling meetings.

Drawing from his study of Zimbabwean neo-Pentecostalism, Mahohoma (2017) calls the Church 'God-Business', and explains how ecclesial leaders do business in the name of God by selling healing, miracles and blessings to poverty-stricken and desperate people.

According to Bishau's (2013) analysis, the prosperity gospel is identified by various descriptions, such as health and wealth gospel and prosperity theology. Bishau observes that all its features use very disturbing manipulative ecclesiology, literalistic interpretation of the Bible, careless theology, and warped concept of miracles. This behaviour is what Marongwe and Maposa (2015) call Gospreneurship, which involves ecclesial leaders commercialising the gospel for personal enrichment. It is out of this kind of gospel that denominations such as the United Family International and Prophetic, Healing and Deliverance Ministries sell anointing oil, wristbands, car stickers, T-shirts, bandanas and DVDs (Rupapa & Shumba 2014; Sunday Mail 2014). Prophets Makandiwa and Magaya charge US$1500 per person for 'solutions' (Chitemba & Ncube 2016), and various other churches engage in the business of trade.

In a vox pop with church goers and non-church goers, RelZim has established that some churches are recording brisk business as they sell church items that church goers scramble for at exorbitant prizes…selling church items from anointing oil, hander kerchiefs, fruits, wrist bands, mugs, stickers, calendars among others. (Mawere 2014:n.p.)

The Church as a theatre

Increasing numbers of Church leaders in Zimbabwe are compounding the sacred with the profane, problematically talking while walking concurrently as God-men and conmen, and becoming entangled with a heterogeneity of comical and controversial theatrics.

As Fröhlich (2019) reveals, the stories of Zimbabwean prophet, Walter Magaya, who claimed to have found cure for HIV and AIDS and cancer; Pastor Paul Sanyangore, who was televised 'talking to God on his phone' during one of his prophetic church services; and Prophet Emmanuel Makandiwa, who asked all those who had belly fat problems to come to him for instant miracle weight loss, make the Church look like theatre. This appearance is compounded by the exposure of Angel by Al Jazeera (2023) as a member of Zimbabwe's Gold Mafia, which is a dirty gold-smuggling and money-laundering syndicate that includes Zimbabwe's president and other local and foreign fraudsters. Many other, similarly strange, comical and controversial issues have entangled Christian leaders in Zimbabwe. Prophet Talent Madungwe claims to frequent heaven to dine with God and angels (Nyakurerwa 2016). Prophet Passion Java stirred up hysterical controversy when he declared that he would commit suicide if the ruling president, Mnangagwa, would lose the 2023 elections (Bulawayo 24). Java is known in Zimbabwe for posting pranks on social media, flaunting expensive paraphernalia, being a court prophet for the ruling Zanu-PF party, using funny street language, sexual innuendo, and words in the Shona language as glossolalia in his church services in America. Comedy and controversy also involves one of the senior pastors of Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Forward in Faith, Apostle Christopher Kapandura, who is on record passionately delivering vulgar sermons (Sipeyiye & Mpofu 2021). Is the Church comedy theatre? This question deserves an answer, hence, the need to redefine the Church in Zimbabwe.

The Church as a salvationist embassy

While the Church carries a holistic mission, which, besides kerygma, leitourgia and koinonia, also involves a diaconal mission to care for the needy - everyone, everything - and advocate for responsible citizenship. However, the Church turned passive and blind to political issues that bedevil the nation. It is notable that the evangelical, Pentecostal and indigenous Apostolic church in Zimbabwe is often muted by various causes, ranging from factionalism and political (ab)use (Chitando & Togarasei 2010:160) to fear, co-option (Dombo 2014:143) and diplomacy, which Togarasei (2018:33) describes as 'Salvationist, quietist, indifferent and unquestioning submission to authority'. Accordingly, believers, congregations, denominations, and their representative ecumenical bodies could be regarded as salvationist, because they are loud on issues of heavenly salvation in public, while speaking softly and quietly about national crises.

Some of the leaders of the so-called quiet churches have submitted to Zanu-PFism and have thereby compromised their prophetic voice. Well-known examples include Prophet Andrew Wutawunashe, a former Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe president and incumbent co-patron of Zimbabwe Indigenous Interdenominational Council of Churches, and Zimbabwe Christian Church (ZCC) leader Bishop Samuel Mutendi, who are well known Zanu-PF zealots and enablers (Baloyi 2022:57; Dube 2020:4; Musoni 2021:8).

The Church is supposed to assume a liberationist Kairos consciousness (Paradza 2019:1-2) to fulfil her diaconal role of caring for needy and oppressed people (Nemer 2016:27-28); however, the Church in Zimbabwe seems to be soft with social, economic and political issues that affect citizens. As this historical reflection outlines, she ought to be diagonally sensitive and engaging.

The Church as a burial society

Burial societies are indigenous organisations that provide financial and moral security, and presence to members in times of illness or bereavement. Semenya (2013:1) and Moyo (2020) explain that a burial society mobilises, organises, funds and helps subscribed members with cash and kind in times of difficulty, such as funerals and accidents. These societies fulfil an important role in the Zimbabwean context, where insurance companies that provide funeral cover are expensive and clients could lose when currencies devaluate. Furthermore, funeral policies only cover the cost of the coffin, transport and an undertaker, while the Church in Zimbabwe goes an extra mile to mitigate grief and provide a resounding send-off for departed souls. While funeral policies lapse when policy owners default on their monthly premiums, the Church is generally gracious; hence, many people mistake the Church to be a burial society, as they find her inclusive and helpful in times of bereavement. That is commendable, as the Church should mourn with those who mourn and rejoice with those who rejoice (Rm 12:15), as part of diakonia. However, in view of her mission as holistic, she should balance her attention to include kerygma, leitourgia, and koinonia. When her role is redefined in that way, she will demonstrate that she is much more than an undertaker, as she is also an upper-taker who points and leads people to God.

Redefining the Church in Zimbabwe

The Church is predominantly the redeemed congregation of God, whose messenger continually summons it to appear in the presence of God, who is always in its midst. While the Old Testament denotes the congregation of Jehovah (God), the New Testament refers it to the congregation of Jesus Christ (Lindsay 2000:19). Therefore, the Church is a community of God that believes that Abraham and his descendants (Israel) were part of the Adamic sin and death, which meant they could not fulfil their God-ordained redemptive role (Magezi & Magezi 2016:159-165). Thus, in the narrative of redemption, in concurrence with Deyoung and Gilbert (2011:26) and Van Aarde (2016:285-286, cf. 298-300), the Church is mandated holistically. In order to elaborate the redefined Church in Zimbabwe, anatomising Missio Ecclesiae matters, as it is holistic and includes diakonia, which connotes the bedrock of this article - reviving Christianity, leadership, and followership to curb Zimbabwean crises.

 

Anatomising Missio Ecclesiae

The term Missio Ecclesiae stands for the task of the Church. When God called Israel as the people of God, he had a purpose for them. Israel was to be 'a light to the nations' (Is 42:5-8). God calls the church, which is the new people of God, into being - as he did with Israel - in order to restore humanity to fellowship with the creator (Ac 1:8; Mt 28:18-20). The role and purpose of the church, therefore, is to facilitate the gathering of God's people to worship, honour, and glorify God through Jesus Christ (Eph 3:21). As Nkansah-Obrempong says, the Church's God-given agenda is not only spiritual, but extends to diakonia: 'The church is God's agent for bringing economic, political, spiritual, moral, and social transformation in society' (2017:283). This statement is related to Mathew 5:13-16, which depicts disciples as the salt and light of the world. Being the salt and light of the world means that Christians should be active enough to influence, enlighten, transform, serve, and save their societies, for the glory of God. Thus, Missio Ecclesiae is revival, and transformative. In light of that realisation, mission promotes liberation theology, by speaking and acting for poor people, freeing those who are oppressed, and providing spiritual, social, political, and economic healing and deliverance in view of Luke 4:18, which states Jesus Christ's words:

18. The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, To set the oppressed free. (NIV Online Bible Gateway: n.p)

19. to proclaim the year of the Lord's favour. (NIV)

It is with reference to this reflection that this article seeks to reignite the integral mission of the Church. She has been less audible than she should be on worsening political and economic crises, especially after Zimbabwe experienced a coup in 2017, and presidential elections that were unfree, unfair, and hotly disputed in 2018 and 2023. Multiple social problems have seen an upsurge, such as substance abuse (Mandura 2023; Matutu & Mususa 2019), moral decadence (Moyo 2017), systemic corruption (Zinyama 2021), that also entangles Church leaders (Dube 2023), and a high crime rate (Chenjerai 2023; Mangwaya 2023). Zimbabwe is experiencing a renewed exodus of citizens who are trying to escape social and economic disintegration, as they flock to other countries in search of political and socio-economic relief (Mazingaizo 2023; Moyo 2019). Ordinary citizens who stay behind experience the consequences of the brain drain, while the divorce rate, mental ill-health, desperation, helplessness and hopelessness escalate. State leaders appear irresponsibly autocratic, self-serving, and violent, and cow dissenting voices into submission (Flanagan 2023). In this milieu, when the Church - which is supposed to be a voice of the voiceless - gives in to fear and takes a sheepish and quietist approach, revival becomes an urgent need. If the Church - the salt and light of the world (Mt 5:13-16) - loses her 'saltiness' and 'lightness (activeness, influence and transformational power)', and fails to change the sad stories and realities of people who are desperate for integral transformation, she becomes useless and irrelevant to society. Silence and inaction on prevailing political and socio-economic crises necessitates a revival. Once the Church is revived, she will rise and transform Christian and secular leadership and followership, and deliver Zimbabwe from the multi-layered crises. Before exploring the much-needed integral revival, the following section provides an overview of the kind of leadership and followership that can transform Zimbabwe.

 

Reimagining transformational leadership in Zimbabwe

Transformational leadership is a style of leading people and institutions. Generally, this type of leadership inspires leaders and followers to transcend their own interests to achieve shared institutional benefits. Nainggolan et al. (2022:1) base their reflections on Nehemiah, and explain that transformative leadership produces holistic positive change at every stage of activity. Alqatawenh (2018:18) says that transformational leadership idealises influence by stimulating, facilitating and enhancing collective awareness, enthusiasm, attention, involvement, innovation and cooperation, to realise positive change and eventually wins followers' respect and support. It motivates subordinates to do their best and develop their skills, so as to deliver those subordinates to advanced intellectual and practical levels. This type of leadership is reminiscent of Nehemiah, whom the Bible presents as a transformational leader. Nehemiah was a strategic and transformational leader who is as characterised as being prayerful, visionary, inclusive, consultative, idealistic, influential, adaptable, focussed and sacrificial.

 

Leading through prayerfulness

Scholars such as Patton (2017) and Ogochi (2018:88) concur that the heart of Christian transformational leadership is communication and engagement between leaders and God. This is evident in the biblical example of Nehemiah, who engaged with God for discernment, counsel, guidance, empowerment, and protection. God responds to intercessions, petitions, supplications and all kinds of prayers, as the Bible confirms in many references, such as Genesis 18:22-19:29; 2 Chronicles 7:13-14; Psalms 50:15; Mathew 7:7; Mark 11:24, John 14:13-14 and 1 John 5:15, Therefore, leaders who pray for their nations and engagements will be answered and transformed, and enabled to transform their constituencies and followers. That is why, when Nehemiah heard that the walls and gates of Jerusalem were broken down and ruined, leaving remnant of Israel that had survived exile in serious trouble and shame, without security and dignity, Nehemiah contemplated the problem, envisioned rebuilding the fallen state, fasted and interceded for God to forgive his people, and to graciously enable, empower and resource him to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1-11).

Leading through a vision

Nobody can be a transformational leader without vision. According to Patton (2017:2), a vision helps direct followers towards a common goal and empowers them with the knowledge that they form a vital component for serving to accomplish that goal. Because Nehemiah had his vision in mind, he was able to clearly communicate and propel it with others. If Nehemiah had had no vision, he would not have been able to stimulate and convince King Artaxerxes and the people he mobilised to rebuild the broken walls of Jerusalem. When he envisioned a transformed Jerusalem and communicated it with King Artaxerxes and all the stakeholders in Jerusalem, he inspired, challenged and won the hearts of authorities and followers to support him in realising the vision. Ogochi (2018:88) affirms this, by saying that vision directs followers towards a common goal and empowers them with knowledge about what and how they should contribute.

In the case of Zimbabwe, this is why Nyoni (2021) declares that,

as we rebuild Zimbabwe, we need a leader who is going to spearhead a clear vision. Firstly, the leader should appreciate and acknowledge the damage that has been done to the country. Nehemiah inspected Jerusalem to appreciate the magnitude of the damage and the cost (Nehemiah 2:11-14). Secondly, the leader must spell a clear vision. The leaders should create a great, clear, compelling, colourful, and creative picture of the future. (n.p.)

Leading through strategy

Strategic leadership encompasses the manner in which individuals and teams think, act, and influence other people in such a way that promotes sustainable competitive advantage for the organisation. In agreement with Muthuku (2020), one of the key roles of a strategic leader is to ensure that their organisation keeps on thriving for the long term, and that that success is sustainable. Strategy puts an organisation, or nation at a point of competitive advantage. As such, Nehemiah exemplified strategic leadership as he rallied and capably led his team to great success of rebuilding the walls and repairing the gates of the city of Jerusalem as recorded in the Holy Bible (Neh 1-5). Nehemiah earnestly prayed and relied on God to help him succeed in his mission, thus paying great allegiance to his employer. It is such prayerfulness, wisdom, planning, engagement, resource mobilisation, diligence and sacrifice which enhanced Nehemiah's effectiveness that can save Zimbabwe from her crises if the Church, Christian and secular leadership and followership adopt the same strategies.

Leading with teamwork

Banso (2022) underscores that teamwork enhances collaboration, attracts diverse abilities, skills, and innovative ideas, builds morale, and increases productivity. It leads to greater effectiveness and efficiency. This is reflected in Joshua 23:10: 'Five of you shall chase a hundred, and a hundred of you shall put ten thousand to flight; your enemies shall fall by the sword before you'. The story of Nehemiah, similarly, inspires such teamwork, and Hunt (2023:32) declares that 'an important observation is that the city's walls were rebuilt in 52 days, while the oppression and destruction of the city had gone on for 141 years (Neh 6:15)'. Devising and enacting a plan, such as rebuilding Jerusalem's walls, required not only time, but also leadership and having the right people in the right positions (the right team) to accomplish the mission. Hunt (2023) adds that

after hearing from God, Nehemiah listened to the people, as together they set the course for how they would go about rebuilding the walls. He showed care for their situation and sought the people's input, buy-in, and ownership in establishing plans. He identified with the people, and where they had gifts to help accomplish the rebuilding project. He thought in terms of 'we' and 'us' (Neh. 2:17-18), and he came to understand and identify with 'the trouble we are in' (Neh. 2:17 …). (p. 37)

In submitting to the sovereignty of God, Nehemiah connected with the people, tested his ideas, sought and cooperated with God's direction, and collaborated with a team that he had established. He recognised that he would not be able to accomplish the rebuilding process alone and that it would require a united team that shared the responsibility of rebuilding the broken walls of Jerusalem. It is as recommended for the Zimbabwean Church to pray for God to revive her leadership to rebuild Zimbabwe, as it was for Nehemiah to pray for Jerusalem.

Leading through idealised influence

Leading through idealised influence refers to leaders who stand out, speak up, diligently live and serve a clarified vision and mission, and exemplify conviction, competence, and ideal character. According to Mdletshe and Nzimakwe (2023:6), idealised influence refers to followers recognising, respecting, trusting, and supporting their leaders because of their leadership charisma, exemplary behaviour, conviction, competence, and character. Ray (n.d.) defines idealised influence as collective transformation. Some of the key elements of idealised influence are modelling, providing meaning and purpose, creating and articulating values and instilling confidence, self-determination, self-esteem, and emotional control in followers. As explained by White (2023:10) and Ogochi (2018:89), Nehemiah exemplified idealistic influence by expressing his vision and inspiring and motivating his followers to participate and accomplish it together. Considering Dena's (2023:50) reflections on leadership as influence, such a revivalist demonstration of reconstruction is direly needed in Zimbabwe.

Leading through diligent stewardship

Leaders are stewards that serve humanity on behalf of God. Stewardship should be understood as entrustment (Attfield 2015; Chervonenko 2017:34). Stewards do not own what they are entrusted with, but they are accountable to the one who entrusted them with what they have. If leaders consider themselves as stewards of God's people and resources, they will consider themselves to be guardians and trustees of human, financial, material and immaterial (for example, time) resources that God avails at their disposal. As Tagwirei (2022:50-51) refers to harnessing available human, financial, material resources, and as Nehemiah demonstrated by rebuilding the broken walls of Jerusalem, it is recommendable for leaders to be diligent with what God avails to them. Leaders should understand that followers, finances, materials and time they have belong to and should be used for the advancement of a holistic Missio Dei. Thus, they should not squander resources, but develop it for sustainable use.

The irony of Zimbabwean leadership is that it is self-centred, instead of other-centred. Thus, transformational stewardship should become significant for them and they should use human, material and financial resources for Missio Dei. Because Missio Dei serves and saves lives holistically, also in the case of Zimbabwean crises, it requires attention and diligent transformational leadership that is based on stewardship that serves God by saving lives, praying, teaching and leading the Church, to foster responsible citizenship, resist selfishness and promote selflessness, unconditional love, generosity, hospitality, tolerance, peace-making, justice, and social cohesion. Tagwirei (2023) asserts that these values can collectively contribute to democratising and transforming Zimbabwe.

Managing conflict

Nainggolan et al. (2022:6) explain that managing conflict refers to 'the process of recognising and dealing with conflicts wisely, fairly, and efficiently with three forms of conflict management methods, namely conflict stimulation, conflict reduction and/or repression, and conflict resolution'. Managing conflict is one of the most important pillars of rebuilding a broken state. While the rebuilding of the walls and gates of Jerusalem by Nehemiah and his team was progressing, they faced disturbing opposition from the likes of Sanballat, Tobiah and Geshem (Neh 6:1-14). Remarkably, Nehemiah did not submit to their machinations by scheming, or fighting back. Nehemiah pursued his vision and mission, and inspired his team to focus on their work. Sanballat, Tobiah and Geshem continued firing off threats and tempting Nehemiah and team to fight. However, Nehemiah kept still (as Ps 10:46 also encourages). As urged by James 4:7, Nehemiah resisted the devil and focussed on reconstructing the broken walls of Jerusalem until the work was completed and the opposing forces disappeared from sight. It is with reference to Nehemiah's example that we can reimagine transformational leadership and learn to be still when facing opposition. Being still is transformative, as it enables leaders to pray, think, discern strategies, and go on working successfully as God graces them. The Zimbabwean context is volatile, as explained above, and her politics, economy and societies are prone to violence. In view of an endless stream of disturbing stories that recount tragic political abductions, torture, economic subterfuge and social hostility, Zimbabwe is in dire need of transformational Christian and secular leaders who can employ Nehemiah's conflict management strategies, that of keeping still, resisting the devil, focussing on their vision and mission, and serving God and people.

Reimagining transformational followership in Zimbabwe

If followers are influenced by leaders who resemble Nehemiah and who are Christ-like and God-inspired, they are enlightened, transformed, empowered, and are led to rebuild their nation. Interfacing this with John 10:10, which reminds us that, in spite of the 'thief' (the devil, and, in this case, crises), Jesus Christ came to give holistic life. As he confirms through Luke 4:18, Jesus Christ modelled integral mission by proclaiming and demonstrating all-inclusive liberation for the needy and oppressed. Thus, when followership is transformational, followers will not turn a blind eye to the currently broken Zimbabwean socio-economic and political state. Imagine what would be possible if followers rallied behind well-meaning leaders and applied the gospel to the Zimbabwean context of darkness, hopelessness, and helplessness. In a metaphorical sense, we can compare the Zimbabwean situation to when Nehemiah saw Jerusalem ruined, the walls broken down and citizens scattered. Although Zimbabwe's physical walls are unbroken, her political, economic and social state is broken and Zimbabweans have scattered in search of greener pastures, political and socio-economic relief. Yet, the book of second Chronicles 7:14 speaks volumes about this situation: 'If my people, which are called by my name, shall humble themselves, and pray, and seek my face, and turn from their wicked ways; then will I hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin, and will heal their land' (NIV). If Christian followers revive and transform their citizenship and take up responsibility, they could intercede, speak out and stand up against political, economic and political ills, such as dictatorship, corruption and nepotism, and contribute to national healing and rebuilding.

Kritzinger (2007) warns against the privatisation of Christianity and argues that unless Christians, who make up the majority of national citizens, commit themselves to significant processes of people-centred development, instead of continuing with practice of their lukewarm and comfortable private Christianities, we should not be surprised if our predicament remains unchanged. The majority of Zimbabwean Church leaders and congregants publicly complain on various social media platforms that the Zanu-PF-led government has failed Zimbabwe, and that crises confronting the country are worsening. Arguably, the worsening of Zimbabwean crises confirms the need for leadership and followership to be revived and transformed enough to rebuild Zimbabwe, as Nehemiah and his followers did. Although Christians are heavenly-minded (Phlp 3:20-21), their current presence on earth begets dual citizenship. Thus, while they should keep in mind that they should prioritise living with and for God, they should contemporaneously live as the salt and light of the world (Mt 5:13-16). As Matikiti (2009) and Kritzinger (2007:1673-1674) explain, the Church should engage with national affairs, in view of Christianity being the truth in the midst of error and lies, righteousness in the midst of a sea of unrighteousness, and a spirituality in the midst our crass materialistic tendencies. Then, when followers are transformed, their exclusivism will be replaced by lovely inclusivism and responsible citizenship.

While transformed followers observe 1 Timothy 2:1-3 and offer supplications, prayers and intercessions for those in authority, they should not misconstrue eschatology and misinterpret citizenship as only applying to heaven - they are also citizens of their nation. This means they must go beyond praying, and vote in elections, advance the prophetic voice of the Church, exemplify Christian living among those who are corrupt and evil and, eventually, achieve the transformation of many to the glory of God, and of Zimbabwe. If followers rise and rally behind leaders who are like Nehemiah, live as salt and light in the world, and act as hearers and doers (Ja 1:22-25) of the holistic gospel, they will, eventually, be able to address their crises with the gospel and rebuild the broken state of Zimbabwe together. As Tutu (2017) says, the best way to do politics is to uphold Christian principles of truthfulness, faithfulness and honesty, which will see many politicians turning over a new leaf, thereby instituting the desired peace and development.

 

Conclusion

This article engaged with the manifold Zimbabwean political and socio-economic crises in light of the exemplary transformational leadership of Nehemiah, who rose up, raised a team of followers, and rebuilt the broken walls of Jerusalem. Considering that the majority of Zimbabweans claim to be Christians, it should be possible for them to serve and save the nation from her current predicament, which is caused by irresponsible citizenship, self-serving leadership, moral decadence, systematic corruption and related travails, which are ruining the beautiful landlocked nation politically, economically, and socially. In view of the volatile context of Zimbabwe, this article reimagines Zimbabwe and argues that, if Church leadership can be revived and transformed, and become other-centred, empowered and empowering through exemplifying intercessory prayer, transformative vision, strategy, teamwork, idealised influence, diligent stewardship and biblical conflict management, and their followers rally behind Nehemiah-kind of leaders, they can collectively advance Christ-like exemplariness, integral mission and responsible citizenship, and successfully rebuild the broken Zimbabwean state.

 

Acknowledgements

This article is partially based on K.T.'s thesis entitled 'The identity of the Church and quest for her economic sustainability: A case study of the AOG BTG church in Zimbabwe' towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Practical Theology and Mission studies, University of Pretoria in July 2022, with supervisor Prof M Masango and Prof Z Dube. It is available at: https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/89894/Tagwirei_Identity_2022.pdf?sequence=1.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

K.T. declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Kimion Tagwirei
kimion22tc@gmail.com

Received: 13 Nov. 2023
Accepted: 11 Jan. 2024
Published: 27 Feb. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Promoting the equality of the earth and humans using Keramat

 

 

Rachel Iwamony

Faculty of Theology, Universitas Kristen Indonesia Maluku, Ambon, Indonesia

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Keramat refers to local popular concepts and practices in Indonesia that are applied to the earth and prevent people from freely exploiting the world. This article aimed to determine the values of Keramat concepts and practices that contribute to the understanding about humans and the earth for Christians by using a qualitative method. The results showed that two important values of the Keramat concepts and practices would transform and enhance the perspective of Christians about humans and the earth, with anthropocentrism being very strong. These values included humans and the earth, which were principally interdependent and interconnected to each other. From this article, it could be observed that the interaction patterns of these elements directly impacted the natives' lives. This indicated that humans were positively influenced when living according to the effective taboos in Keramat concepts and practices. In this case, the control of needs was very necessary because of the existence of limitations in the usage of the earth's resources. Besides, humans and the earth were also forms of life from the perspective of Keramat. This proved that the earth was not considered as a tool, medium or object capable of meeting the needs of all humans. However, based on the challenges of national development, the natives were powerless in protecting their Keramat areas, indicating that the local churches needed to be supportive in maintaining and sustaining the concepts and practices.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This research could contribute to enhance echo-theological discourse in accordance with cultural anthropology.

Keywords: earth; eco-theology; Keramat; sacred; sustainability.

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Introduction

Climate change, air pollution, environmental damages and diminished water are examples of ecological problems in Indonesia, apart from the limited plantation land available to the natives. This explains that the exploitation of the earth can trigger environmental disasters and problems in humans' lives, causing scholars to emphasise the ecological issues regarding all creation. From this context, the environmental challenges posed for Christians have been a persistent issue since the early 1980s, when the World Council of Churches (WCC) prioritised Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation during the Vancouver assembly in 1983 (Niles 2002). Ironically, the intensive theological discussions do not greatly impact the protection of the earth, specifically in shaping humans' understanding regarding their relationship with the earth. This reflects the fact that all concepts should be supported by practical strategies, although theological ideas are also needed.

These ecological problems have attracted the attention of many scholars from various disciplines, including the theological fields, where several relevant perspectives are observed for resolving the issues. However, biblical experts reportedly prioritise the reinterpretation of texts, which tend to persuade humans' domination of the earth and other creatures. At an international level, Stephen Bede Scharper and Hilary Cunningham, the authors of The Green Bible (Scharper & Cunningham 2002), are among various scholars attempting to read the holy book in a way that supports the earth.

Richard Bauckham also instructed readers to evaluate the biblical ideas encouraging human beings to exploit nature. In the book entitled The Bible and Ecology: Rediscovering the Community of Creation (Bauckham 2010), Bauckham subsequently argued that Christians should criticise the notion of stewardship, with this argument being slightly similar to that of Ernst Conradie's work in Christianity and Ecological Theology: At Home on Earth? (Conradie 2005). In this case, the theological notion of anthropocentrism and stewardship was also criticised. These critical points are understandable since humans have been considered to be at the centre of all creation, justifying the exploitation of the earth. However, notions of anthropocentrism and stewardship are not the only reasons causing the exploitation of the earth and the subsequent ecological damages. For this article, the perspective of the earth as an object and humans as independent from it and all other creations is another critical problem leading to this damage.

In Indonesia, some biblical scholars have reportedly attempted to reread the Bible from a native perspective to enrich ecological theology. This included three Moluccan-Indonesian scholars, namely Monike Hukubun, Margaretha Apituley and Juliana Tuasela. In her dissertation Nuhu-Mette, Monike Hukubun emphasised the cosmology of local people in the Kei region, which was implemented yearly on sasi every October. The sasi emphasises the sustainability of all creatures (Hukubun 2018). Margaretha Apituley also prioritised Teologi Laut (Ocean Theology) based on the worldview of local people in the Central Moluccan (Apituley 2019). Meanwhile, Juliana Tuasela explored biblical concepts on the 'Voice of the Earth' (Tuasella 2022). These three recent theological explorations did not explicitly focus on Keramat (sacred) concepts and practices, which are popular in Indonesia regarding the protection of the earth.

Based on the existence of Keramat concepts and practices, many forests are preserved in very remote areas within the country. In this context, the natives do not take up farming or make use of animal labour in these sacred areas. However, some keramat forests are presently endangered because of the presence of activities involving national development. This condition has attracted the attention of many people, such as Sandra Patty, who emphasised Save Yapiopatai [earth] (Patty 2019). Based on their study, the local church was challenged to perform religious advocacy, to prevent forest destruction because of the mining activities. In an article published in Gema Teologika, Hendrik Jondri Paays, Steve Gaspersz and Henky Hetharia note the patterns based on which the Maneo people in Ceram Island presently understood their existence as humans, indicating inseparability from the occupied land (Paays, Gaspersz & Hetharia 2022). Advensia Kakisina also focused on the impact of the environmental disaster as a result of the factory at Sabuay, the Moluccas, Indonesia, using sufficiently available current data (Kaksinia 2023). These reports challenged theological studies to determine the knowledge patterns of Keramat natives about the earth and humans contributing to environmental care and protection.

This article emphasises the notion of Keramat regarding the sacred nature of the earth. Based on this sacredness, some taboos are used by natives to linearly shape their relationships with it. This leads to the following research question: what are the contributions of Keramat concepts and practices towards Christians concepts on humans and the earth? This article indicates that the perspective of Christians regarding the relationship between humans and the earth should be transformed from independence to interdependence and interconnection, as well as from subject-object to subject-subject existence. This article is challenging because Christians, specifically in Indonesia, have long been opposed to local cultural practices and concepts because they are perceived as pagan. A qualitative method was considered and implemented to obtain field data on Keramat. Library analysis was also carried out to derive a broader perspective of the country, with primary data obtained from the field for subsequent accomplishment. Regarding the resulting presentation, Keramat concepts and practices on the earth and the life of supporters are initially described briefly. This is accompanied by a theological analysis of the interdependence and interconnection between the earth and humans in accordance with values of Keramat. Additionally, the 'subject' reputation of the earth was also emphasised, accompanied by the presentation of the conclusion.

 

Keramat concepts and practices

Keramat is a popular Indonesian word indicating sacred, which includes the spirit having magical and phycological effects on people (Suharso & Dra. Ana Retnoningsih 2018). It also includes taboos involving the prohibition and rules shaping the life of natives regarding the elements perceived as Keramat.

Based on studying the local habits in Seram Island, Moluccas, Eastern Indonesia, Valeri (2000) stated that:

[T]aboo was a prohibitive expression emphasizing moral rules. This indicated that danger motivated taboo with people feeling ashamed when actions were not carried out accordingly. From this context, fear and shame prioritized the consequence of not following the taboos, with the fright of punishment being the main reason for committing the actions. (p. 46)

Furthermore, an element is often considered Keramat because of its supernatural power, which can cause injury or threat to humans with deviant behaviours. This explains that taboos can prohibit natives from damaging the earth, consisting of the forests, land and water springs. The natives also have clear rules about harmony with the earth. The following taboos are considered prohibitions:

• Non-allowance to farm or rear animals in Keramat forests,

• When entering Keramat forests, speaking loudly and uttering rough words are prohibited,

• Dumping of garbage at Keramat forests is not allowed, and permissions need to be sought from the inhabitants before carrying out any activity.

These taboos greatly and positively impacted the sustainability of the earth. Based on a previous study (Wenno, Puttileihalat & Latupapua 2021):

[T]he local community was not allowed to carry out any activities within a sacred location, specifically land clearing or hunting. The members of the community were also prohibited from acquiring forest products in the location. (pp. 107-115)

Furthermore, several scholars have attempted to inform society about the positive impact of Keramat on environmental care. Quoting Elfemi, Asraf Wenno et al. state that 'Keramat and/or taboos positively affected environmental preservation to help maintain the sustainability of forest resources for the future. Based on the existence of rules limiting the adoption and harvest of existing resources, benefits were provided to the community and the next generation. This was because the balance and availability of the resources were sustainably implemented' (Wenno et al. 2021). Therefore, according to a scientific report, Keramat concepts and practices contributed to environmental protection and sustainability.

In Indonesia, some Keramat locations were observed, such as Merapi Mountain, Yogyakarta Palace and South Sea, including forests, land and water springs in the Moluccas province. This article discovered several reasons, which led to the consideration of specific elements as Keramat. Firstly, the presence and activities of the ancestors were observed in the sacred locations. This indicated that the people of Buru Island, at the Moluccas, perceived Rana Lake and Date Mount as Keramat areas because of the traditions of their ancestors. These people perceived Rana Lake as a woman who birthed through the womb, with Mount Date being a man protecting the vicinity. In this case, foreigners were unable to visit these sacred locations that accommodated only the natives (Grimes 2006). In another part of the Moluccas province, Seram Island, the inhabitants of Maneo had the same perspective for their forest, as follows (Paayes et al. 2022):

For Maneo people, forests were friends, relatives, homes, kitchens, and living quarters. From this context, the people were unable to live without forests, which served as tree habitats and food sources. The people also considered land and forest as gifts from Lahatalah (The Almighty) to their ancestors, indicating a very close and inseparable bond. In this case, the land and forest were their identity as Maneo people. Therefore, these phenomena were considered Keramat, a holy area where Lahatala (The Almighty) and their ancestors resided. (pp. 1-18)

According to the Maneo, who are natives, the lands and forests were their lives, indicating their willingness to protect them until death. Dieter Bartels, an American anthropologist also emphasised the patterns by which Maneo-people understood their lives by exploring the connection between the earth and the natives in Seram Island (Bartels 2017).

In addition, an important event was observed in specific locations, which was presently influenced by their existence. This indicated that a Keramat location was greatly significant to the lives of its followers. In Sepa Village, located on Seram Island in the Moluccas, several of these locations were observed, including Samasuru (table stone). Regarding its sacredness, no activity such as the cutting down of trees was permissible. Besides this, the location was also not accessible to anyone except traditional leaders. Women were prohibited from entering the sacred location. 'When a woman entered the site intentionally or otherwise, her hair was found to fall off by itself. This was the initial site of deliberation by the ancestors to determine the name of the village and comply with the government decree' (Wenno et al. 2021). The natives also perceived Samasuru as Karamat, because of the naming of the village by their ancestors.

Thirdly, a heritage well was observed on a hill in Banda Island, the Moluccas province. This was considered as Keramat and located on a hill approximately 300 m above sea level, with a depth of about 4 m. According to the natives, the location of this well was an unlikely site for a water source. Since the well continuously provided abundant water, it was considered a miraculous phenomenon. Moreover, the well had not dried up or experienced a decrease in water levels, even during the dry season. Any reduction in the water supply was believed to be a consequence of someone violating the established regulations (Darman 2016). Since the well was considered a gift from the Almighty, a special rite known as Rofaer War was performed for cleaning every 8-10 years. This rite was used by Lontor villagers to massively clean the village well to meet customary demands. The ritual was also the largest traditional ceremony in the Banda Island (Darman 2016). In addition, an important part of the Rofaer War was karaso, which was the gift or offerings containing areca nut, gambir, lime, tobacco and betel leaf. Each of these materials symbolised humans' existence, with the areca nut, gambit, line, tobacco and betel leaf representing meat, blood, bones, hair and skin, respectively. Based on these descriptions, all the materials were considered a single entity or the entire humans' soul. This indicated the demise of humans' lives when a part of these materials did not exist (Darman 2016).

To maintain their relationship with the existing Keramat areas, the natives regularly performed special relevant rituals, which were conducted by the traditional leaders (kepala adat). These rituals were carried out to remind the new generation of previous historical events while maintaining close relationships with their ancestors. Besides the periodical ritual performed in Keramat locations, the natives also organised a special rite when several problems were observed in the community, such as illness, accident or farm harvest failing. These were often considered the consequences of breaking taboos. In this context, ritual practices were also the implementation of the local belief system. According to Fahham, belief systems are the thoughts, ideas and convictions held by the Nuaulu tribe (Moluccas ethnicity), which included conceptions about supernatural powers beyond nature, ancestral spirits, Keramat places, moral values and teachings of decency capable of regulating behaviour. The rite system was also the embodiment of Nuaulu tribal worship and communication towards a supernatural power, namely ancestral spirits. Since the religious system was still presently adhered by the tribe (Fahham 2016), Keramat concepts and practices were considered integral parts of their beliefs. Based on these descriptions, the Nuaulu people believed that a supernatural power capable of overwhelming them beyond nature was in existence. This power was known by several names, including Upuku Anahatana, Anahatana, Upu Kuanahatan, Upu Ama and Upu Lanite (Fahham 2016). The natives practicing Keramat were also the believers who believed in the Almighty known by many different names. Although many had converted to Christianity, they were still living by the rules of Keramat concepts and practices in terms of protecting the earth. This indicated that the belief system was the basic principle of their attitudes and behaviours to protect the earth, including forests, land, mountain and water springs.

From these descriptions, Keramat was also applied to vital natural resources, such as forests, mountains, land and water springs, specifically for the natives. In short, Keramat greatly and positively impacted environmental protection and the earth's sustainability in the Indonesian communities studied earlier.

In the Indonesian perspective and practices, keramat or sacred places protected the earth, reflecting the belief that a distinction should be made between the sacred and profane. This was the reason behind the sociological understanding of the sacred and the profane in the dichotomy notion proposed by Emile Durkheim (Durkheim 2018). However, Mircea Eliade attempted to make a connection between the two concepts. According to Eliade, the ability to experience the sacred was an essential quality of human beings (Eliade 1959). This article is consistent with that of Eliade with a theological argument that in a religious ritual, God, the Holy One, meets believers who are profane (Iwamony 2022). The theological concept is evident in the Bible, for example, in the New Testament, specifically in the gospel of John 1:29, 34; the writer developed the tradition of the Old Testament (Exodus 12) about the sacred lamb. In these verses, John the Baptist pointed to Jesus as the Lamb of God or the sacrificial Lamb (Porter 2016). The Lord is not only the transcendent Almighty, through Jesus, God becomes the immanent Emmanuel. Therefore, the holy and sacred encounters human beings, who are the profane. In Colossians 1:20, Pauline developed the theological concept that Jesus Christ accomplished the Work of Atonement through his Blood on the Cross (Col 1:20). According to Monike Hukubun, the role of Jesus Christ as an agent of cosmic reconciliation in verse 20b was expressed explicitly through the phrase 'He made atonement through His blood on the cross'. This reconciliation occurred through an active and real act, namely the event of the cross carried out by Christ. In this event, the shed blood of Christ (1:20), and the death of his physical body (Col 1:22), are the dimensions of atonement (Hukubun 2023). Quoting MacDonald, Hukubun wrote that the phrase in this hymn reminds its readers of the historical and physical experience in the suffering and death of Christ. This was fundamental to the reconciliation and salvation of the entire Cosmos (Hukubun 2023). In Colossians 1:20, the death of Jesus Christ on the cross reconciled cosmic factors. Therefore, Jesus Christ, the Lord and Holy, sacrificed himself to offer salvation to all creatures, including the profane. In Christianity, there is a strong connection between the sacred and the profane. Christianity offers an alternative to understand the sacred and the profane, with emphasis on interconnectedness. The impact of Keramat was to protect the earth, showing its importance for maintaining cosmic reconciliation.

 

Interdependence and interconnection of the earth and humans

Strong values of interdependence and interconnection were observed between humans and the earth in Keramat concepts and practices. These values were categorised into two basic principles of Keramat through which the natives understood their existence regarding the relationship with the earth. This showed that their behavioural patterns towards the earth directly affected their daily life. The welfare of these people also depended on their life performance patterns regarding the earth. Therefore, the earth needs to be honoured and protected by humans. Based on the implementation of the protection measures, farming and hunting were prohibited in Keramat areas. The natives also understood the existence of earth as an integral part of humans' life and vice versa. In this case, the Rana Lake and Date Mountain were observed as a woman and a man, respectively. For the Maneo people on Seram Island, the forest and land were also observed as their relatives. Meanwhile, the Moluccans considered Seram Island a Nusa Ina (Mother Island), with the interpretation of humans found on the earth and vice versa.

This thinking pattern does not contradict Christians' perspective on humans' beings and the earth, as described in Genesis 1. God created Adam from the dust of the earth and provided him with the authority to cultivate and care for the land. Therefore, Adam belonged to the earth and the natural order of birthed creatures (Gn 2:7-15) (Oliver 2018). This indicated that Adam did not emphasise a specific person, although he was the representative of all human beings.

Humans originated from the dust of the earth, and their existence was intrinsically linked to the planet. This was in line with Genesis 1, where the integration of both elements was underscored. From this context, the existence of humans was not possible without the earth, although the planet was capable of existing without any life force. This indicated that the destruction of the earth was tantamount to harming the lives of people, with its protection resulting in safeguarding the existence of all life forms. Despite the argument that God could create humans through other materials, dust was still intentionally indicated. This reflected God's will for people to live in interdependence and connection with the earth. In contrast, based on the modern perspective of Christians, which emphasises anthropocentrism, all existing creatures were expected to serve humans, who conducted explorations without limitations to meet their various needs. From these descriptions, people were free to explore and exploit the earth until the emergence of many problems, such as air pollution, environmental damage, diminished water and climate change, attracted global attention. Ironically, forests and land explorations are still presently carried out, leading to the endangerment of sacred locations in Indonesia.

In the modern world, humans had become increasingly detached and independent from the earth. This led to the capacity to develop various elements to support their lives, causing no direct connection to the earth. For example, modern world societies produced air conditioners to regulate hot temperatures. However, this product was unable to supply the healthy oxygen needed for the body. Humans still required oxygen produced by trees as their connection with the earth could not be ignored. This showed that the local Christians were capable of teaching local communities about the importance of plants and trees around their residential areas. Nevertheless, the religion did not exhibit the strategy needed to protect the existing trees, including forests. The natives understood the patterns of protecting their lands, forests and water springs through Keramat concepts and practices. This showed that the development of local concepts and practices for earth's protection, such as Keramat, was not against the faith of Christians.

Although several people argued that designating conservation areas was a strategy to protect the earth, others have emphasised its impact on the development of various crucial problems. Firstly, conservation areas strengthened the authority and power of humans towards the planet to express domination during management processes. Secondly, conservation areas did not teach about the limitation of humans to explore the earth. This proved that the main motive of the strategy was sidelined when economic benefit became the main consideration. Thirdly, the rights of the natives were dismissed by the government, which had the authority to decide the areas to be included for conservation. In this case, the natives had no rights to the lands, forests and water springs symbolising their lives. From these descriptions, conservation areas neglected the existence of indigenous people or the natives for whom their lands and forests were an inseparable part. This led to the marginalisation and extinction of the natives because of national development. Meanwhile, Keramat areas were an acknowledgment of the authority of the earth, with the sacredness limiting humans' domination. In this case, humans' activities on the earth were limited because of the concepts and practices followed in Keramat areas.

The earth could implement self-protection because of its supernatural power and spirit. This led to the critical questions raised by Christians about the spirituality of Keramat areas. In the Keramat concepts, supernatural power was beyond humans' capacity, with the natives indicating that the spirit of each sacred area did not symbolise inanimate objects. This proved that Keramat areas were alive and the acknowledgment of their supernatural powers and spirits did not emphasise the rejection of the existence of the Almighty, which was known as Upuku Anahatana, Anahatana, Upu Kuanahatan, Upu Ama and Upu Lanite Upu Lanite or Upler. However, the Almighty was transcendent, with the supernatural power of humans prioritising their ancestors and keramat locations. This confirmed that the supernatural power of the sacred areas did not replace the authority of the Almighty. From these descriptions, the lives of people were more directly influenced by the nearest supernatural power, specifically those of the ancestors and keramat locations. This perspective was understandable because of the native's perspective that the world was based around hierarchical structures.

For example, in the Moluccan cosmological understanding, a hierarchy of supernatural powers was observed, with the Almighty being very high, unseen and untouchable. This was accompanied by the authority of the ancestors, which taught the natives about the behavioural patterns towards the Almighty, fellow humans and the earth. For the Moluccans, the culture and customs bequeathed to them by their ancestors were adopted and practiced despite them not being the Almighty. In this case, the ancestors taught them about living patterns as human beings regarding the exhibition of respect and care towards each other and the environment. This emphasised the difficulty for the local church to preach about the immanent God to the Moluccan Christians society because of these hierarchical concepts. However, preaching about the immanent God, Immanuel, was possible when the church considered Jesus Christ as the Prime Moluccan Ancestor. In this perspective, Jesus Christ was considered the source of life, because of his self-sacrifice to protect the existence of all creatures.

As the source of life, Jesus Christ loved and protected everyone, even those breaking socio-cultural rules or taboos. By preaching about Jesus as their Prime Ancestor, the natives did not perceive illness, accident and natural disaster as the punishment by the supernatural power, because of the wrongdoing committed by an individual. This indicated that each of these problems was perceived as a direct consequence of breaking taboos. However, Jesus Christ had taught against the violation of socio-cultural rules as the patterns of carrying out daily activities. These taboos were the rules helping the natives to manage their behaviours and protect the earth.From this context, living in line with socio-cultural rules was an expression of self-commitment to protect existence.

The awareness of belonging to a community was also a very basic consciousness of the natives. This was because the community often prioritised the existence of humans and the earth, including the lands, forests, mountains and water springs. Each local community had a previous historical structure often connected to the earth. This showed that the community did not specifically envision life without an earth connection. These descriptions were in line with the story of each Keramat location. Furthermore, the interrelation, interconnection and integration of natives with the earth was not merely a previous consciousness, as the local community presently symbolised their land, forest and water springs. This emphasised the struggle to reclaim their rights towards the interconnection with the earth. This included for instance, the efforts of the Maneo people to reclaim the rights to their lands and forests (Paays et al. 2022). This was because the damages incurred to the earth's resources represented the destruction of their lives. Therefore, the government was implicitly responsible for the death of the natives regarding the provision of legal permission to a factory for land and forest exploitations at Seram Island, the Moluccas, Indonesia.

Keramat concepts also implied a strong connection to the earth and shaped a great local community requiring unification. This indicated that the community was vulnerable to major problems because of the wrongdoings or errors committed by an individual. For example, when a person violated the set rules, the negative consequence was generally encountered by the entire community. This indicated the reasons that shame and fear were strongly emphasised in society. In this case, the entire community was instructed to perform a ritual, with the violator attending appropriate confession sessions for general healing. The confession of inappropriate conduct or behaviour was an expression of repentance and commitment towards the non-performance of future violations. At this stage, the social responsibility of an individual was considered very strong in the community, with every conducted activity emphasising the interest of the entire society. Therefore, each community member should not think and act based on personal interests. Therefore, the local community had a great function to educate each community member towards being a good person. This was understandable because the development of good people depended on the responsibilities of the parents and community. Besides, a community was the very basic supporting and controlling system around the life of each person. This was because of understanding the patterns by which each member behaved towards humans and earth connections.

According to Keramat concepts, ritual practices were considered the healing of life, where the confession and commitment of an individual towards the non-performance of future violations were prioritised. This indicated that the practices commonly emphasised pain, joy and togetherness. In this case, pain was often observed because of the betrayal of the earth by a person acting against the set taboo. The feeling was also expressed because of the shameful and fearful emotions that followed the act of confessing wrongdoing. Furthermore, joy was experienced as confession implied a feeling of healing process for the community. In this case, people lived without shame and fear, and also ensured the non-performance of similar wrongdoings. This proved that ritual practices were patterns for healing and renewing existence purposes. For example, the cleaning of the well in the Rofaer War rite was a process of life renewal. Rituals also emphasised a return to an initial unity point, requiring the collective participation of the entire community. This was because the practices were communal responsibilities, with communities commonly found to be jointly prosperous. In this case, ritual practices were not considered private affairs. The revitalisation of the local community existence was also an effort to reconnect with each other, the earth, ancestors and the Almighty.

Based on the ritual practices, one might think that Keramat concepts had a notion similar to pantheism, a principle emphasising the presence of God in every existence. This principle indicated that people believed in the cosmos as God without identifying a distinct personality (Takamizawa 2003). It is closer to panentheism. According to Joseph Bracken, panentheism was a metaphor for the God-world relationship, emphasising the world existing within the space or 'roominess' of God (Bracken 2014). Keramat concepts did not also perceive the earth and its resources as the Almighty, despite containing supernatural powers and spirit. From this context, Keramat areas only connected the local people with the Almighty.

According to Keramat, the natives developed their cosmology, which was implemented as the guidelines for living standards. This indicated that the natives prioritised the rules developed based on their daily experiences with the earth. These rules were established to promote harmonious coexistence with the planet, without resorting to exploitation and exploration. Besides living in harmony, peace and politeness with each other, the natives also maintained a positive coexistence with the earth. In this case, the act of speaking loudly was one of the set taboos when entering a Keramat area. This was because the act was considered an intimidating expression from one person to another. As a taboo, speaking loudly was considered disrespectful towards other humans and the earth. This was because the natural character of the earth emphasised quietness, silence and calmness, indicating the essentiality of respecting these qualities. From this context, the show of respect by refraining from speaking loudly was crucial when entering keramat areas. Furthermore, the acknowledgment of the earth's natural characteristics was necessary, as the livelihoods of the natives depended on their relationship with the planet. The interconnectedness between humans and the earth was also crucial, with any disruption capable of jeopardising the future of humanity. In this case, the habits of many residents in the remote areas of Indonesia were shaped by their environment because of adequate interconnectedness and integration, compared to mere proximity.

The natives lead their daily lives according to the implemented customs, which formed socio-cultural ethics. These ethics essentially governed the patterns by which the people related with fellow humans, ancestors, the earth and the Almighty. The phenomenon also comprised the rules dictating their conduct and behaviours, leading to the formulation of social ethics emphasising real-life experiences and intuitions. According to Thagrad and Finn (2011), 'conscience was the internal moral goodness or badness of private and public conduct. This feature prioritised moral intuitions, which were the feelings encompassing the rights and wrongs of various actions'. Therefore, the lens of the local community needs to be understood when attempting to comprehend its socio-cultural rules in this contemporary world. This indicated that no direct connection was observed between socio-cultural behaviour and the water debit of the well. From this context, a logical question was observed, namely 'How did the social conduct impact the water debit of the well?'. Based on the local community perspective, the conduct of human beings directly affected the earth. In this case, the water debit of the well decreased with the violation of the socio-cultural rule. This was because of the Keramat nature of the well, indicating its supernatural power and spirit. Regarding the perspective of the modern world and local community, this occurrence was senseless and factual, respectively. This was because the community believed in the sacred observations and shaped their conduct towards the well and fellow humans. These observations were in line with Thagrad and Finn, who noted that conscience produced moral intuition. The local community understands the reality based on their conscience; it is their intuition. Moreover, the local community developed several rules to provide direction in their daily lives. For example, water was a fundamental human need whose rule violation resulted in severe consequences, leading to the general protection of the set policy. From a Christians' theological perspective, conscience was the God-given ability to discern between the right and wrong (Thagrad & Finn 2011). This explained that God had been working in the lives of the local community for several centuries before their conversion to Christians. For the Protestant Church in the Moluccas or Gereja Protestan Maluku (GPM) in Indonesia, Jesus Christ had also been working in the lives of their ancestors before they became Christians. According to the GPM, the Moluccan ancestors developed the cultural customs of their tribe, which shaped the relationship with their Muslim brothers. This relationship was strengthened by the belief that God had anointed them with the Holy Spirit (Gereja Protestan Maluku 2016). Similarly, Keramat concepts and practices were shaped by these ancestors.

The belief in Jesus Christ did not mean that Christians should live only according to logical considerations and reject all unscientific thinking. Meanwhile, the religious practitioners need to live according to the gospel, which emphasised good news to the world. This involved protecting life, promoting justice, embracing the marginalised and excluded, as well as empowering the weak. From this context, Christians should learn from other people, including the natives who developed the concepts and practices for protecting the earth before the emergence of Christianity. Although their connection between socio-cultural rules violation and the consequences were unscientific, it was still meaningful and worthy of consideration. This prioritised the maintenance of intimacy between humans and the earth. As the role model and spiritual guide for Christians, Jesus Christ also facilitated the understanding of his believers towards all mysterious existences. He subsequently promoted them to learn from the people prioritising the protection of the earth and marginalised individuals. By broadening Christians' perspective, the religious practitioners jointly determined the miracle of God in the existence of humans and all creatures.

Another important value of Keramat was shame (malu), which was an internal feeling used to remind people about the existence of others. In this context, a shame to an individual because of taboo violation led to negative consequences for the entire community, such as illness, a bad accident, water shortage or a farm harvest failure. For the natives, an individual act in breaking rules always had several social impacts. Shame was also an emotion expression that had been studied by various approaches and disciplines. However, theological disciplines rarely explored this emotion in comparison to guilt. This was because guilt closely emphasised sin, a theological notion seeking repentance. According to Pattison, coping with guilt was easier than shame, because it had several resolution methods, including confession and atonement. In this case, shame did not possess any problem-solving remedy, leading to a difficult analysis (Pattison 2013; Pattison 2000).

Based on these descriptions, Keramat proved that humans and the earth had a very bright future when interdependence and interconnection were maintained. Since these phenomena were not static, their existence needs to be acknowledged by all human beings.

 

The earth and humans as subject of life

At the surface stage, Keramat concepts and practices allowed the earth to dictate and control the life of humans. Based on the anthropocentrism theological perspective, these concepts were contradicted to the essence of creation, with humans' being at the center of every development. Since only human beings were created in the image of God, other creations needed to serve them. This explained that the earth was an object explored to meet humans' needs. Meanwhile, the essence of humans being at the centre of creation was questioned by some scholars, including Vainio (2018), who wrote:

God likely had some other reasons to create the universe, whose existence was not only applicable and accessible to humans. From this context, the existence of every creature was considered an end, compared to being an instrument instrument. (p. 97)

This challenged the theological scholars, to rethink and redefine Christians understanding on humans' existence as Imago Dei. The redefinition should also be conducted in a more open form, to embrace other creations, with Keramat concepts and practices being major contributors.

Keramat concepts and practices emphasised different notions, with humans and the earth being the subject of life in the universe. This indicated that humans were ranked above the earth and the other creation. Since all creations were similar before God, several roles and functions were possessed in the universe, which were good in the eyes of God (Gn 1). This showed that the low perspective and treatment of a creation was an act of humiliating God. Since all creations were interconnected and integrated with one another, a subject-subject relationship was observed between humans, the earth and other creatures. This was contradictor to the perspective of Christians and the modern world, where the earth was perceived as a life support object for humans. From this context, a subject-object relationship was observed between humans and the earth. This indicated that the earth had been explored and exploited to support humans' lives, leading to environmental damage. These conditions were not in line with Keramat concepts, where the earth was a subject, because of being a spiritual living existence capable of exhibiting expression and movement.

Based on the perspective of Christians, humans were the only creation of God developed in his image (imago Dei). This led to their treatment as the central beings of the universe, according to the theological perspective. In this case, the argumentation about humans being the only creation with souls, spirits and rational thoughts was emphasised. From this context, the other creatures were not created in the image of God because of being soulless and spiritless. This classic theological notion needs to be openly and critically understood, to avoid the exclusion of other creations before God. In this contemporary discourse, different understandings were observed on the Imago Dei, with some scholars providing critical opinions, such as David S. Cunningham, Wessel Bentley and Olli-Pekka Vainio. According to Cunningham (2009):

[T]he silence of the Bible regarding the attribution of the imago Dei to non-humans' elements of the created order was unable to serve as an argument for a strong distinction between humans and other creature creation. (p. 289)

This led to the presentation of several biblical texts, such as Colossians 1:15, John 1:18, 14:8-9, 2 Corinthians 4:4 and Hebrews 1:3, to support the arguments that imago Dei was obtained from the New Testament. In this case, Jesus Christ was merely considered the true Image of God indicating that the phenomenon (imago Dei) did not generally emphasise humans (Cunningham). Based on the criticism of the notion, Bentley published an article entitled 'Are We Special? A Critique of Imago Dei' (Bentley 2017).

According to Vainio (2018):

[T]he identification of imago Dei with humans' intellectual and cognitive capacities was customary in Western theology. However, some contemporary theologians provided several critical perspectives due to the potential truncated opinion of humanity. (p. 143)

Vainio also challenged Christians to reinterpret their understanding on imago Dei.

Based on these descriptions, various scholars appreciated the notion, with some considering its expansion towards embracing all creatures, such as Alexei Nestruk. This scholar related the understanding of Imago Dei to the incarnation of Jesus Christ (Nesteruk 2022). Nestruk prioritised the Deep Incarnation of God in Christ, regarding the exploration on the Imago Dei. This indicated the association of imago Dei with the Incarnation before carrying out the expansion capable of embracing the universe.

Broader perceptions were analysed after exploring various theological perspectives on Imago Dei. This indicated that humans as Imago Dei were not a given; it was provided because of its relationship and interconnection to other creatures. Furthermore, the existence of all creations as imago Dei was an active state requiring practical application. This involved appropriate participation in the work of God and caring for all his creations. Imago Dei also specifically emphasised the existence of God and the goodness of all his creations, which was reflected in the beauty of the sky and heaven (Ps 19:1-2). In Keramat, the natives showed an exemplary care for the earth, including the land, forests, mountains and water springs. Despite their non-familiarity with the concepts of imago Dei, they still embodied the spirit. Therefore, the dismissal and judgement of Keramat practices as pagan was inappropriate for Christians.

Based on these descriptions, several arguments indicated that humans had no power before the earth, regarding Keramat. This proved that power should not be expressed as a form of domination. Although the power of humans emphasised awareness, they still need to understand that domination was impossible at a specific stage. This was in line with the perspective of the local community, where the people acknowledged their powerlessness in freely exploring the earth. In this case, the performance of activities was impossible in Keramat areas, indicating the limitation of humans.

According to the powerlessness or limited power of humans, the willingness to explore the earth was controlled. This emphasised the existence of taboos to control their needs and willingness from exploring Keramat areas. These perspectives did not contradict the humans' freedom prioritising the essence of dignity. From this context, the power of the earth to control the behaviours of the natives did not symbolise the loss of dignity. This indicated that the dignity of the natives was expressed by respecting the existence of other creations, specifically the earth. It was also expressed in the notion that humans need to be controlled with respect to the awareness and maintenance of limitations. Since the acknowledgment of limitations was difficult, strong humility was required in the usage of the earth.

Based on Keramat, the patterns by which the natives understood the universe was emphasised. This was accompanied by the modes of shaping their daily lives in connection to the earth and its resources, including forests, land, mountain and water springs. Regarding simple understanding, these people did not perceive humans as being higher than other creations. In this case, humans were considered equivalent to all the creatures in the universe, indicating the subject-subject perspective. From these perspectives, the natives confirmed that authority was not only owned by humans; other creatures have their authority in the universe.

Promoting the Indonesian perspective and practices about Keramat in Christian theological discourse should be recognised as a contextualisation, indigenisation and inculturation effort. The theological principle behind this effort was to communicate to Christian faiths to resonate with individual on a profound level. In order to effectively communicate, Christianity must use a language that is deeply understood by individuals in the specific contextual daily life. However, some recognised this effort as a syncretism, which was theologically rejected by Protestant church than Roman Catholic (Leopold & Jensen 2014). Eric Maroney, in the book titled Religious Syncretism, understood syncretism as the phenomenon of an individual religion borrowing elements from another. This phenomenon has long been recognised as nearly universal (Maroney 2006). According to David Frankfurter, syncretism proposed two (or more) discrete religious systems, namely Christianity and heathenism, Judaism and Hellenism, or Persia and Greece (Frankfurter 2021). Maroney generally viewed positively the syncretism within a religious life as a global phenomenon. Frankfurter understood narrowly the syncretism focusing on the combination of two distinct religious elements in the discussions. However, both affirmed the existence of this phenomenon in religious life as an undeniable fact.

In a religious life, including Christianity, it is challenging to find a pure religion untouched by the influence of another culture. There were no pure Christian faiths; for example, the tradition to celebrate Christmas on December 25th each year originally was a celebration of the Sun god (Whiteley 2008). This shows that Christianity learnt and embraced the date from another religious or belief system, and then developed it to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ, the Lord. Therefore, from my perspective, syncretism is learning and accepting other beliefs and practices that could enrich the understanding of Christianity's faith and practices. It is also a way to negotiate the existence of Christianity in a specific circumstance, an essentialising act portrayed in the book of Syncretism in Religion, where individuals associate with a concept as they would with a particular group (Leopold & Jensen). Therefore, syncretism is not negative in a religious life because it does not deny the credo, an essential element of a religion. It is an expression of humbleness of Christians to learn from the real contextual life. In this article, Keramat assisted Christians to preach and talk about protecting the earth as an implementation of believing in Jesus Christ who reconciles whole cosmos. Keramat also showed the strategy or practices to protect the earth. In many cases, Christianity has no strategy, except abstract concepts.

 

Conclusion

According to the exploration of Keramat concepts and practices, the sacredness observed was capable of contributing to the understanding of Christians, regarding humans and the earth. This indicated that the religious practitioners transformed and enhanced their perceptions of both elements, accompanied by the prioritisation of very strong anthropocentrism. In this context, other creations were less worthy than humans in the universe. Based on Keramat, humans and the earth were principally interdependent and interconnected to one another. This proved that the interactive patterns between both elements directly impacted the essence of life. When humans live according to the taboos of Keramat concepts and practices, a positive effect was observed. In this case, human needs should be compulsorily controlled, regarding the awareness of limitation in the usage of the earth's resources. Besides, the earth and human beings were also the subject of life in the thinking frame of Keramat. This indicated that the earth was spiritual and not a tool, mode, and object to meet the regular needs of humans. However, the natives had no power to protect their Keramat areas against national development.

 

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges Hosea Tiwery, her husband, who accompanied her and supported her during her research at Fuller Theological Seminary.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

R.I. declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research was supported by the Global Research Institute (GRI).

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, or the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Rachel Iwamony
racheliwamony07@gmail.com

Received: 29 Sept. 2023
Accepted: 19 Jan. 2024
Published: 28 Feb. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The implementation of Bungku Owi as a forum for Rampi Fellowship in Seko: Reviewed in John Calvin's Theology of the Church

 

 

Agustinus Agustinus

Faculty of Theology and Sociology, Institut Agama Kristen Negeri Toraja, Tana Toraja, Indonesia

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Bungku Owi is the philosophy of the Rampi indigenous people in building relationships together and this is in line with the Church. The Church is a community of people who believe and live together to realize God's work to bring peace through the call to fellowship, witness and serve. Qualitative method with in-depth interviews with Bungku Owi stakeholders as key persons. The research results found that the Church and Bungku Owi have something in common: The Church is a fellowship of believers who are called to be God's co-workers by witnessing, serving and fellowshipping so that what is realized is peace and shalom. Meanwhile, Bungku Owi is a philosophy used by a group of Rampi people to build a life of togetherness in society so that what is created within the community is coexistence, mutual assistance and equality for good purposes.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The implications are in studying culture, church and theology through Bungku Owi's cultural philosophy. It contributes to juxtaposing Bungku Owi's cultural views on Rampi with Calvin's interpretation of ecclesia. These images complement each other in building lasting relationships within the Christian community.

Keywords: Bungku owi's; Church; John Calvin; culture and theology; seko ethnic; philosophy.

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Introduction

The origin of Bungku Owi, the Rampi Tribe, Seko

The To Rampi tribe inhabits the Rampi area, North Luwu district, South Sulawesi province. Because of its isolated location in the Kambuno mountains, the Rampi tribe is known as a tribe that is still very thick with its customs and culture (Fakhri et al. 2019:7-8).

In carrying out traditional social life, To Rampi has a philosophy that guides them in society called Bungku Owi. Bungku owi is the language of Rampi. If interpreted in Indonesian, it is a bunch of sugar cane taken by the ancestors of the Rampi people as a philosophy or life guide in building a harmonious and peaceful customary society.

According to informant Janur, massodang activities, also called ma' dehata activities, are carried out to worship Dehata by mentioning the names of dehata believed in the Seko ancestral religion. The massodang activity aims to worship Dehata (the concept of god in Seko's traditional beliefs) and ask for blessings from the people in the village. The elements used in the ritual are lisa' (egg), kasing-kasing (rice wrapped in young coconut leaves formed into a bukat and filled with rice). Massodang existed long before Christianity came to Seko (N. Janur, pers. comm., 10 October 2023). Researchers agree with this philosophy because the teachings are rooted in Rampi's life as a way of life that can maintain relationships. Maintaining this rite has become hereditary teaching because it is considered a tool for peace.

Before 1923, Bungku Owi was only on the pillar of customs. Making decisions to implement a new way of life includes government considerations after the government structure becomes clear in society. Likewise, the pillars of Christianity were only included as a decision-making tool after Christianity became strong and developed. It is not intended that Bungku Owi is comparable to Christianity (G. Paranduk, pers. comm., 12 October 2023). However, a Christian society, which is also a cultural society, cannot possibly be uprooted from its cultural roots. Wisdom places the pillars of Christianity as the glue of unity and peace. Christianity has existed in Seko sub-district for quite a long time, starting in 1923 when a people's school was built by the colonial government, which later became the basis for the spread of Christianity in Seko. What is interesting is to see Bungku owi's view from the light of Christians by looking at Calvin's view of the church.

According to Calvin, the church is the mother of all believers. For him, a man who does not have the church as his mother cannot have God as his father and outside the church there is no salvation. The church is the main tool given by God to believers to realize fellowship with Christ (Batlajery 2011). Therefore, with Calvin's view of the church as mother and God as Father, it can be understood that Christians are children of God who live in fellowship with Jesus Christ. In Calvin's view, the unity of the church is unity in faith, hope and love. The unity of the church is because of the same Spirit, in the same Spirit, humans are called to inherit eternal life (Batlajery 2011). With the unity in fellowship, Christians will live together in showing the example of Christ. On the other hand, ecclesiology according to Calvin is contextual, that is, the context in which he is located influences his thoughts. He emphasized that the unity of the church must be based on unity in Christ. There is no church without unity. The Church is united in Christ. The church is a community not of I, but of we, so for Calvin the sense of the church is we who are united in the body of Christ. The unity of the church exists because of the power of the Holy Spirit. Calvin's emphasis on church unity is that the church in the lives of its people should show togetherness in love for the glory of God (Purnomo & Sanjaya 2020).

Therefore, by knowing Bungku Owi's thoughts and the Christian perspective on fellowship, people will see similarities and find values that reflect Christianity in these customs. This is the entrance to inculturation (adaptation of Christian teachings to a particular culture) (Anderson 2017; Barber 2020). Christians see the same thing in the Bible and local culture. In this way, local people can accept the existence of Christian teachings and become followers of Christ. So what is visible is an association that lives with the principle of brotherhood regardless of race, nation, ethnicity and social class. Aryanto (2022) explains that early Christians began to develop a fluid identity. Some exceptions may have been allowed for Gentiles to retain their practices and customs while Christian community members (Ac 8-10).

Bungku Owi's understanding and the church's understanding of communion have similarities. However, it is necessary to explore more deeply the interpretation and meaning of Bungku Owi as a forum for alliance through the cultural perspective of Seko To Rampi. Apart from that, Calvin's view of the church as a forum for Christian fellowship is connected to Bungku Owi's philosophy. The meeting of these two perspectives can create mutual fellowship and unity.

Therefore, the author needs to study in more depth the implementation of Bungku Owi as a forum for fellowship with To Rampi, in Seko, North Luwu, reviewed in John Calvin's theology of the church.

 

Research urgency

This article is interesting to study by looking at the implementation of Bungku Owi as a forum for fellowship with Rampi in Seko, North Luwu and reviewing John Calvin's theology about the church considering that this research has never been carried out. This also aims to communicate or dialogue between culture and Christian teachings. Moreover, there are several similarities with previous studies discussing the church (Christian faith) and local community understanding. As Sapri wrote about the meaning of the tallu lolona cultural philosophy, he found that Christians in this cultural philosophy also live it through acts of love, unity, cooperation and kinship for peace and harmony (Sapri 2022). Patrecia and Prayuda (2022) also wrote the same thing, but the researchers focused on tallu lolona culture as the universal, ecumenical basis of Toraja society. The results of their research are also the same. Still, here, they emphasize that as Christians who have received God's love, they should apply the value of that love to build relationships with all of God's creation so that the carapace that God desires in ecumenical life is built (Agustinus et al. 2023; Wulandari et al. 2023).

Tatung wrote about the value of tongkonan tallu as a place for worship at the Toraja Marintang Simbuang church. Her research revealed that the value of tongkonan tallu is in harmony with working life in Marintang and the community. Because tongkonan tallu has a good role as the centre of pa'rapuan, the centre of government, and a place to solve problems, apart from that, tongkonan tallu also serves as a guide for them to live together in terms of behaviour, interaction, mutual help (sianggaran) and fellowship to live side by side as Christians (Tatung 2019). Therefore, referring to the aforementioned descriptions, the author needs to further study the church's view according to John Calvin and its relationship with Bungku Owi as a forum for fellowship. The formulation of the problem in this article is how the implementation of Bungku Owi as a forum for fellowship with To Rampi in Seko, North Luwu, was reviewed in John Calvin's theology about the church.

 

Research methods

Based on the background, the method used is a qualitative approach to find out and obtain the necessary information and data related to research. Qualitative research is analysis based on post positivism to study the condition of natural objects, and the researcher is the key instrument (Creswell 2003; Helaluddin et al. 2023). The researcher intended it to be a key instrument because the researcher interacted directly with the informant. The type of research used is ethnography, which examines anthropology, culture, ethnicity, race, and the like (Branson & Martinez 2023; Mawikere, Hura & Bonde 2022). The researcher adopted qualitative phenomenological research to obtain accurate information from the key person regarding Bungku Owi's culture, philosophy and profound meanings relating to Christian life.

Data collection techniques in research were obtained through literature review, books, online journal articles and reliable online news. The literature study was used to obtain data from theories in this research. Data were collected through interviews (keyperson) to gather more information concerning the Bungku Owi philosophy. An interview is a meeting between two parties where information and ideas are exchanged through questions and answers. The data obtained will be presented descriptively with detailed, complete and in-depth sentences. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews with three To Rampi traditional leaders, namely Yermia Lampi, Gersom Parakduk, Ne' Janur.

 

Conceptual foundation

History of Bungku Owi

Bungku Owi is the philosophy of Rampi in Seko, North Luwu Regency, which is a mandate from Tokei. Tokei are traditional holders or traditional shops who are leaders in traditional communities. Rampi traditional figures to a group will travel from Rampi to Baebunta led by Makole, son of Rampi tokei. With the route from Rampi to Seko, from Seko, go to Baebunta and continue the journey to Palopo. However, on the way, Makole's wife could not continue the trip because she was pregnant. Makole and his entourage decided to rest and stay temporarily in Lolumba or Pitu Timmina. A few months later, Makole's wife gave birth to a boy, their first child. The boy was named Hi Lampi, which means 'stay' because their group lived in Lolumba when Makole's wife was pregnant. As time passed, Makole's wife became pregnant and gave birth to a second child, Loi, which means 'hang out', because Makole and his entourage lived between Rampi and Baebunta. Makole's third child was born two years later, named Hi Tuila, which means 'uncertain'. This name was interpreted as Makole because their group was not registered as the Rampi or Baebunta communities. This happened because they had not yet arrived in Baebunta or returned to Rampi.

Makole and his entourage joined the Rampi people who lived in Ruwai and Tokuni. This group multiplied, settled in Lolumba, and called themselves Totikalo, which means 'mixed'. Several years later, there was a war between the Kulawi people (people who came from the northern part of Seko today, known as the Central Sulawesi people) and the Hono (Tu Padang or native people of Seko Padang) in Bongkok until Rampi joined the Hono people in Lipu Matua and these two groups succeeded in defeating the Kulawi people. Then, the Hono and To Rampi people lived together in Lipu Matua, but because of differences in traditional and cultural backgrounds, the Makole and the Hono leaders separated themselves. To Rampi, they were settled in the Dana area because he liked gardening. As time went by, the Rampi people grew, and the area where they lived had a place for gardening. The Rampi people asked Makole to face the Hono Traditional Figure Tubara so that they would be given a wider area. Tubara Hono shows the Tarempa area with regional boundaries from Pitu Timmina, Tampo Maraba, Pusoheang and Ke Potunduk in the eastern part of Seko Padang. During the development of the Rampi people, they moved several times to Bolantai. And this is where the Dutch changed the name from Tikalo to Singkalong. In 1951, chaos in the Seko area resulted in several great people from Rampi dying, namely Hitori, Hisaka, Hiuki, Mala and Londe. This chaos also caused the Rampi people to flee to Central Sulawesi, Watukilo and Omu and stay there until things were safe again in Seko. In 1966, many Rampi people returned from displacement, established villages in Mara'a and expanded to Katu. In the 1970s, the Rampi people in the school became increasingly known as the Singkalong people (a name given by the Dutch) (Anshar 2016b). In 1982, expansion occurred, and some of the community moved to Lengkong village. In 1991, the Singkalong people were divided into three hamlets, Katu, Tadoyang, and Lore hamlets, in preparation for village expansion. In 1992, the Singkalong people separated from Padang Balua Village to become Taloto Village. This name has been used until now. In 2004, through North Luwu Regent's Decree No. 300 of 2004. The Singkalong people received recognition as an indigenous community by the North Luwu government (Mutty 2004). In October 2015, a traditional seminar called the Bungku owi Seminar was held to recognize the Rampi indigenous people in Seko, North Luwu (Anshar 2016a).

In this way, the Bungku Owi Tokey Singkalong traditional institution was officially established as a legitimate traditional community without being subordinate to other traditional institutions.

Bungku Owi in the understanding of To Rampi

Bungku Owi, as a forum for fellowship, certainly has social values that influence the lives of the Rampi indigenous people, who, embrace Christianity. In 1890, Makole Baebunta headed To Rampi. In every history, love is an integral part of determining history. This is where the story of To Singkalong begins. Ultimately, Makole and his wife said goodbye to leaving Rampi, passing through the Seko wilderness to Luwu (Anshar 2016b). Tokey Lowa advised:

Ane wute mokey wae ino'o imbo pe oha'a mi, Ewa kei wae bungkuna owi, ala ane hawa key wato'o hawa' kei intu maroho metoti'i, nolou humei kei intu no parowohi hey modungka. English translation: When you arrive at your destination, you should be like a bunch of sugar cane trees because if you are not like a bunch of sugar cane trees, you will easily be swayed, not stand firmly and will fall. (Y. Lampi, pers. comm., 08 February 2023)

The meaning of this sentence, lived by the people of Rampi until now and used as a reference in customary society. Gerson Paranduk, Head of Taloto Village, said that it is feared that the traditional rules of the Singkalong community will be lost in the future if they are not written down. He said:

Our habit here is to convey verbally. We are worried about future developments. If people who understand it, for example, die, then the community will lose their reference, even though this rule has been implemented, that's why we from the Singkalong community under the Bungku Owi Singkalong traditional institution are holding a seminar on customary regulations as well as inaugurating traditional institutions. (G. Paranduk, pers. comm., 12 October 2023)

Hajaruddin Anshar, from the Wallacea Association, said that traditional rules grow as part of a community's experience dealing with humans, nature and their beliefs. So, this rule has been around for a long time. 'The need to write down rules can make it easier to transmit traditions from generation to generation', (Anshar 2016a).

The Bungku Owi philosophy aims first to regulate the order of life in indigenous communities and preserve customs and culture. Second, handle people's social life towards each other, the environment and the natural surroundings. Third, as a forum for community unity, so that there is no inequality in social strata and community life, you can experience peace and harmony. The meaning of Bungku Owi symbolizes a sense of family, unity and life supporting each other in society. Therefore, by looking at the goals of Bungku Owi, this philosophy positively impacts the Rampi community to achieve living together in the traditional community in Seko.

Christianity and Bungku Owi

However, Christianity carries instructions identical to Bungku Owi's values, so Christian teachings seem to legitimize teachings that existed long before Christianity emerged. This meeting point legitimizes and refreshes the memory and enthusiasm for the Bungku Owi rite. So, the growing awareness of the rite was revived by Christianity, which internalized the Bungko Owi philosophy.

There is no confrontation between Christianity and Bungku Owi's philosophy. An important point is found here, namely an entry point for Christianity becoming deeply rooted in To Rampi, Seko culture. Christianity thrives in culture, even though Bungku Owi culture itself has almost been forgotten because of the influx of Christianity. The philosophy behind the emergence of Bungku Owi is the existence of a traditional government system that is considered unable to function without a conventional order, which is realised as a community like the church for Christians.

So, the pillar of tradition is the pillar of government. In the past, before Christianity, there were only two pillars. However, after Christianity emerged, it was up to those who had to determine the validity of implementing Bungku Owi's customs and social order, namely the pillars of Adat (Custom), government and Christianity.

Here, To Rampi is a cultural community called to know peace in the context of Christianity. They are called to meet Christ, the source of peace himself. So, the meeting of the pillars of peace is interconnected in Bungku Owi's terms. To Rampi, it is only about oral culture. So, the concept of peace is not built on written laws. However, the philosophy of peace becomes strong precisely because it is often told and practiced from elements of custom. With the entry of the pillars of government and Christianity, it was considered that the only way to peace was through Bungku Owi. The lasting relationship between culture, Christianity and government is bound in a permanent bond called Bungku owi. In line with this research Resane (2023), the Letsema philosophy in Africa, like communion ecclesiology, is voluntary, non-hierarchical, goal-oriented and purposeful. The ecclesiology of communion is a perichoretic mutuality between the Triune God and those called to participate in the Kingdom of God. Acts 2:42-47 reveal the essence of communion ecclesiology. Research by Canete and Del Castillo (2022) raises the values of the meaning of pakikipagkapwa [fellowship]. This study explores contemporary pakikipagkapwa ideas and practices among Filipino Christians and how these cultural values encourage interfaith dialogue.

 

The Church in John Calvin's view

Calvin divided the church concept, namely the visible Church and the invisibility Church. According to him, these two things do not refer to two realities that can stand alone but rather to different sides of the same reality. Ecclesia visibly is a form of faith and ecclesia invisibly is a mystery of faith. The visible Church is humans in communion with its activities and the invisible Church is God working in humans (Calvin 1980:183, 281). Therefore, based on John Calvin's view, the Church is a community where people have been united and have unity in faith, hope and love in Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit.

In the New Testament, the term ekklesia is used for the fellowship of believers in God (Tm 1 1:1; 2 Th 1 1:1 cf. Rm 1:6 and 1 Cor 1:2). Ekklesia relates to the communion of believers (Mardiatmadja & Bintoro 2020:34). In the New Testament, several terms often used to describe the Church include 'body of Christ', 'fellowship of believers', congregation (ekklesia), and 'people of God'. And these terms are appropriate descriptions of the Church. Paul often uses the term ekklesia, and in several parts of the Bible, he uses the term body of Christ, where Christ is the Head of the Church. For example, in the Acts of the Apostles, the word ekklesia is used to refer to all Christians who lived and gathered in a particular city such as Jerusalem (Ac 5:11; 8:1; 11:22; 12:1, 5) or in Antioch (13:1). Paul visited local churches and ordained elders (14:23) or confirmed and encouraged local congregations (15:41; 16:5). This understanding of the local congregation is the element emphasized in the use of the term ekklesia. In the Apostolic Creed, the term used for the Church is 'the communion of saints. Those who believe in Jesus have been sanctified and become God's people.'

As Erickson mentioned, the Church's image as the body of Christ is the most well-known. The description of the Church as the body of Christ emphasizes that the Church is the place of Christ's current activity. Ephesians 1:22-23 is an example of the first way: 'the Church is His body, namely the fullness of Him, which fills all things', and 1 Corinthians 12:27 is an example of the second way: 'you are all the body of Christ, and each of you is a member of it. These familiar terms may have often been heard or conveyed to the congregation', (Erickson 2015:290-294). In line with the apostolic confession of faith, Abineno defines the Church as a spiritual community, with Jesus Christ as the Head. It is the object of Christian belief or faith (Abineno 2006:3). This is somewhat different from Sukoco (2010:22), who emphasizes that the Church is a Christian religious life centred on God's salvation in the Lord Jesus Christ, in which the Holy Spirit works in the framework of God's saving work. Two sides are used to understand the Church: Firstly, the Divine Side. On the divine side, the Church is believed to be 'the fruit of God's saving work'. God loves the Church and consecrated it to be his own. God cares for the Church, cares for the Church, and accepts everything that believers offer him in and through the Church's life. Secondly, the human side - in the human side, the Church is a religious shared life created and lived by humans to answer God's salvation. Therefore, referring to the aforesaid definition of the Church, the Church is a community of people chosen, called and placed in this world to serve God and humans (Sukoco 2010:22).

The Church is God's people, called out of darkness into his marvellous light to proclaim his wondrous deeds (Abineno 2006:2). The Church is a communion of saints, namely those saved by God through Jesus Christ. The congregation is called from darkness to enter God's light and enjoy fellowship with God. The Church is described as Christ's body, and Jesus Christ is the Head. Another image used is the people of God and the fellowship of believers.

God cares for the church, nurtures the church, and accepts everything that believers offer to him in and through church life. From a human perspective, the church is a shared religious life created and lived by humans in response to God's salvation. Therefore, referring to the definition of the church above, the church is a fellowship of people who are chosen, called and placed in this world to serve God and serve humans (Abineno 2006:3).

The mission of the Church's calling has never changed in all places and throughout the ages. Because the Church lives by Christ and Christ never changes (Darmaputera & Banawiratma 1988:365). The Church carries out its duties as light and salt of the world (Mt 5:13-16). The following are three church calls that are generally known: firstly, communion, which comes from the Greek Koinonia, meaning fellowship or donation (Child 1958:351):

Koinonia is an important New Testament word. It suggests that people participate in the life of God and one another in a way that brings about communion, fellowship and sharing. (Douglas 2022:133)

According to Acts 2:41-47, it is said that the form of fellowship carried out by the early Church was not only strength in accepting the apostles' teachings and loyalty to continue living in harmony but this is also shown in the form of giving donations to support its continuity as communion life. From this understanding, fellowship is not just sitting together in a particular community. Still, it is also manifested through the activeness of congregation members in providing moral and material support to others in need (Abineno 2006:3). This explains that a fellowship, specifically a church organization, has duties and responsibilities that must be contextually practical concerning the lives of God's people, who are maintained and can live within the framework of a harmonious communal fellowship (Ronda, Gumelar & Wijaya 2024; Sumigar & Wijaya 2022). The church as communion is the church as a unity in Christ, which, of course, is also closely related to understanding the church as the body of Christ. Unity of Church is not only in the invisible realm but also in the visible. The appearance of the Church as a community exists in the harmony and relationship between the people (Binawan 2021:38). Secondly, serving comes from the word 'diakonia', which means providing help or service. This word comes from the Greek Diakonia, which means kindness, deacon (serve) and diakonos (servant). In the Bible, Diakonia takes a general form, for example, the King's servants (Mt 22:13) and God's ministry (Ex 1:7; 23; 25). Paul said that the Spirit should drive ministry in the Church (Kirchberger 2010:3-4). Apart from that, the Church also carries out its duties as a priesthood, to carry out services of love and peace in ritual activities or daily life (Sairin 2022:13). A church that serves should do more than take care of the poor.

Namely, diakonia is an expression of the Christian self. Believers who truly follow Jesus and believe will live according to Jesus' teachings. In essence, diakonia is not merely a hobby or passion to serve but is a duty and calling as someone who has followed Jesus (Noordegraaf 2004:7). This is in line with the Toraja church that diakonia is carried out to care for, help and prosper congregation members and fellow humans who are weak and needy, as well as trying to stem and prevent the causes of human misery and poverty (Kalalimbong 2016). Thirdly, Merturia means testimony or good name. Martureo is directly related to means to prove, give good testimony and have a good reputation. The person who gives testimony is called Marcus, which means witness or martyr to something he has seen himself. The Church is a tool for God's testimony so that the world knows Jesus Christ, that the presence of Jesus Christ liberates and unites humans regardless of ethnicity, culture, society and politics so that what is reflected between humans is peace, justice and brotherhood (Browning 2008:308). Therefore, the Church must continue to witness Christ to all humans. In principle, the task of the Gospel message is to preach the good news brought by Jesus Christ into the world. That Jesus is the living Lord and Saviour (Prodjowijono 2008:144). The Church carries out prophetic duties, namely preaching truth and justice (Sairin 2022:13).

 

Implementation of Bungku Owi in church's services and mission

Bungku Owi is a forum for friendship between the Rampi tribe, where their shared values as a community and as part of the church certainly have an impact on fostering religious harmony, tolerance and living together peacefully. Firstly, Bungku Owi's concept is in line with Calvin's definition of the church. Church worship deepens the call to Christian fellowship. Meanwhile, Bungku Owi is a forum for friendship to help each other, lift and build faith, and create a better life. In this case, the standard of living of the Bungku Owi people remains culturally maintained, and a harmonious and sustainable living space must be created as a life of friendship. Secondly, the presence of the church in Seko To Rampi meets similar cultures in fellowship, causing the two to blend into society. Thirdly, Bungku Owi is part of the church's cultural-based calling. Good in the basic sense of alliance, serving each other, maintaining harmony and sustainable peace.

In the 1950s, To Rampi left Singkalong because armed gangs were looking for Christians. According to the Rumpi Singkalong community, they went for two reasons: firstly, to defend their beliefs as Christians and secondly, to save their lives. Bungku Owi Singkalong has lived for 50 years since returning from exile. They live tolerantly with Muslims (Anshar 2016b). To Rampi Singkalong teaches how to live tolerantly. Peace can only be found if Bungku Owi Singkalong's philosophy remains and the bonds of life are maintained. In their story, they also said that there was a time when Bungku Owi Singkalong was left unattended by the community and was hit by a disease outbreak.

The arrival of Bungku Owi Singkalong in two stories. Firstly, moral messages about life and secondly, how social interaction is always maintained. They also passed on life values that have been transformed into the philosophy of Bungku Owi.

In the church's mission, Bungku Owi must be seen as a tool for wealth in creating karapasan (peace). The church must provide shalom, especially when facing socio-cultural, ethnic and national conflicts. This local wealth can be expressed in the church's mission as global wealth.

The mission of helping is the main point that must be prioritized in facing life's challenges and difficulties. The task of living together can be taken outside the boundaries of Rampi to the Baebunta area, where the author lived for 30 years. The scope of the mission can also expand to regions on the face of the earth.

Philosophy is like a bunch of sugar cane, from the meaning of Bungko Owi is the mission of the church community, which cannot be separated until Jesus returns. Social inequality because of social strata should be minimised with Bungku Owi's philosophy. In this direction, awareness of each person's self-esteem must be maintained with a sense of kinship. Research by Cotrado (2020) said fellowship is in harmony with God's words in the text of Acts 2:46-47 and to extract basic biblical principles for discipleship that can impact the church's growth as God adds new believers to the church. The forum for Bungku Owi's fellowship can pass on the Christian values built in traditional rules to disciple followers of Christ for the Great Commission and peace.

 

Conclusion

To Rampi, they wandered until he settled and met Christianity through a long journey. The Church and Bungku Owi have similarities in the concept of fellowship, so historically, there have been no clashes in the encounter between the Rampi tribe and the messengers of the Gospel. The church is a community of believers called to be God's co-workers to witness, serve and fellowship. So, what comes true is peace and shalom. Meanwhile, Bungku Owi is a philosophy used by a group of Rampi people to build a life of togetherness in society. So, what is created within the scope of community is living side by side, helping to create peace and mutual respect for differences in beliefs. John Calvin emphasized unity in the church. This is also in line with the philosophy of Bungku Owi as a forum for fellowship with Rampi to protect the community's rights. Therefore, the Church and Bungku Owi work together to build togetherness based on the value of brotherly love.

 

Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge the Institut Agama Kristen Negeri Toraja for supporting the publication of this article.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

A.A. has declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the Institut Agama Kristen Negeri Toraja Research and Community Service Institute and ethics consent was received in 2023. The ethics approval number is 25/LPPM/IAKNT/I/2023.

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study towards writing the article.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, or the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Agustinus Agustinus
agustinusruben63@gmail.com

Received: 28 June 2023
Accepted: 19 Jan. 2024
Published: 29 Feb. 2024

^rND^sAgustinus^nRouw, R.F^rND^sCamerling^nY.F.^rND^sWijaya^nH.^rND^sAnderson^nA.H.^rND^sAryanto^nA.G.A.W.^rND^sBarber^nR.^rND^sBatlajery^nA.M.L.^rND^sCanete^nJ.J.^rND^sDel Castillo^nF.A.^rND^sChild^nR.L.^rND^sCotrado^nY.J.H.^rND^sDouglas^nB.^rND^sHelaluddin^nH.^rND^sFitriyyah^nD.^rND^sVonny^nS.^rND^sTulak^nH.^rND^sMaria^nSt.^rND^sWijaya^nH.^rND^sMawikere^nM.C.S.^rND^sHura^nS.^rND^sBonde^nI.B.^rND^sPatrecia^nY.^rND^sPrayuda^rND^sPurnomo^nA.^rND^sSanjaya^nY.^rND^sResane^nK.T.^rND^sRonda^nD.^rND^sGumelar^nF^rND^sWijaya^nH.^rND^sSapri^nS^rND^sWulandari^nW.R.^rND^sWeismann^nI.T.J.^rND^sPanggarra^nR.^rND^sWijaya^nH.^rND^sRonda^nD.^rND^1A01 A02 A03^nChidinma P.^sUkeachusim^rND^1A01 A02 A03^nChidinma P.^sUkeachusim^rND^1A01 A02 A03^nChidinma P^sUkeachusim

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Understanding COVID-19 birth-pangs' theological responses and the promised Parousia of Jesus

 

 

Chidinma P. Ukeachusim^{I, II, III}

^IDepartment of New Testament and Related Literature, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Abrahamic Religions, University of Religions and Denominations, Qom, Iran
^IIIDepartment of Religion and Cultural Studies, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Jesus in Matthew 24 presaged to his disciples about the eschatological birth-pangs that would be occurring in the world in the interim of his departure and his promised Parousia and the end of this age. It is a theological concern how the disciples of Jesus in every era are to be responding to eschatological birth-pangs in the light of Jesus' promised Parousia. This study is based on the existential reality that many Nigerian professing Christians do not understand how they are to be responding to an eschatological birth-pang like coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in relation to the promised Parousia of Jesus. How then are the elects in Nigeria to be responding to eschatological occurrence like COVID-19 and as well be preparing for the Parousia of Jesus? Therefore, using redaction criticism approach of conducting biblical exegesis, this study focusses on theologically interpreting the context of Matthew 24:15−51, to unveil and recommend pragmatic theological Christian responses that underline how Nigerian Christians are to be righteously responding to the COVID-19 pandemic as an eschatological birth-pang, and as well be preparing for the promised Parousia of Jesus.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: In the Olivet-discourse, Jesus in advance informed his disciples how they are to be responding to the birth-pangs, and also be preparing for his Parousia. This study explored Matthew 24:15−51 and unveils how the church in Nigeria is to be responding to the COVID-19 pandemic as an eschatological birth-pang in the light of Jesus' promised Parousia.

Keywords: Matthew 24:15−51; eschatology; Parousia; COVID-19 pandemic; church; Nigeria.

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Introduction

The advent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China, in 2019, and the fast rate with which many contacted it in other countries of the world, persuaded many Nigerian theologians, pastors and some lay Christians to relate the COVID-19 pandemic to be an eschatological event (Ossai 2021:48), instead of the eschatological birth-pang Jesus presaged it to be (Ukeachusim 2023:3-4). The author of Matthew's gospel has a special interest in eschatology. Hence, Matthew had theological reasons for which he redacted the sources he used to address the lack of understanding of his Christian community on how they were to be responding to eschatological birth-pang in relation to Jesus' promised Parousia (Mt 24:1−51). Therefore, using redaction criticism method of analysing bible texts (Chinwokwu 2015:43), to unveil the theological motifs of the author of the text under study in redacting and applying the eschatological teaching of Jesus to his Christian community, this study exegetically explores Matthew's eschatological Didache in Matthew 24:15−51 and in the light of Jesus' promised Parousia unveils how Nigerian Christians are to be responding to COVID-19 pandemic as an eschatological birth-pang. The study argues that Jesus' hortations, advance warnings and commands in the Olivet discourse unveil how Christians are to be responding to eschatological birth-pangs as they are living in the interim militantly waiting for his Parousia. Just as the Olivet discourse was relevant to the early church, similarly, the teachings of Jesus concerning how the church should be responding to the unfolding eschatological birth-pangs in relation to the promised Parousia of Jesus will ever be relevant to the church of every age, even this modern age.

 

Exegesis of Matthew 24:15−51

In Matthew 24:1−3, the disciples showed Jesus the magnificent buildings of the Jerusalem ἱεροῦ (temple). Jesus responded to the temple they had shown him by presaging to his disciples about the destruction of the Jerusalem ἱεροῦ in the future. Jesus' prophecy about the Jerusalem ἱεροῦ aroused his disciples' curiosities to ask him eschatological questions that have been bothering them. Jesus' disciples were curious to know when his eschatological sayings will materialise, and the σημεῖον [sign] of Jesus' promised return and the end of this age. The disciples being obsessively curious could expose them to be vulnerable to be πλανήσῃ [deceived] (Mt 24:4). Hence, Jesus answering their questions, first intimated them about the eschatological ὠδίνων [birth-pangs] that would herald his παρουσία [second return] (Mt 24:5−9), and the eschatological events and the σημεῖον [sign] that would immediately precede his παρουσία and συντελείας [end] of the world (Mt 24:29−31), and the need for them to prepare for his promised Parousia (Mt 24:32−51). However, by the implication of προείρηκα [foretell or tell beforehand], Jesus was personally concerned on his disciples being foretold (Mt 24:25) about eschatological birth-pangs and how they are to be responding to them in relation to his promised Parousia; so that they will not be deceived (Mt 24:4). Also, he in advance told them that the εὐαγγέλιον τῆς βασιλείας [gospel of the kingdom] would be preached in all the world to serve as a witness unto all nations (Mt 24:14), their salvation being the focal point (Mt 24:13, 22). The advance information is to pre-arm his disciples on how they are to be responding as eschatological birth-pangs will be unfolding in the interim of his departure and his second return (Mt 24:15−51).

Therefore, in the light of the convulsive impacts of ὠδίνων [birth-pangs] and the need for Jesus' disciples to be ready for his promised Parousia, Matthew's Jesus pre-arms his disciples. Jesus uses 'hortations', 'advance warnings' (Mt 24:25) and commands to prepare his disciples to be alerted and to know how they are to be responding to the eschatological birth-pangs as they would be unfolding in the light of his promised Parousia. By the theological implication of the verb imperatives ἀναγινώσκων νοείτω [Let him that reads understand], Jesus wants his disciples to be responding to the eschatological birth-pangs by seeing, reading and understanding the eschatological birth-pangs (24:15) as they will be unfolding as they were divinely orchestrated and presaged (24:8). What should be read is the scripture, and it should be understood (Mt 24:15) and its hortations, warnings and commands should be applied as guides on how Christians are to be practically responding during the realities of the unfolding of the eschatological ὠδίνων.

The ὠδίνων listed in Matthew 24 were divinely allowed to be persuading the people of the world to repent and access both realised and futuristic salvation. Consequently, to access realised salvation, from verses 16-18, Jesus uses the Greek verbs in their imperative present active moods: 'φευγέτωσαν' (Mt 24:16) to flee to the mountains, 'μὴ καταβάτω' not to get the things out of the house (Mt 24:17); 'μὴ ἐπιστρεψάτω' let him who is in the field 'not turn back to get his cloak' (Mt 24:18) to command his disciples on how they are to be responding to the paroxysmal impacts of eschatological birth-pangs. Jesus hereby consolidates security and survival means of responding to the unfolding eschatological birth-pangs as his disciples will be in the interim in preparedness waiting for his promised return. These exhortative commands are rated to be authentic saying of Jesus and they make reality sense (Keener 1999). In order to survive during the destruction of Jerusalem that occurred in AD 70, many of the then Christians fled to Pella (Pritz 1988). Keener (1999) explains that:

[T]he admonitions to leave the rooftop without entering the house (Mt 24:17) and to leave the field without returning for one's cloak (Mt 24:18) indicate that life matters more than even its' basic necessities which might later be replaced. (pp. 647-648)

This is typified that as essential as this outer cloak was, Jesus implies that the exigency of running at the news of impeding destruction was more urgent.

By the implication of the interjection 'οὐαὶ' [woe] which is used to express grief or denunciation (Mt 24:19), in this context implies that some classes of people will be more vulnerable as ὠδίνων listed in verses 6−8, and as θλῖψις [oppression, affliction, tribulation] mentioned in verses 9, 21 and 29 will be unfolding. In this context, ἐνγαστρὶ ἐχούσαις the pregnant women and θηλαζούσαις those who are still breast feeding their babies will be most vulnerable (Mt 24:19). The righteous pragmatic responses Jesus advanced in this context are the commands to προσεύχεσθε (pray) (Mt 24:20) and adhering to safety measures (Mt 24:16−19).

In verse 22, the adjective pronoun ἐκλεκτοὺς is used in its accusative masculine plural form from ἐκλεκτός. ἐκλεκτοὺς literally means the 'elects', 'chosen ones' or the 'selected ones'. ἐκλεκτοὺς is the Greek technical word for the church (Mt 24:22, 24, 31). It is for the elects' sake that the days of tribulation referenced in verses 9, 21, and 29 shall be shortened, for if the tribulation is divinely allowed to protract, no life would be ἐσώθη [saved] (Mt 24:22). In the midst of the birth-pangs and the tribulation occurrences, ψευδόχριστοι [false-christs] and ψευδοπροφῆται [false prophets] will increase (Mt 24:5, 23−24). Many of the ψευδόχριστοι and ψευδοπροφῆται will have high tendencies of deceiving many; because of the numerous σημεῖα [signs] and τέρατα [wonders] that they will be performing in the ὄνομά [name] of Jesus. There will be some declaring that 'here or there' is the anointing of Christ. By the implication of μὴ πιστεύσητε [do not believe him] being used in its verb subjunctive aorist active second person plural mood from πιστεύω [I believe]; the response Jesus advises his disciples here, is that they should choose 'not to believe' those who claim that the Christ is here or there (Mt 24:23, 26). They will perform σημεῖα [signs] and τέρατα [wonders] to the point that even τοὺς ἐκλεκτούς [the elects] may be misled (Mt 24:4, 24). Jesus afore prepares his disciples, so that they will be saved and not be deceived by informing them on how they are to be practically responding to the eschatological birth-pangs that will be unfolding in the interim of his departure and promised return.

In verse 25, the imperative interjection 'ἰδοὺ' is used to emphasise to the disciples the theological importance of them being 'advanced-informed'. ἰδοὺ calls to 'see', 'witness' that he has informed them in advance and hence be on guard that they will not be deceived. The verb 'προείρηκα' is used in its indicative perfect active first person singular form from προεῖπον to imply 'foretell', or 'tell beforehand'. In this context, it means prophetic utterances from Jesus (the founder and the Lord of the church) to his disciples identified as the elects.

From verse 27, Jesus began to describe the mysteriousness of his answers to his disciples' question in verse 3 concerning the sign of his second coming and pinpointing the sudden occurrence of Parousia as one of the major reasons they are to be faithful in righteously responding to eschatological birth-pangs as he has warned, exhorted and foretold them. Παρουσία (Mt 24:27) is an expression that only Matthew among the gospel writers employs in his redacted gospel to describe 'the second coming of Jesus' (Glasson 1963:66). Jesus describes that his promised Parousia will occur as the lightning that comes out from the ἀνατολῶν [east] and shines even unto the δυσμῶν [west] (Mt 24:27). From the east rises the stars and it is at the west that the sun sets. Jesus in this verse uses east and west to refer to the horizontal ends of the world (Mt 8:11, Mt 24:27). Jesus implies that his coming will be sudden (Mt 24:37), his appearance will be felt in the whole world (Mt 24:27). The use of πτῶμα [corpse] in a proverbial form (Davies & Allison 1997:355) in verse 28 could imply that 'Jesus' coming' will be as obvious as vultures gathered around corpses (Meier 1980:286). Jesus will not return in some 'nonphysical' or 'spiritual' sense (Best 1977:278) immediately after τὴν θλῖψιν [the tribulation] of the end times (Mt 24:9, 21, 29). The eschatological events and the sign (Mt 24:29−31), and not birth-pangs (Mt 24:5−9), that would immediately precede the Parousia of Jesus were listed by Jesus to include: the sun darkening, the moon not giving her light, the stars falling from heaven, and the powers of the heavens being shaken (Mt 24:29). It is immediately after the occurrences of these eschatological events that Jesus would be visibly seen coming from heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). Παρουσία is referring in this context to the future visible return of Jesus from heaven as he promised his disciples. By the implication of ὄψονται [to see], when, the σημεῖον [sign] of the Son of Man will appear in the sky, every eye shall see him (Mt 24:30). This answers the disciples' question about the σημεῖον [sign] of Jesus' second coming. According to Gundry (1982:488) the 'sign' of Jesus' second coming is that Jesus as the Son of man in glory will suddenly appear in the sky (Mt 16:27; Mt 24:30). The σημεῖον of Jesus appearing in the sky will come with the corollary of all the φυλαὶ [tribes] of the earth being thrown into κόψονται [mourning]; because they rejected Jesus, the message of the kingdom which contains the need for repentance, righteous living in Jesus and faithfully waiting for the fulfilment of his promised return. The promised Parousia of Jesus considerably demands for preparation in repentance and acceptance of Jesus as the anointed Messiah on the part of the people of the world (Ladd 1967:92). The nations will κόψονται [will mourn] (Mt 24:30) during Jesus' 'second coming' because no longer would the time of grace be given to them to repent and accept him when he finally appears (Keener 1999). Those who rejected Jesus while they lived in the interim will not rejoice at his second coming. With terror and fear, they will respond to eschatological birth-pangs and with mourning to Jesus' coming. But as it relates to the future salvation, the 'elect' that will be gathered from the four corners of the earth are only those who would be saved because they remained faithful till the end (Mt 24:13).

Matthew's Jesus employed the use of many parables to explicate his future coming (Mt 24:32−25:46) (Jeremias 1972:92−93). In the parable in Matthew 24:32−33, Jesus implies that his disciples should see these pre-destined birth-pangs and discern or recognise that his promised Parousia is near and at the door. Jesus stresses categorically that these predestined birth-pangs he in advance-informed his disciples will take place or be fulfilled in this generation in which all the prerequisites for his return (Mt 24:5−28, 34−35) would be fulfilled (Carson 1984:507). Schaser (2021) elucidates that:

[W]hen Jesus says that his own generation will not pass away before his arrival, he points to the new creation that God will work through resurrection at the end of the day. (p. 1)

Jesus' λόγοι [words] will not fail to come to fruition (Mt 24:34−35). Based on this, many of Jesus' contemporaries made attempts to capitalise on eschatological birth-pangs to predict the end materialising (Mt 24:6−8) and some Jewish futurists began to set dates when the end shall materialise (Bonsirven 1964:178). This could inform why Matthew's Jesus was categorical in stating that τῆς ἡμέρας [the day] and ὥρας [hour] of Jesus' second coming is not known by anyone, not even the angles of heaven nor the Son, only the πατὴρ [Father] knows (Mt 24:36) (Cullmann 1950:43). This authentic saying of Jesus (Bultmann 1968:159) in this verse highlights the warning that aims to prevent those who are suffering any form of birth-pang in the interim from building up undue expectation of the time of the Lord's coming, so that they will not be exploited (Mt 24:4, 5, 23−27) (Keener 1999). But, Jesus may have 'proclaimed only potential imminence' which is supposed to function to minimise the problem of the delay of Parousia (Witherington 1992:48). Though, many then were thinking that the Parousia is delaying, however, they did not know that the second Parousia of Jesus is divinely orchestrated to happen suddenly and that it would impose unexpected judgement on those who rejected Jesus. Consequently, the coming of Jesus will be likened to the days of Noah (Mt 24:37−38) in which many will be enjoying themselves by eating, drinking, marrying and giving to marriage until when the day Noah entered the ark (Mt 24:38). The worldly will keep thinking that events like 'τρώγοντες καὶ πίνοντες' [eating and drinking] would continue as 'life as usual' and or 'business-as-usual' (Keener 1999); hence, like in the days of Noah, the worldly were not concerned about Noah and his divine mandate to build the ark, for the safety of those who would believe and identify with his message. But the worldly, as 'outsiders' did not 'see' or 'understand' the sign before them, until the flood came and swept them all away. The same is likened to how the παρουσία [the second coming] of the Son of Man shall be (Mt 24:39). The disciples of Jesus were being informed in advance, so that they would see the birth-pangs theological signs, and understand their theological implications, and respond righteously as they would be unfolding, not just to be saved from the birth-pangs' convulsive impacts, but to be saved at the coming of Jesus.

Because of the theological significance of 'understanding' the scriptures, prophecies, and birth-pangs signs, it was repeated throughout the gospel tradition in general with special reference in Matthew (Mt 13:19; 15:10; 24:15, 39). Following this, Matthew in verse 39 repeatedly 'echoes the damnable folly of the outsiders' (Keener 1999), for they did 'not understand' οὐκ ἔγνωσαν and will not recognise the theological implications of the birth-pangs and signs unfolding before their eye; until Jesus as the Judge of all, who will punish and reward people according to their acceptance or rejection of him, would appear suddenly to their uttermost dismay (Mt 24:27, 39). This consolidates that the day of the Lord's Parousia will catch unawares the outsiders who did not know and accept Jesus and his kingdom's message (Mt 24:36−44).

To describe how some people will be caught unawares and some will not be caught unawares, in verses 40−41, Jesus presaged that then, there shall be two men in the field; one will be taken παραλαμβάνεται and left ἀφίεται and two women will be grinding at the mill; παραλαμβάνεται [one will be taken] and one will be ἀφίεται (Mt 24:40). This portend, describes how Jesus during his παρουσία would select his elects from those who are not (Mt 24:40−41). Jesus having foretold his disciples about the birth-pangs and immediate events and sign of his παρουσία [his second coming], by the implication of verb imperative 'γρηγορεῖτε [watch]' used in its present active second person plural mood; categorically commands his disciples to be watching for they do not know which ἡμέρᾳ [day] the Lord would be coming (Mt 24:42).

Jesus in verse 42 presupposes stationary watchmen that existed in the then Mediterranean cultures (Keener 1999). Matthew does not present 'watch' to mean 'look for' or 'anticipate immediately', rather, he likens it to the image of a night watchman at his post. It is the indefiniteness of the time that warrants the need; motivates Jesus to command his disciples therefore Γρηγορεῖτε [to keep watch] (Mt 24:42; 25:13) (Ladd 1974:208). In verse 43, Jesus advances imperatively by the implication of 'advance warning', that if a good man was foretold the ὥρᾳ [hour] the thief would come, he would have been on alert and watching so that he would not allow his house to be burgled. The disciples having been given advance information are therefore commanded γίνεσθε ἕτοιμοι [to be ready] for Jesus is coming at an hour when they would not think he would (Mt 24:44). On the importance of waiting faithfully in the interim for the Parousia, Jesus stresses the need for individual disciples to keep being faithful and remaining prepared for his Parousia (Mt 24:44−45). The wise servants are known by their readiness to be consistently faithful (Mt 24:44−46). It is decisive for disciples to always be ready; consequently, there is always a warning to stay ready and be prepared till the end. In being prepared, each individual disciple is literally to be acting as a watchman whose duty it is to remain alert and awake at his or her duty post (Mt 24:42; 26:41).

Though it seems that the Lord of the church is delaying his promised return (Mt 24:48), the disciples are not supposed to just be banqueting; rather, they are to be watching. πιστὸς δοῦλος [faithful servant] is rated as being 'φρόνιμος' [sensible] (Mt 24:45). It is the wise, steadfast servant that would be blessed and would be put in charge of all his lord's owns. The wise servant is blessed because when his lord comes suddenly, he finds him being consistent in being faithful (Mt 24:46−47). By the implication of κακὸς [evil] (Mt 24:48), evil is the servant that says in his heart, the Lord is χρονίζει [delaying] his coming (Mt 24:48), and begins to be beating his fellow slaves, eating and drinking with drunkards (Mt 24:49). As the κακὸς δοῦλος [evil servant] will be presuming that his lord is delaying in returning, and then his lord will come on a day when he would not expect him and at an hour which he does not know (Ladd 1974). As his lord comes upon him unawares, he shall cut him asunder, appoint him his portion with the hypocrites, where there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth (Mt 24:50−51). By this saying, Jesus in Matthew denounces exploitative leaders in his fold who would be exacting force and harshness on their fellow servants (Keener 1999). Jesus consolidates that ministers in his fold in these last days are called to serve their fellow servants and that those who exploit the flock for ulterior motives will be judged and punished in the same manner as the unbelievers, if they would not repent (Mt 24:50−51).

Matthean Olivet: theological responses to eschatological birth-pang events and the Nigerian church's expected COVID-19 eschatological birth-pang in relation to Jesus' promised Parousia

In the first century era, some members of the Matthean Christian community did not know or understand how they were to be responding to eschatological birth-pang events (Mt 24:1−14) in relation to the promised Parousia of Jesus (Mt 24:15−51). Matthew used his redacted Olivet discourse to address the situation of his Christian community that lived during the earliest eschatological era. Matthew modelling from Jesus knew the theological implications of disciples of Jesus not having theological understanding of how they are to be responding to eschatological birth-pang events in relation to being ready for the promised Parousia of Jesus. Hence, he redacted the eschatological teachings of Jesus and applied Jesus' Didache to the unfolding eschatological birth-pangs experienced by his Christian community.

COVID-19 pandemic convulsive impacts in Nigeria have been proven to have manifested characteristics that are typical to the eschatological birth-pangs Jesus listed in his eschatological prophecies, advance warnings and teachings, in the Olivet discourse (Ukeachusim 2023:3−4). How many professing Christians in Nigeria responded and have continued to be responding to COVID-19 showed and has continued to show that, they like many members of the first century Matthean Christian community, lack theological understanding on how they are to be responding to eschatological birth-pangs (Ukeachusim 2023:3−4), in relation to the promised Parousia of Jesus. Therefore, below is discussed how many professing Nigerian Christians manifested and have continued to be manifesting tendencies of not knowing the theological stance on how they are to be responding to eschatological birth-pangs and also being ready for the promised Parousia of Jesus; and how they are to be responding to eschatological birth-pang event like COVID-19 in relation to the promised Parousia of Jesus.

 

Watching, seeing and being vigilant response

Before, during and currently that the COVID-19 pandemic has subsided, many Nigerian Christians are sound asleep in regard to the coming of Jesus Christ (Ukeachusim 2023:3−5). COVID-19 is a merciful wake-up call to every Christian to be ready for the second coming of Jesus (Piper 2020). There is therefore a consistent need for followers of Jesus in Nigeria and all over the world to be willing to be seeing and understanding the eschatological birth-pangs and their underlying signs as they are unfolding in this generation (Mt 24:15). The commands to see, watch, stay wake, and be vigilant are to be taken seriously by every Christian (Mt 24:33, 42−43; Mt 26:41). In relation to the promised Parousia, Jesus gives it as a command to his elects in every age to 'watch and to see' the theological implications of the eschatological birth-pangs as they will be unfolding (Mt 24:42−43). 'To watch' metaphorically means to give strict attention to eschatological birth-pangs and their underlying signs as they would be unfolding as Jesus' sayings, teachings and parables presaged. It means being discerning and cautiously doing what Jesus commands and to desist from lawlessness and being ready for Jesus' promised Parousia. As eschatological event like COVID-19 is ravaging the world, some Christians are not watching while some are watching but not discerning (Ukeachusim 2023:5). The elect in Nigeria and elsewhere should heed the command to be consistent in being vigilant for they know not the hour the Lord of the church would come.

 

The responses of not believing false prophets, fake signs and wonders (Mt 24:4, 11, 24−26)

Before and during the COVID-19 pandemic many acclaimed plenipotentiaries of God have been busy advertising themselves as being called by God to be performing signs and wonders. Many false plenipotentiaries advertise themselves as having the anointing to perform signs and wonders of curing those infected with COVID-19 and other illnesses (Ojo 2020). Some church leaders and founders were prophesying and dishing out preaching to advance their personal and theological opinions (Ayokunle 2020b), and conspiracy theories (Jolley & Lamberty 2020) to explain COVID-19. During the peak of COVID-19, many Nigerians were deceived by their fake prophecies, fake miracles and unfounded preaching. Then, the federal government of Nigeria warned churches in Nigeria to 'stop exhibition of reckless confidence' (Onyedika-Ugoeze 2020) motivated by the deceptive preaching, fake prophecies and fake miracles. In advance, Jesus categorically stressed that in the last days many false prophets will arise to deceive many (Mt 24:11, 24). False prophets perform false miracles, signs and wonders to mislead the genuine seekers and superficial followers of God by trying to predict when the world would end (Omotayo 2020) and when Jesus would come (Orjinmo 2020). In relation to accessing both realised and future salvation, Nigerian Christians are to respond righteously to the eschatological birth-pang like COVID-19 by not identifying with false prophets and believing their unfounded preaching, opinions, fake signs and wonders (Mt 24:23).

 

Being ready response

Currently, many Christians and non-Christians are experiencing diverse forms of crises in the world. Because of the increasing intensities of crises, many Christians are responding to these crises by being indifferent to their faith and hence not getting ready for the promised Parousia of Jesus (Vicini 2021:116). However, this crises ridden-era is the time for Christians to pay attention and keep getting prepared for the promised Parousia of Jesus (Hooser 2011). With many crises that are ongoing, of which COVID-19 is only a part (Ukeachusim 2023:7), Christians are called 'to be ready' (Piper 2020). While actively waiting in the interim in the last days as the eschatological sorrowful events are unfolding, the followers of Jesus are commanded γίνεσθε ἕτοιμοι (to be ready), for they do not know the exact hour when the Lord of the church would come (Mt 24:44). However, many modern Nigerian Christians are watching without being ready as COVID-19 as a typical of other eschatological birth-pangs (Ukeachusim 2023:3−4) has impacted and will continue impacting the world. The exact time of Jesus' second coming is not for any man or angels to know. Neither would COVID-19 as an eschatological sorrowful event pin-point the exact day or hour of Jesus' Parousia. Beyond the convulsive impacts of eschatological birth-pang like COVID-19, the reason why the Nigerian elects need to be ready (Ayokunle 2020a; Ayokunle 2020b) is because they do not know when the Lord would come.

 

Understanding response (Mt 24:15, 32−33)

During the time COVID-19 was announced and its ravaging was highly convulsive, many Nigerian Christians lacked knowledge and understanding on how they were to be responding to it in relation to the promised Parousia of Jesus (Ukeachusim 2023:3). Jesus' teachings, encapsulated in the parables (Mt 24:32), categorical sayings, Old Testament allusions and prophecies about eschatological birth-pangs need to be understood by those who are the direct recipients and those who would read or experience eschatological birth-pangs later (Mt 24:15). The disciples of Jesus in Nigeria and in other parts of the world need to see eschatological sorrowful events and understand the sign behind them in relation to biblical eschatological prophesies (Mt 24:32−33). Jesus wants his Nigerian followers to know and understand (Hooser 2011) the eschatological sorrowful-events as they are unfolding as they have been predestined to be happening. Jesus wants his disciples to relate what they see, what they read, and what they had been in advance informed with theological understanding (Mt 24:15, 32−33). Having proper discernment (Mt 24:4) and understanding will predispose them to apply the consolidated theological responses to eschatological birth-pang occurrence like COVID-19 that comes with its varying degrees of convulsing effects on the Christians, and the rest of the people of the world. Having a balanced theological understanding will predispose true follower of Jesus not to be gullible and easily deceived, not to fear, and worry. Rather, with balanced theological understanding they will be equipped by the Holy Spirit's illumination to be wise servants who would remain steadfast in righteously responding and adhering to the theological commands on how they are to be responding to each eschatological birth-pang in relation to the promised Parousia of Jesus.

 

Prayer response (Mt 24:20)

Nigerians as religious and solution-oriented people resort to any means they feel that will guarantee them quick access to the solution to their problems caused by COVID-19 and other crises they are confronting (Ukeachusim 2023:5). προσεύχεσθε as used in Matthew 24:20 is an imperative present middle second person plural verb from προσεύχομαι [I pray]. On many occasions, Jesus in Matthew taught his disciples how to pray (Mt 5:44; 6:5−7). On many occasions, he himself prayed to God. Prayer consolidates one's relationship with God. Because of the theological significance of prayer, Jesus on many occasions commands his disciples to always watch and pray (Mt 24:20; Mt 26:41). In relation to confronting and responding to eschatological birth-pang events like COVID-19 and others, Christians 'should hope for his return, expect his return and pray for his return' (Hooser 2011). In these last days, praying or being prayerful is an activity which every follower of Jesus in Nigeria and elsewhere must consistently be fervently doing. In the chaotic world with the ravaging effects of COVID-19 and other eschatological birth-pangs, Christians are to pray and keep praying (Mt 6:5−7; Mt 24:20). As the followers of Jesus would live militantly in the interim waiting in preparedness for the Parousia, they are to keep watching and praying.

 

Response of not saying that the Parousia is delaying and be seeking for signs (Mt 24:48)

Because of the failed eschatological predictions (Cole 2013) and the occurrences of COVID-19 and other eschatological birth-pangs, which some erroneously thought would lead to the end of the world (Ukeachusim 2023:4); which however did not result to the end of the world; and because the promised return of Jesus has not materialised, have persuaded many professing Nigerian Christians to be seeking for eschatological signs and advancing that the Parousia of Jesus is delaying. To defend or to mock the promised Parousia of Jesus, many theologians, pastors and laities have proposed many opinions and conspiracy theories (Ukeachusim 2023:4) to respond to the so-called 'delayed Parousia'. Though COVID-19 and other eschatological birth-pangs are occurring as Jesus prophesied, many professing Nigerian Christians assume and live their lives consolidating that Jesus will not literally return to the earth, even though he repeatedly promised he would; or that he will return in some manner different from what he presaged to his disciples (Hooser 2011). Some who assume that Jesus' second coming is delaying, live their lives wounding and exploiting their follow-servants, making merchandise of the gospel and making merriments (Mt 24:49). As implied by the Matthean Jesus, it is evil Nigerian Christians that say in their hearts that the Parousia is χρονίζει [delaying] (Mt 24:48). Piper (2020) notes that 'even though the history of the Christian church is littered with failed predictions of the end of the world, it remains true that Jesus Christ is coming back'. That no one knows the day and hour when Jesus will come, does not mean that his coming is delaying (Mt 24:36, 42, 50). That the Parousia will not happen when human beings think, does not mean that Jesus' promised Parousia is delaying. That the coming of Jesus appears to be taking time to happen does not mean that Jesus' Parousia is delaying. God works with his own timing and not the human timing (Mt 24:36). The Parousia of Jesus in power and glory will not materialise when human beings think (Mt 24:44). Professing Nigerian Christians who think, say and live as they like while believing that Jesus' Parousia will not happen or that it is delaying will mourn when they would see Jesus appearing in heaven, coming in his power and great glory (Mt 24:31), to reward those who believed in him and to punish those who rejected his ontological and functional natures. It is in this eschatological era of grace, that all that Jesus said will be fulfilled (Mt 24:34), and it will happen as it happened in the days of Noah (Mt 24:37−39). Consequently, genuine Christians in Nigeria and elsewhere are to be steadfast in believing that Jesus' teachings, parables, categorical sayings and Old Testament allusions about his second coming will truly come to pass (Mt 24:34−35). True Christians watch, see, read and understand the unfolding of the eschatological sorrowful occurrence like COVID-19 from theological viewpoints, and thereby become consistent in responding to the birth-pang events the way God had foretold, warned and commanded them. The promised Parousia of the Lord of the church is not delaying; rather, everything is working out as they are predestined according to God's will and timing.

 

Fear not response

The rumours and news about eschatological birth-pang like COVID-19 consolidates fear and worries (Wahi-Jorgensen 2021) to some Nigerian Christians and non-Christians, and to some other people in other parts of the world. Most people of the world fear dying because of the occurrence of a pandemic like COVID-19, but they do not fear or consider the danger of dying without being saved when Jesus returns as he promised. COVID-19 and other eschatological sorrowful occurrences have been predestined to be consolidating convulsive effects as listed in Matthew 24 (Ayokunle 2020a; Ayokunle 2020b). The COVID-19 pandemic, as well as every other eschatological birth-pang are predisposed to be shaking the world as they are eschatologically heralding the nearness of the end of this age and the promised return of Jesus in power and glory. As the eschatological birth-pangs are intensively unfolding with their rumours consolidating fears, worries, depression (Cordero 2021), hunger and hardship (Kalu 2020), traumas and deaths of many (Vicini 2021); in the interim, militant Nigerian Christians are to keep adhering to the command that they should not be troubled (Schilling, Gamble & Gamble 2020). It is difficult not to be troubled in the face of the convulsing pandemic like COVID-19, which consolidates fear and worries. However, Jesus has equipped his elects by informing them in advance about the last days' eschatological birth-pang events, and the theological need for them to access both realised and future salvation. With advance information, Matthew's Jesus persuades Christians to know that eschatological sorrowful events are occurring as they have been predestined to be happening. Nevertheless, eschatological birth-pangs would not pinpoint that the end has come (Mt 24:6), they are merely the beginning of sorrows and that they should focus on being saved (Mt 24:13). Christians' response to eschatological distressful event like COVID-19 and the fear and sorrows they consolidate is that they should see the occurrences with balanced theological discernment and not become troubled (Mt 24:6); and rather, focus on accessing both realised and future salvations.

 

Faithfulness response (Mt 24:45−47)

The COVID-19 pandemic and its corollaries of convulsive brunt adversely impacted many professing Nigerian Christians. Many Nigerians experienced phobia, anxiety, depression, hopelessness and hardship (Ukeachusim 2023:5). Some became vulnerable and lost their faith in God and some became indifferent to their Christian faith. Though the COVID-19 era is convulsive, the faithful and wise servants of God, however, should always be actively and not passively ready for Jesus' use and for his promised Parousia (Hooser 2011); for no one knows when Jesus would come (Mt 24:44). The COVID-19 era is to be seen as a wake-up call to professing Nigerian Christians to be faithful disciples of Jesus (CDN Givecloud 2020). Christians are to be wise and faithful servant in these last days in which eschatological sorrowful occurrences are more intensively unfolding as they have been divinely presaged. Nigerian Christians are to be obeying the principles of the kingdom, while they are to be actively expecting the Lord's return. Nigerian Christians should not be assuming that the Lord's Parousia is delaying. They should not be smiting their follow-servants by wounding their consciousness when they are weak, thereby sinning against God and other Christians (Mt 24:49). The πιστὸς [faithful], and φρόνιμος [wise], δοῦλος [servant] are the Christians who would serve in the interim to feed others with spiritual nourishment in due season. Jesus demands his disciples in Nigeria and elsewhere to be faithful and wise servants (Mt 24:45, 47). The faithful and sensible Nigerian Christians are being and would be blessed by God because they will remain faithful in adhering to Jesus' commands till he comes and meets them doing so (Mt 24:46−47).

 

Do not be offended response (Mt 24:10)

The COVID-19 pandemic, like other eschatological birth-pangs consolidates crises of faith (Vicini 2021), offences (Merkle 2004:1212) and betrayals (Osadebamwe 2020). COVID-19 influence made many Christians in Nigeria and elsewhere to question the existence of God, the saving power of God, and the miraculous power of God. In nursing these questions, many who were infected and those who lost their beloved ones, began to disapprove of God and showed tendencies to withdraw their faith in God they once trusted (Mt 24:10). Many Christians based on the existential situations, in co-servant-hood and fellowships have been offended by other seeming servants and brothers-in-Christ who refrained from welcoming visitors and entertaining others for the phobia of contacting COVID-19. Because of social distance, exclusion and rejections, many were offended or wounded the consciousness of their fellow brethren (Mt 24:49). Nigerian Christians should have a theological understanding that the convulsing effects of an eschatological birth-pang like COVID-19 and other eschatological birth-pangs have been predisposed to be making many to become offended and to be tended to betray one another (Mt 24:10). Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is now a great falling away; many refrain from going to church and many now have damped spirit towards the things of God. Glaringly, a lack of genuine compassion was and is still being displayed by many individual Christians and some Christian groups. As eschatological grief-stricken occurrences consolidate offences and betrayals, Christians are not to be offended. Nigerian Christians should not be offended with God, and others, and or betray one another because of the convulsive effects emanating from eschatological birth-pangs (Mt 24:10) as they will be preparing for the Parousia of Jesus.

 

Love response (Mt 24:12)

The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic as an eschatological birth-pang are predisposing some Christians' love for God and love for their neighbours to wax cold. Currently, in Nigeria, brotherly love, affection, goodwill and benevolence are existentially lacking in the body of Christ as Jesus presaged in the Olivet discourse. Rather, lawlessness, indifference, ulterior motivations, selfishness and individualism have set in the church and in the Nigerian larger society (Dabang & Ukomadu 2020). The love that is required in these last days is agape-love that manifests deep love for God, and that persuades the elect to be consistent in consolidating genuine affection and goodwill for others. Lack of genuine vertical and horizontal love yields the corollaries of iniquities increasing and rise in crimes rate. Christians are not to grow weary in showing and consolidating agape-love to themselves and to other people in the world (Valerio & Heugh 2020:3), since they are still in the interim when they were theologically commanded to be active in preparedness waiting for the Parousia.

 

Enduring to the end to be saved response (Mt 24:13)

COVID-19 as an eschatological birth-pang consolidated crisis of faith (Vicini 2021). Many professing Nigerian Christians who could not endure suffering (Cordero 2021) became offended with God for allowing the convulsive impacts of COVID-19 to befall them (Ukeachusim 2023:5). Some because of suffering and starving (Young 2020) that they were confronting became vulnerable by indulging in vices; gullible, and indifferent to their faith in Jesus. However, as Matthew said to his Christian community confronting eschatological birth-pangs, similarly it implies that, it is Nigerian Christians and every other Christians elsewhere in the globe, who stood their ground by enduring to the end; holding tenaciously to their faith as they are being traumatised by the convulsive impacts of eschatological birth-pangs that would be saved. Jesus, while preparing his disciples in advance about the sorrowful birth-pangs that would be convulsing the world as they would be in the interim preparing for his Parousia, did not mention repentance because he was addressing those who have been 'called-out', his 'chosen ones' who have forsaken the world to follow him. Jesus did not directly emphasise on repentance; rather, he stressed the need for ὑπομένω (endurance) which is connected to being saved (Mt 24:13). Jesus consolidates the need for endurance because they are already having the theological perquisites and preconditions for salvation. However, they would have to preserve the kingdom principles they have received through Jesus' discipleship. Relevantly, the Nigerian Christians in these last days are to remain resolute in these trying and perilous times, holding fast to their faith till the end. Breaking away from the faith would predispose them to receive the same judgement that would be adjudicated to the world inhabitants who wilfully refused and have continued to refuse to accept and identify with the person and works of Jesus for their eternal salvation. Christians in Nigeria are not to recede from their faith in Jesus because of the offensive and convulsive last days' birth-pang like COVID-19 and others.

 

Unbelievers, the hypocrites and wicked Christians and the repentance response (Mt 24:51)

Before and during the time of the occurrence of the convulsive impacts of COVID-19 pandemic and currently, that some impacts of the COVID-19 are still being felt, many professing Nigerian Christians, were and are still solution-oriented (Ukeachusim 2023:5), and are thereby synchronising worldly values with the principles of the kingdom of God. Professing Nigerian Christians being syncretic (Onah et al. 2021), are hypocrites and evil servants who live in danger of damnation when Jesus returns. Considering the convulsive effects of COVID-19; call and persuade both the syncretic, hypocrites that are professing to be Christians and the unbelievers in Jesus to repent (Tolmie & Venter 2021). With the fulfilments of eschatological sorrowful events, unbelievers, hypocrites, and evil Nigerians professing to be Christians are called to repent, so that when Jesus comes in glory and in power when no one knows (Mt 24:48), they will be redeemed and not be among those who will be apportioned where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth (Mt 24:51).

 

Preaching the gospel response (Mt 24:14)

During the peak of the convulsive impacts of COVID-19, many Nigerian Christians had what they could describe as justified reasons for which they refrained from preaching the gospel to the unbelievers. Because of the social distance, ban on high-density gathering (Xinhua 2020), and lockdown (Krippahl 2020) that were set in place as some of the ways for containing the spread of COVID-19, many Christians leveraged on these and withdrew from carrying on the mission mandate of the church in Nigeria. The disciples of Jesus are called to 'keep doing God's work' (Hooser 2011) even as the disciples of Jesus carried on the mission mandate of the church when they were confronting eschatological birth-pangs and thereby were preparing themselves for the promised Parousia of Jesus. However, before, during the peak of COVID-19 and currently that COVID-19 is subsiding, many Nigerian Christians in the interim waiting for the Parousia are passive or indifferent concerning God's mission of restoring human beings to their original place in God's creation plan. In this crisis-ridden era, 'many are looking towards Christian scripture for comfort and answers' (Kettley 2021) and 'COVID-19 pandemic gives the church an opportunity to reconsider what the centre of God's mission is' (Tettey & Nel 2021). It is a command for genuine follower of Jesus to preach the gospel of the kingdom of God in deeds and in words (Mt 10:27; Mt 24:14). Because of the theological emphases on the need for universal focus of the gospel aimed at the conversion that aims at achieving both realised and future salvation of the souls of humankinds, Christians are to be active in mission participation. Christians in Nigeria and elsewhere are to daily carry on the preaching of the gospel εὐαγγέλιον of the kingdom even in the crisis era of COVID-19 (Corzine 2020:1) and other eschatological birth-pang events.

 

Response of adhering to restrictions, security measures, health tips and protocols

During the peak of the convulsive impacts of COVID-19, many churches were providing 'essential emotional and spiritual supports to the people' (Olonade et al. 2021); and many individual Christians being influenced by their religiousness were and are still exhibiting reckless confidence over the COVID-19 pandemic by not adhering to safety measures and tips (Onyedika-Ugoeze 2020). Directly or indirectly, some religious groups played significant roles in the spread of the virus by neglecting the preventive health measures for COVID-19 (Olonade et al. 2021). Though the disciples of Jesus while being confronted by eschatological birth-pang events are to focus on being saved by Jesus, they however, are also to be conscious of security measures, so as not to expose themselves to dangers that are the corollaries of each eschatological birth-pang. Hence, Jesus used 'fleeing into the mountains' and 'not coming down from the housetop' (Mt 24:16−17), to imperatively recommend that his disciples should adhere to security measures that will be put in place for peoples' safety during the occurrences of eschatological birth-pang events. Following from this, Nigerian Christians are to respond to COVID-19 pandemic (Ayokunle 2020) by adhering to the many safety measures, movement restrictions, drug and vaccination policies, health tips (Haynes 2022) and policies put in place by the government and also the COVID-19 hygienic protocols (WHO 2019) to halt the spread and possibly contain the pandemic.

 

Conclusion

The eschatological prophecies of Jesus concerning the eschatological birth-pangs (Mt 24:1−15); and immediate events, and signs of his promised return, and the end of this age (Mt 24:16−51), still stir Nigerians and other people of the world to be anxious; hence, they draw questions that need applications. Typical of COVID-19 pandemic, every convulsive event in the world arouses curiosities about Jesus' presages about eschatological birth-pangs; immediate events and signs of his promised Parousia and that of the end of the world. In relation to eschatological curiosities, this study unveiled how Christians are to be responding to the unfolding eschatological birth-pang events with special reference to the COVID-19 pandemic and to focus on being saved by preparing for Jesus' promised return. The eschatological questions of the disciples and the theological significances for which Matthew as a theologian, by way of redaction, merged discoursing how Christians are to be responding to eschatological birth-pangs with the theological commands for the disciples of Jesus to be ready for the promised Parousia of Jesus are ever relevant. On accessing both realised salvation and future salvation, prophetic exhortations and commands of Jesus in the context of Matthew 24 are not peculiar to the first-century members of Matthean community. Jesus does not want his church in Nigeria and elsewhere in the globe to be obsessively preoccupied with questing to know about the signs that would precede the Parousia and end of the world; or Christians attempting to pinpoint the exact day and the hour the Parousia and the end of the world would occur. Christians in the world and elsewhere in the globe are to be focussed on accessing both realised salvation and future salvation. The prophecies, answers and commands of Jesus as they relate to accessing realised and future salvations are still trustworthy guides for Christians of every age who are in the interim preparing for the Parousia. Christians are to be righteously responding to eschatological birth-pang events, bearing in mind that they are to focus on being saved (Mt 24:13). Jesus has in advance prepared his disciples on how they are to be responding to the predestined eschatological birth-pangs that would be heralding his Parousia and; how and why they are to focus on being saved. Therefore, Nigerian Christians are thereby to learn from the theological exhortations and commands in Matthew 24; and thus be equipped on how they are to be responding righteously to eschatological birth-pang like COVID-19 and focus on being saved. Though Nigerian Christians are to be knowledgeable about Bible presages about the last days' birth-pang events and on how they are to be responding to them, they however, are to be focussed on being faithfully ready for Jesus' Parousia. Nigerian Christians are to be faithfully ready by seeing, reading and understanding the eschatological implications of the signs, and times; and by responding righteously to every unfolding eschatological birth-pang, and focussing on being saved; for Jesus' second coming which would be sudden, would come with rewards for the elects and punishment for those who rejected him.

 

Acknowledgements

The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the publication of this article: This work was supported by Prof Ernest van Eck.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

C.P.U. has declared sole authorship of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this article are either available within the article. The data that support the findings of this article are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author, C.P.U.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Chidinma Ukeachusim
chidinma.ukeachusim@unn.edu.ng

Received: 01 Mar. 2023
Accepted: 28 Sept. 2023
Published: 29 Feb. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Engaging emerging adults: A missional model of ministry for house churches in South Africa

 

 

Johannes J. Knoetze; Ronele Prince

Department of Practical Theology and Mission studies, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article examines the role of house churches in South Africa in the ministry of emerging adulthood. Emerging adulthood is a turbulent life stage that is characterised by change and exploration. Additionally, it involves increasing responsibility and autonomy as young people assume more adult roles. This article suggests that emerging adulthood is a critical life stage for several reasons. Given the contextual realities of South Africa (high unemployment, high levels of crime, poverty), as well as the associated negative behaviour and the increasing religious disaffiliation among emerging adults, it is essential to provide nurturing support to this group in particular. To this end, this article presents a missional model for house churches as an alternative method of ministry for reaching and retaining this population group. The characteristics of house churches and emerging adults are explored and serve as the backdrop for this missional model.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article makes intradisciplinary and interdisciplinary contributions by engaging the theological disciplines of missiology and practical theology as well as psychology and sociology.

Keywords: missional; house church; emerging adulthood; South Africa; critical age; small faith communities.

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Introduction

Numerous studies have been conducted on emerging adulthood and its social, cultural, economic, and religious contexts (cf. Arnett 2000; Arnett & Jensen 2002; Barry et al. 2020; Hardie, Pearce & Denton 2013; Smith & Snell 2009) as well as on house churches (cf. Barna Research Group 2006; Jeong 2018; Payne 2007; Simson 2009). However, the majority of these studies have been carried out internationally, and there is a dearth of research in the South African context. There is also a paucity of research on emerging adulthood religiosity in South Africa. Grant's (2013) master's research investigated South African house churches in the context of the Chinese diaspora while Wileman's (2008) study focussed on the role of the independent house church movement in youth ministry. Apart from these works, research on house churches in South Africa has mostly been associated with the African Independent/Initiated Churches (AICs). This article distinguishes house churches from the AICs and cell group structures.¹ It also relies on international research about emerging adulthood religiosity, although it acknowledges that these findings may not always be directly applicable to the local context. A brief history of the house church movement and the characteristics of emerging adults is provided as a background and context for this study. The growing number of house churches worldwide has piqued much interest and led to research on this phenomenon in various regions of the world. The concept of 'emerging adulthood' is relatively new, spanning the last few decades. However, it has benefitted from concurrent research on various contextual aspects of this life stage, which has been undertaken by numerous academic disciplines. Given that there has been limited research conducted on the specific contextual aspects of emerging adulthood in South Africa, and with increasing religious disaffiliation in this demographic, this article aims to explore the potential missional role that house churches in South Africa can play in the ministry of emerging adults.

 

The role of the house in early Christianity

The 'house church' concept is not new. Button and Van Rensburg (2003:11) suggest that 'home', as it can refer to any type of dwelling, is better suited than 'house' to describe where the early Christians met, especially in light of the debate around the structure of the buildings used for these early Christian gatherings (cf. Button & Van Rensburg 2003; Linton 2005). The Early Church gathered in homes (e.g., Ac 1:13, 1 Cor 6:19; Rm 16:3, 5; Col 4:15), which provided social and religious engagement for the early believers. Residential dwellings were the centre of family life and a vital part of the Early Church. Not only did they form the foundation of the local church, but they were also the focal point for worship, offered accommodation for missionaries, served as centres for evangelistic and missionary efforts, and provided the framework for the new Christian way of life (Bekker 1993:242-245). The early Christians met in homes because it followed the Jewish tradition of meeting in homes. Houses were convenient and readily available, provided protection during persecution, and had the facilities to prepare and serve meals, including the Lord's Supper (Blue 1998:474-475), and had amenities for water baptism (Linton 2005:238). The Early Church gathering centred on partaking in a meal (Ac 2:46), whereafter various disciplines such as prayer, teaching, singing, and worship followed (Alikin 2010:31). Households were the centres for the propagation of the gospel (Atkinson & Comiskey 2014:77; Last 2016:413), and the household provided the environment in which the early believers learned and practised the doctrine of the church (Birkey 1991:70). The success of meeting in homes is attributed to the privacy, intimacy, and stability of place that households provided. In addition, the intimate home setting provided an ideal environment in which relationships and friendships could be fostered (Linton 2005:238).

 

Evolution of the Christian gathering

House churches, which were a primary means of Christian gatherings in the first few centuries, have in recent years re-emerged in some parts of the world as a significant and influential centre for Christian worship and fellowship. If some house church proponents are to be believed, house churches will constitute a dominant ecclesial force in the future. There is an evolutionary correlation between the early and contemporary church gatherings which have come full circle: house church meetings proliferated pre-Christendom, while during the Christendom era the church building evolved and dominated as venues for Christian gatherings. Post-Christendom, especially in the ever-de-Christianised West and the religiously persecuted East, church buildings stand empty while there are increasing numbers of house churches.

With the advent of Christendom, the Early Church meetings evolved from gathering in simple household structures to larger extravagant buildings by the 3rd century in response to a number of precipitating factors (Billings 2011:543; Jeong 2018:43). At the onset, when Christianity under Constantine became the official religion of the empire, there was a notable appearance of purpose-built church buildings (De Beer 2018:75; Linton 2005:230; Peterson 1969:266). It is proposed that the construction of church buildings was most likely under the direction of the emperor (Smither 2014:150) and therefore lavish structures replaced simple homes as places of worship (Simson 2009:19). The architectural evolution of the Early Church building is certainly also related to the growth of the Christian community which required modification of private homes to accommodate larger numbers (Linton 2005:244; Smither 2014:150). The ever-increasing numbers created a demand for larger buildings and thus modifying existing structures progressed to the construction of new buildings (Billings 2011:545). As the exclusive religion of the Roman Empire, all citizens were forced to become members of the Catholic Church which outlawed all other religious groups and gatherings, including meeting in house churches (Simson 2009:20). As a result, home-based gatherings were persecuted and stigmatised which persists as house churches not readily recognised as a valid expression of the Church by certain Christian groups today (Payne 2007:12). While the New Testament house church does not necessarily sanction the modern house church movement, it does draw support from the strong biblical tradition of the church meeting in homes during the first few centuries as well as the continuation of these house church meetings ever since (Prince 2020:47).

House churches have been around for centuries, although they have often been on the periphery of mainstream churches and society. Recently, however, there has been a re-emergence of this concept in various parts of the world. A multiplicity of factors is responsible, and these tend to differ with locality. The highest contemporary house church growth has occurred in parts of the United States of America (USA) (Payne 2007:13), Great Britain (Hollenweger 1980:45), China, and Korea (Hadaway, DuBose & Wright 1987:15-20), with corresponding research of the house church movement in those regions (Jeong 2018:3). Outside of those areas, research on the modern house church movement is scant. This paucity of research may suggest the absence of house churches in those parts or their marginalisation, but because house churches are informal and decentralised, record keeping of their occurrences may be inadequate and imprecise.

It is uncertain how and where the modern house church movement began (Hadaway et al. 1987:14), but there are estimates of millions of people belonging to house churches across the world. According to the Barna Research Group (2006), approximately 9% of the population in the USA is involved in house churches; while the world's largest church, in Seoul, Korea, attributes its growth to small group/house church initiatives, and it is estimated that house churches in China range in the tens of thousands (Hadaway et al. 1987:15-20). The reasons for the increasing involvement in house churches may be because of social, cultural, political, religious, and economic factors. Moreover, historically, the house church thrived during religious persecution and economic hardship. In the East, for example, religious persecution spurred the movement (Hadaway et al. 1987:20), whereas believers in the West are inspired to return to principles espoused by the New Testament church as they understand them (Hollenweger 1980:45; Effa 2015:376). Jeong's (2018) research seems to indicate that the movement in India has a socio-economic bent, as do house churches in Latin America which comprise mainly the poor and marginalised, who account for nearly 80% of the population. In those parts, the base church generally serves society and the faith community through small group initiatives (Birkey 1991:75). Other areas experiencing house church growth include Nepal, Vietnam (Birkey 1991:75), and Ghana (Adubofour & Badu 2019:179). The literature of the house church movement in South Africa is scant and little is known about the individual house churches themselves.

According to Adubofour and Badu (2019:79), many contemporary church plants in the West start as organic house-churches. This development aligns with the emergence of small faith communities in the post-Christendom era. Small faith communities are an effective vehicle for ministry to reach the untouched, and to effect culture change. These communities provide safe places where relationships are formed, and where people can serve one another, and learn what it means to be the family of God as they live out their Christian faith (Mills 2023:3). Small faith communities tend to better understand and address the immediate needs of society by being in direct contact with and living in close proximity to their communities.

The existence of contemporary house churches has merit for several other reasons. Their particular characteristics make them suitable for grassroots emerging adulthood ministry. The organic and informal nature of house churches fosters familial, relational, and spontaneous fellowship, as well as organic interactions (Simson 2009:4). This fellowship is believed to promote personal spiritual growth (Anderson 2014:14) and contribute to an increase in numbers. Small faith communities provide an intimate environment that facilitates the faith development of its members through mutual participation in disciplines such as prayer, worship, scriptural reading, and meditation. Additionally, young people can learn and grow in their faith through observation and mentorship in conjunction with verbal instruction (Chiroma 2015:75; Folmsbee 2007:39; eds. Yust et al. 2006:255). Small groups promote and allow members to be as hands-on as they wish as believers grow and mature in their faith. In addition, it allows every voice to be heard and every idea to be considered (Prince 2020:143). Small groups tend to better embody the family metaphor found in Scripture which encourages strong relationships and friendships that promote accountability and responsibility (Gehring, cited by Anderson 2014:8).

Therefore, the house church is ideally positioned to provide the mandate found in Hebrews 10:24-25: '[T]o stimulate one another to love and good deeds' and 'to encourage one another'. It facilitates a lifestyle that acts like a spiritual extended family and incubator for fellowship and worship without being dependent on actual church buildings (Birkey 1991:72).

The informal and spontaneous nature facilitates individual participation that allows for questioning and listening, and the use of everyone's skills and talents for the mutual edification of the church, so that 'When you come together, each of you has a hymn, or a word of instruction, a revelation, a tongue or an interpretation' (1 Cor 14:26) (Simson 2009:3).

The kinetic participatory model of instruction favoured by small groups equips believers with the knowledge required to walk godly lives. It provides the opportunity to thresh out and make clear what the Bible expects for any situation (Simson 2009:37). Forums that allow for questioning and participation enhance learning as well as encourage corporate and individual spiritual growth. Intergenerational dialogue that happens in small groups allows for questioning, listening, and learning, which benefits both mature and young believers alike. Young believers can learn from mature believers by observing them do 'everything I have commanded you' (Mt 28:20) (Yount 2019:52).

 

Emerging adulthood: A critical period

Emerging adulthood was first described by Arnett (2000:473) as a distinct life period for young people in mainly industrialised societies. It is often characterised as a turbulent period associated with change and exploration as young people relinquish adolescent roles for more adult ones. During the transition to adulthood, young people frequently abandon the assumptive values and practices of childhood as they chart their own way forward (Arnett 2000:473; Fowler 1981:179). In South Africa, the impact and the socio-economic development context makes this transition even more problematic. The high unemployment rate means that two-thirds of the young people aged 15-24 years (Statistics South Africa [StatsSA] 2018) are unemployed. Unemployment has a direct correlation with poor self-identity and human dignity (Bauman 2005:35; Cloete 2015:514). The concept of 'self' directly relates to the concept of 'God', and thus a poor self-concept results in a poor theological conception. Emerging adulthood is also associated with risk-taking behaviour, such as engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse, substance abuse, speeding and driving under the influence (Arnett 2000:475; Hardie et al. 2013:2), as well as decreasing religious affiliation in comparison to other generations (Bergler 2017:65; Gurney 2007:11; Pew Research Centre 2015; Smith & Snell 2009:141). Religious disaffiliation is complex and multidimensional, manifesting as an abandonment of religious beliefs, decreased importance that young people place on religious and spiritual experiences, or abstaining from church services and other spiritual disciplines (Lee, Pearce & Schorpp 2017:2). Risk-taking behaviour engaged by young adults often has detrimental consequences on society, but the positive correlation between religious adherence and psychosocial, educational, and behavioural outcomes is widely reported (Bird 2016:311; Hardie et al. 2013:2; Moodley 2017:1515).

In addition, the spirituality of young people in the West has become increasingly more individualised. This new individualised belief system involves young people's cafeteria approach to religion, where they pick-and-choose from a range of choices to construct a spirituality that best suits them (Barry et al. 2020:202; Smith & Snell 2009:137). In so doing, they form new distinctive theological and religious viewpoints that Smith and Denton (2005:162) describe as Moralistic Therapeutic Deism (MTD). Moralistic Therapeutic Deism reflects young people's unwillingness to submit to the specific requirements of Christianity or the disbelief that a real faith would make such demands of them (Lackey 2020:72). This therapeutic belief system is promoted by the assumption that there is a distant god who wants everyone to practise religious tolerance and acceptance (Devlin 2018:44). Moralistic Therapeutic Deism is, in fact, a societal issue, and young people are merely mimicking what they have witnessed in adults (Smith & Denton 2005:162). Religious pluralism that incorporates different beliefs from a variety of religions pervades the postmodern world and is contrary to Scripture (cf. Dt 20:3: 'You shall have no other gods before me') (Prince 2020:84). Much like the pluralistic religious practices from other parts of the world, the religious practice for many black Africans is dualistic, combining African Traditional Religion (ATR) alongside formal Christian practice (Brittian, Lewin & Norris 2013:7; Pew Research Centre 2018). However, in South Africa, many black Africans are often negative towards Christianity, which is viewed as a colonial export (Knoetze 2017:5).

Against this backdrop, emerging adulthood is considered a critical age group that needs nurturing. A house church missional model for emerging adult ministry is proposed because this generational group seems to be avoiding traditional ecclesial forms.

 

Theological reflection of emerging adulthood and missio Dei

If emerging adults are disaffiliated from current church structures, then the church must explore creative and alternative solutions to engage and minister to this group, reaching outside itself to address them at the point of their need. It can no longer be expected that young people will come to a church building to hear and experience the love of God. Rather, the church must consider ministry that goes to these lost sheep. All Christian ministries must therefore be founded on and revolve around the trinitarian nature of God which is both missional and relational (Mills 2023:2). The Great Commission directive to 'go and make disciples of all men' (Mt 28:19) addresses the missional aspect of going to the lost instead of expecting them to come to the church, just as Jesus was also sent to seek and to save the lost (Lk 19:10). That the church is sent is directly borne from God's mission which originates in his trinitarian nature.

A missional hermeneutic, as proposed by Bosch (2011), Wright (2006), Bauckham (2003), Brownson (1994), and others, speaks of the missionary character of the Bible, which places mission as the fundamental and primary objective of Scripture. It rightly replaces the notion of mission as a church-initiated enterprise with the understanding that mission is derived from the very nature of God (Bosch 2011:546/7) who has a church for his mission (Wright 2010:46). Because the Bible is God's story about who he is and what he is doing in his world, a missional hermeneutic provides the scriptural tools required for the church, called and empowered by God, to participate in his mission, the missio Dei (Mills 2023:3). God is the sending God who sends the church into the world to witness and to make him visible. Du Preez, Hendricks and Carl (2013:3-4) explain that in the trinitarian nature of mission, the Father is the source and initiator of the missio Dei; the Son is the incarnational presence of the missio Dei; and the Spirit, the empowering presence of the missio Dei, which directs and empowers the church for this mission. The Holy Spirit both initiates and guides the church in mission as they are witnesses of the gospel of Christ (Bosch 2011:115, 117). As witnesses, the church points people to what God has done and is doing in the world. They point to God's salvation - the liberation from sin and a new life in Christ. As witnesses, the church understands the responsibility and urgency of the gospel message that sets sinners free from eternal damnation, and therefore as true disciples the church readily engages in God's mission of redeeming and saving people (Bosch 2011:18).

God is a relational God; Father, Son, and Spirit are in relational unity and equality, and God's desire is to share his love and service in relationship with humans (Bosch 2011:547). A focus on relationships in ministry is therefore important because it mirrors the triune God's nature and interactions with humanity. Consequently, significant relationships with other Christians matter because they teach each other something about what God is like (Dean & Foster 1998:30). In this way, the community of faith provides the environment for young people to learn from the examples of mature believers in their walk with God.

The relational and missional nature of God is evident in how the church conducts itself, having both an interwoven inward and outward focus. The church's inward focus is demonstrated by the relationships which build up people's holy faith through the practices of fellowship, prayer, breaking of bread, and devotion to biblical instruction. The outward focus means that the church actively engages society with the gospel (Bosch 2011:121). A church of faith understands its call and privilege to God's mission in the world and continually builds itself in the faith because it understands that God's mission includes living a life of holiness that cannot be achieved outside of a relationship with him. The Heidelberg Catechism describes the church as 'the communion of saints', that is,

Firstly, that all and everyone, who believes, being members of Christ, are in common, partakers of him, and of all his riches and gifts; secondly, that everyone must know it to be his duty, readily and cheerfully to employ his gifts, for the advantage and salvation of other members. (Christian Reformed Church n.d.)

The church is therefore called to participate in the life and suffering of Christ, and to be actively involved in his mission in the lives of individuals, in the life of the community of faith, and in the world. Sharing of life and suffering implies a relationship and personal bond with Christ (Nel 1994:101) and with his body, and outside of this communion with Christ, the mission of the church would not be possible (Baker 2013:38).

God's mission relates to his activity in the world in which the church is called to participate (Bosch 2011:10, 401). God's activity is manifold and includes the salvation of the world. Therefore, the mission of God's people, as an extension of and participation in his mission, happens when disciples walk in righteousness and justice and 'work for holistic redemptive blessing for the oppressed' (Wright 2010:128). Believers are thus called to represent God by their verbal witness and by living lives of practical holiness that draw people to God (Wright 2010:129). Evangelism, an act of participation in God's mission, therefore, takes on the form of verbal proclamation and physical demonstration as believers declare God's salvation to the lost.

A missional church empowers believers to make an impact on their sphere by declaring the Good News and demonstrating it through their daily lives - in word and deed. By participating in God's redemptive plan, the church recognises its role as agents of restoration in the world. A missional model should equip believers to a lifelong commitment to the faith as it helps people understand and embrace their responsibility to the advancement of God's kingdom and mission of healing and redemption in the rest of creation. A missional model helps the church attain John 10:10's abundant life - living one's life to the full - which is realised as believers mature spiritually and are enabled, empowered, and motivated to minister to the lost and to disciple them (Nel 2015:1). It involves getting people saved and helping them grow and mature into the stature of Christ.

Identifying and understanding the peculiar characteristics of emerging adulthood will enable the house church to minister to this group more effectively. Because emerging adulthood is a time of questioning and wrestling, particularly with the assumptive values and beliefs of childhood, this period presents an opportune time for the church to get involved in their lives to properly guide them with sound theological training and wisdom towards their maturity of faith. Some other notable characteristics of emerging adulthood highlighted by Prince (2020) include their hands-on and participatory approach in the religious, professional, and social structures that they inhabit (2020:31). Thus, the role of the church is to make emerging adults aware of their role as participants in God's mission in their lives and in the world. The church should allow emerging adults to practise their faith in safe environments that afford them the ability to share their skills and talents for the greater good. Emerging adults have the desire to have their voices heard (2020:99), and the church should encourage and guide them in how to use their voice to declare the Good News of the gospel in a dying world. That they want to bring about change (2020:137) is closely aligned with God's mission to share his goodness and redemption with the world.

For emerging adults to effect meaningful and lasting transformation in their lives and within their communities, they should be taught to genuinely replicate the life and activities of Jesus in all areas (Gibson 2016:157). This happens when sound theological teaching is accompanied with discipleship as they learn how to live a life that glorifies God (Folmsbee 2007:39). Discipleship involves following, obeying, and participating in God's mission (Brueggemann 2004:122). This is done by teaching young people how to pray, explaining the importance of fellowship, and Scripture devotion (Groome 1980:73-77). These behaviours are best learnt in environments that are mutually inclusive and authentic, and that allow for open observation and participation. Importantly, they involve enduring relationships with young people. Mature believers are to set godly examples for young people to follow since true discipleship involves learning about God and learning how to live a life that glorifies him (Folmsbee 2007:39; Powell, Griffin & Crawford 2011:34).

 

A missional model of ministry for house churches in South Africa

Prince (2023), from her study 'House churches in urban South Africa as agents for missional faith formation amongst emerging adults', found that house churches are not purposefully attending to the challenges of emerging adults in the South African context. In light of her findings, she proposes a missional model of ministry for house churches to address the ministry needs of emerging adulthood in South Africa more wholistically. Prince (2023:270) concluded her study with several causative factors for the religious disaffiliation of emerging adults. These are highlighted below with suggestions for a workable model for emerging adulthood ministry.

Emerging adulthood spirituality

Young people tend to have a more accommodative pluralistic spirituality that results in them adopting a range of beliefs and practices from different religions to form one that best suits them (Barry et al. 2020:202; Smith & Denton 2005:162). Wholistic ministry should incorporate an understanding of the spirituality of young people, which sees them open to other religions alongside their Christian faith. To that end, interfaith dialogue (Bosch 2011:494-501) is important as it can aid in the formation of a Christian specific identity since the uniqueness of Christ will be grasped.

Wholistic biblical teaching

Wholistic emerging adult ministry should address their religious pluralism. This is achieved by providing relevant biblical teaching. A feature in MTD is that young people do not believe and accept the demands for loyalty and commitment to the Christian faith (Devlin 2018:44). It is essential that the Word of God is taught in its fullness if emerging adults are to grow into the fullness of who they are called to be in Christ (Groome 1980:49-51; Root & Dean 2011:71). Emerging adults need to be taught not only the Word, but also adherence to the Word. If a low view of biblical instruction permeates a ministry, then young people are likely to demonstrate the same low view of the requirements of Scripture. It is therefore essential that the seriousness of the Word of God be communicated to emerging adults if they are to view the church with any seriousness.

Create opportunities for ministry

Church ministry is not just about the individual but is communal as well; it has both an internal (individual-church) and an external (church-world) focus (Bosch 2011:121). A ministry model should thus emphasise evangelism as well as discipleship which are equally important (Moser & Nel 2019:1). Small faith communities encourage group participation and involvement. Emerging adults should be encouraged to use their gifts and talents to edify the body (internal focus) and reach out to and evangelise the world (external focus). In other words, emerging adults need to take what they have learnt and put it into practice.

Create opportunities for intergenerational dialogue

There is a need for intergenerational dialogue in emerging adulthood ministry. Intergenerational ministries have been demonstrated by Williams, Irby and Warner (2016:9) to be more effective in retaining young people than ministries that are categorised by age. This is because all age groups participate in all church activities at the same time. In addition, emerging adults want to learn but they also want to contribute. Intergenerational ministries can provide a platform where people learn from and contribute to the faith formation of others. An intimate setting allows people to express themselves and question one another about the different aspects of their faith or other challenges they may be experiencing within a safe environment.

Godly leadership

Leadership is instrumental in ministry (Niemandt 2019). A key aspect for emerging adults is their general preference for inclusive and participatory leadership styles that allow everyone the opportunity to have a say and to participate (Anderson 2014:48; Mitchell, Poest & Espinoza 2016:35). Leaders therefore need to create a space for young people to get involved in the life of the church. They must have a strong theological foundation and must be godly examples from which young people can learn and live out their faith. Godly living inspires people to mature in Christlikeness because it demonstrates and encourages others to cultivate a relationship with Christ (Knoetze 2015:7).

Leaders also need to be intentional in raising up other leaders by creating opportunities for growth, which may include nominating, appointing, and training up assistant leaders.

Transdisciplinary approach to ministry

Emerging adult ministry requires a transdisciplinary approach that involves the development of the entire personhood. Emerging adults tend to want to make an impact and change the world for good (supportive of socially driven causes) (Smith & Snell 2009:295; Zukin & Szeltner 2012:2). Therefore, the house church should look for opportunities to involve emerging adults in outreach programmes that address the physical and spiritual needs of the community. This can fulfil their desire to contribute to the greater good, and to be part of something larger than themselves. Moreover, it also allows them the opportunity to live for God in achieving his mission.

Because the house church is 'closer to the ground', it is more in tune with and has a good understanding of the needs and circumstances of its community, which provides emerging adults with the channels and access to get involved and make an impact in the community. Another aspect of the wholistic ministry of emerging adults involves life skills. Here the emphasis should be on creating awareness and upskilling young people to cope with multiple challenges that are often associated with emerging adulthood and the contextual realities of South Africa, such as poverty, HIV/AIDS, youth unemployment, among others. (Modise 2018:14). The house church should assist young people to identify opportunities to affirm their worth, for example, through forums, where they are allowed to participate in decision making and policymaking in a meaningful way.

The house church should also oppose cultural structures that devalue and oppress members of society. For instance, it can oppose negative media content and advocate for wholesome content through engagement with government and media houses. The house church also has the responsibility to teach young people to affirm godly values.

Progressive plan to recruit emerging adults

Emerging adulthood is peculiar from other generations which requires out-of-the-box thinking to recruit and retain this group.

Firstly, since fellowship with peers is an important characteristic for young people, house churches should strengthen their network with other house churches and faith communities to provide support to one another and create opportunities for emerging adults to connect with each other.

Secondly, the house church should give attention to evangelism. Evangelism is an 'essential dimension' of mission (Bosch 2011:414) and can occur in two ways:

1. It involves emerging adults belonging to the house church getting involved in outreach (evangelism) programmes and opportunities created by the house church. Evangelism allows emerging adults to live out their faith in practical ways by proclaiming the Good News to a lost and dying world (Knoetze 2017). This includes sharing their faith within their immediate circle of influence and by practically demonstrating this in the way that they live.

2. Evangelism in the house church involves reaching out to, and recruiting emerging adults. To effectively reach this group, the house church should use methods and strategies that are likely to capture their attention and interest. Advertising the location of the house church and making it easily accessible to those in the surrounding area are important steps in attracting emerging adults. This also requires clear communication about the purpose, beliefs, and practices of the house church, including its emphasis on intimate and relational connections, a return to biblical principles, and opportunities for involvement in various ministries and social causes.

 

Conclusion

This article presented the missional role that house churches can play in emerging adult ministry. Emerging adults tend to be less inclined to belong to any particular religious structure than other groups, which challenges the church to find alternative and creative ways to attract and retain this group. Emerging adults can greatly benefit from small faith communities such as house churches. However, these faith communities must proactively seek out those who are lost and nurture them towards godliness. The historical role of house churches in Christianity positioned them as centres for worship and fellowship, and they were instrumental in the propagation and growth of the Christian faith. The existence of the modern house church also has merit because they can provide environments for fellowship with God and other believers, and the opportunities for the spiritual and physical needs of one another to be met. Moreover, house churches provide the framework for believers to learn and exercise the doctrines of the church.

 

Acknowledgements

This article is partially based on R.M.P.'s dissertation entitled 'The New Testament concept of "house church" as a possible Agent for discipleship and faith formation amongst emerging adults in a globalised South Africa' towards the degree of Masters of Theology with Missiology at the North-West University in 2020, with supervisor Prof. Johannes Knoetze. Dissertation unpublished at time of article publication.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

Prof. J.J.K. was the supervisor of the PhD thesis that led to this article, and he also edited the article and made some contributions.

R.P. did all the research and wrote a PhD thesis on the topic, and the article is a fruit of the thesis.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Pretoria's Research committee and Research Ethics Committee (No. T094/21).

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors, and the publisher.

 

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Williams, R.H., Irby, C.A. & Warner, S., 2016, '"Church" in black and white: The organizational lives of young adults', Religions 79(0), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel7070090        [ Links ]

Wright, C.J.H., 2006, The mission of God: Unlocking the Bible's grand narrative, InterVarsity Press, Leicester.         [ Links ]

Wright, C.J.H., 2010, The mission of God's people: A biblical theology of the church's mission, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Zukin, C. & Szeltner, M., 2012, Talent report: What workers want in 2012, The State University of New Jersey: Net Impact, viewed 15 March 2018, from https://netimpact.org/sites/default/files/documents/what-workers-want-2012-summary.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Johannes Knoetze
johannes.knoetze@up.ac.za

Received: 17 May 2023
Accepted: 15 Oct. 2023
Published: 29 Feb. 2024

 

 

1 . It is beyond the scope of this article to assess AICs or cell group structures.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Dialectica reconciliae: Mazamisa's contribution to the historical development of New Testament Interpretation in South Africa

 

 

Mphumezi Hombana

Department of New Testament and Related Literature, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article attempts to position Prof Mazamisa's possible contribution to the historical development of New Testament interpretation in South Africa. This investigation is based mainly on his PhD dissertation project published in the Netherlands, Kampan University. This article attempts to navigate through New Testament interpretation in South Africa from the early 1970s until 1987, when Mazamisa attained his doctoral dissertation. This article argues that Mazamisa's approach to reading the New Testament text can be considered a possible bridge between the so-called 'white versus black hermeneutics', to bring reconciliation in this long-standing debate in South African hermeneutics. This could happen through what Mazamisa called 'Dialetica Reconcilea'.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article has intradisciplinary implications within the fields of New Testament studies and South African hermeneutics, while also opening up opportunities for interdisciplinary exploration at the intersections of theology, sociology, philosophy, education, cultural studies, and conflict resolution. It suggests that Mazamisa's approach may offer insights into resolving long-standing debates within South African hermeneutics.

Keywords: Dialectica Reconciliae; hermeneutics; historical development; New Testament in South Africa; Mazamisa; Bernard Lategan; Ferdinand Deist; Hennie Rossouw; Pieter de Villiers.

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Introduction

South Africa has for a long time been characterised by an antithetical reading of the biblical text(s). To put it bluntly, one is white and the other is black. At the height of their academic sophistication, one was immanent (structuralist) and the other was Marxist (materialistic). Now there is talk of African Biblical Hermeneutics (ABH), at variance with Biblical Hermeneutics, which could be Western Biblical Hermeneutics (WBH). In the light of this scholarly contention, perhaps it becomes necessary to contemplate the potential scholarly contribution that may have had transpired both interpreters (i.e. WBH & ABH) diligently taking into consideration Mazamisa's seminal work, first published in 1987. The nuanced examination of Mazamisa's contributions can profoundly shape and enrich the discourse within the academic domain, thereby augmenting the depth and comprehensiveness of their respective interpretations. The South African discourse on the interpretation of the biblical text can be over the idea of black and white; if not, at least the exchange would be more fruitful and meaningful. Botha (2015) comments that:

[D]uring the nineteen eighties numerous meaningful booklets were published by Christian groups on social analysis and against an apartheid society. Less known, but extremely powerful, four black Dutch Reformed theologians in South Africa (Doctors Govender, Mazamisa, Mofokeng and Ntoane) wrote similar sophisticated doctorate theses. (pp. 69-70)

These so-called 'extremely powerful, four black Dutch Reformed theologians' later became ministers of the so-called Uniting Reformed Church of South Africa 'URCSA'. The special interest of this article is to focus on the work of Prof. Lewellyn Welile Mazamisa, as the title of the article suggests.

This article aims to position Mazamisa's contribution to New Testament interpretation in South Africa. Sadly, his contribution has never been well received or known by his generation. In assessing his contribution to the development of the history of hermeneutics in South Africa, this article limits itself to the reading of Mazamisa's doctoral thesis, titled 'Beatific comradeship', published in Kampen in 1987. This reading will proceed alongside a few selected articles that have shown interest in the development of hermeneutics in South Africa.

 

A brief biography of Welile Mazamisa, the erupting other and the Comrade of God

Welile Mazamisa, is among early South African theologians who have demonstrated a thorough going-comprehension of German philosophical hermeneutics, and has applied it effectively in this struggle of the trajectories of theological interpretation in South Africa. He was born on the 10th of August 1942 in Korsten, Port Elizabeth (Gqeberha). Raised mostly by his grandparents, he grew up in Kimberly, where he matriculated from Green Point High School. Subsequently, he moved to Umtata, where he did his initial 7-year theological training at the De Coligny Theological Institution. On the 14th of January 1967, he was ordained into the ministry of the Dutch Reformed Church (DRC) in Africa, fulfilling his grandfather's wishes that he becomes a minister. His first ministry following his ordination was in Worcester, Zwelethemba, in the Western Cape, near Cape Town. Having ministered for 10 years in Worcester, he was awarded a scholarship to further his studies in the Netherlands in 1977.

In the Netherlands, he studied with a focus on the New Testament. He was mentored by the outstanding Dutch New Testament scholar and theologian Heinrich Baarlink, a successor to Herman Ridderbos. The University of Cape Town appointed him as a lecturer while he was still engaged in his studies in the Netherlands. On his return, he engaged in ministry in Langa (Township in Cape Town) in 1988, where he ministered to a congregation while lecturing at University of Cape Town (UCT). He retired from his position as UCT professor in 2009. At the time of his passing in 2015, he was still serving on the editorial board of the Scriptura, a South African journal for biblical, theological, and contextual hermeneutics¹.

Mazamisa's coming into the history of hermeneutics in South Africa occurs within the context of the already-mentioned clashing trajectories of theological interpretation. By this time, the lines had been clearly drawn between the trajectories. The imperial trajectory had been firmly situated at Stellenbosch University (1858), the home of apartheid theology, a theology that would later spread across South African theological faculties. Vosloo's (2017:127-138) critical examination of biblical interpretations used to justify apartheid policies during the 1940s from within reformed circles is noteworthy. Notably, theologians who were advocates of such views were J.D. du Toit (Totius) and E.P. Groenewald. Contrasting perspectives from theologians such as B.J. Marais and B.B. Keet, who opposed such justifications, were also from within the DRC. This historical fact created a theological and ideological tension within Reformed circles. The discourse also delves into the constructions of identity and otherness, shedding light on the complexities of theological justifications for apartheid during this period. It is in that article that Vosloo (2017) sounds an alarming warning:

Are we aware of our own ideological distortions as we appropriate the Bible for our seemingly good causes today? It remains important to grapple with these questions as we reflect on the uses and abuses of the Bible in public discourse today. (p. 138)

From 1963, the liberation trajectory found its own place of residence at the Federal Theological Seminary of Southern Africa. The evangelical trajectory was spread around evangelical colleges and seminaries throughout South Africa. As institutions of theological training were associated with respective churches, churches also were related to these trajectories. Furthermore, a number of other church denominations were further divided by these trajectories within themselves. Having thoroughly absorbed this tension, Mazamisa engages the tension through his dissertation in his post-Schleiermacheran hermeneutical insight.

 

Mazamisa: A brief historical survey of New Testament interpretation in South Africa

In an attempt to understand historical developments in academic New Testament hermeneutics in South Africa, leading up to and beyond the publication of the 'Beatific comradeship', it may be helpful to consider at least five academic articles that I consider landmarks in leading up to Mazamisa's project 1987. These articles were published in 1973, 1978, 1980, 1984, and 2005, respectively. Two of these articles, the first and the fourth, are by Bernard Lategan, one written in 1973 and the other in 1984. The second article is by Ferdinand Deist, written in 1978. The third one is by Hennie Rossouw, written in 1980, and the last one is by Pieter de Villiers, written in 2005. The common theme of these five articles is the development of hermeneutics and interpretation of the New Testament in South Africa.

Lategan 1973

Written in Afrikaans, Lategan's article is titled 'Vereistes vir 'n Effektiewe NT Hermeneutiek'. It has been published in Neotestamentica, the journal for the New Testament Society of Southern Africa. In the article, he says that 'theology, and biblical studies, are in a crisis of method, which is marked by an instability of methodology'. Although not defined in this fashion, this 'crisis in method' is the outworking of the conflict among the trajectories over apartheid theology, with a further nuance of an anti-apartheid variant within the same trajectory that is responsible for apartheid. There was within Stellenbosch a dissenting academic voice, at variance with the hermeneutical basis of apartheid theology. In this mounting tension, method had fallen to a crisis point, and the hermeneutical question could not be postponed. Illustrating something of this quagmire in theological interpretation is perhaps Allan Boesak's phenomenal work, Farewell to Innocence, an unprecedented study in South African theology, published in 1976, drawing the line between the trajectories by distinguishing the trajectory of the black theology of liberation.

Deist 1978

The article, originally written in Afrikaans, with the title Historiese Heuristiek, Teologiese Hermeneutiek en Skrifgesag, was written by Ferdinand Deist, and appears in 1978 in English, translated Heuristics, Hermeneutics and Authority in the Study of Scripture. In the opening sentence of this article, Deist echoes Lategan with even more emphasis on the emergency of the situation. He says 'It is only too evident that theology and especially biblical studies are at present having to contend with difficult hermeneutic questions'. Up to the early 1970s, it seemed that South African theology was under the spell of pre-Schleiermacheran hermeneutics, philological at its very best, lacking in philosophical reflection on the problem of interpretation characteristic of the post-Schleiermacheran hermeneutics. Scholars with growing insights into the German development of hermeneutics (from Schleiermacher to Gadamer and beyond) during this period, like Lategan and Deist, were frantically sounding emergency alarms within the complex superstructures of imperialist trajectory. Such was the situation: the rise to importance of the critical academic discipline of hermeneutics in South African theology emanated from moral and intellectual struggles of reluctant beneficiaries of apartheid theology, who never could concede to this theology with a good conscience. And, Stellenbosch was at the centre of these developments for better or for worse.

Rossouw 1980

Another Afrikaans article of importance is Hennie Rossouw's Wetenskap, Interpretasie, Wysheid (Science, Interpretation, Wisdom). At the time of the publication (1980), the urgency for hermeneutics had reached a boiling point: pre-Schleiermacheran was collapsing. Through the efforts of those who felt that hermeneutical question had become the obviously huge hippopotamus in the proverbial room of theology in South Africa, Scriptura was established in 1980 as a journal for hermeneutics; Bernard Lategan was its founding editor. More poignantly in retrospect, Scriptura styled a journal of biblical, theological, and contextual hermeneutics in South Africa. Again, this was a development within Stellenbosch University; however, not as an initiative of the Faculty of Theology, but rather that of the Department of Biblical Studies in the Faculty of Arts.

Demonstrating his hermeneutical concern, Rossouw published in Scriptura that same year an article titled Hoe Moet 'n Mens die Bybel Lees? Die Hermeneutiese Probleem. Still in that year, this article was published elsewhere with a philosophical reflection on the hermeneutical problem. Wetenskap, Interpretasie, Wysheid was the initial eclipse of the ensuing struggle of theological interpretation that continues to rage among the three trajectories of theological interpretation in South Africa. It is not easy to recall such an initial instance in South African academia, where post-Schleiermacheran hermeneutics is directly related to the hermeneutical tension. In this long-overdue philosophical appraisal of the hermeneutical problem in South Africa, Rossouw begins with Schleiermacher, goes through Dilthey, and stops with Heidegger. He deepens the problem of hermeneutics not only by shifting it to a philosophical problem but also by raising a warning flag with his emphasis on Heideggerian ontological hermeneutics, curbing exegetical enthusiasm and confidence in South African theological interpretation.

Lategan 1984

Lategan's Current Issues in the Hermeneutical Debate, was published in English in 1984. This article was also published later by Neotestamentica under the same title. That this one appears in English rather than in Afrikaans could suggest that hermeneutics as an academic subject had gained interest far beyond Stellenbosch University and its associations within South African academia. Somewhat supporting this assumption is an observation that it was in the 1980s that the word 'hermeneutics' surfaced with boldness in academic works by theologians from the black theology school of thought within the liberation trajectory. While Lategan in this article makes reference to Rossouw's Wetenskap, Interpretasie, Wysheid, Mazamisa repeatedly refers to Lategan's article in his dissertation, demonstrating a thorough comprehension of its observation of the state of the debate far beyond its limitations. In the article, Lategan acknowledges Rossouw's contribution of the philosophical appraisal of the hermeneutical debate in South Africa, which of course was already en vogue in the global west.

However, Lategan (1984:1-17) also observes how with the mediation of philosophical hermeneutics in this debate internationally, focus has gravitated from the author and the text to the reader. Without this serious consideration of philosophical hermeneutics, academic theological interpretation here in South Africa remained an immanent reading of the biblical texts. In line with philosophical hermeneutics, the reader was becoming the focus. While it was thought that these developments could ease the tension among the trajectories, such was not the case. Instead, immanent reading remains the stronghold of the imperialist trajectory, and readers' response became the armament of the black theology within the liberation trajectory. Often, these differences presented themselves in their extremes, with the imperial trajectory pulling towards objectivism and the liberation trajectory succumbing to subjectivism.

Mazamisa lived his entire life at the inhumane receiving end of apartheid theology. Acknowledging financial support from the Theologische Universiteit Kampen (ThUK) at the end of his studies for the benevolent scholarship that it afforded him to live and study in the Netherlands, he writes:

This institution has committed itself to side with the victims of oppression in South Africa, who have been beaten up and are lying on the side of the road, bleeding to death. Indeed, this is beatific comradeship. (Mazamisa 1987:7)

In South Africa, Mazamisa had lived through the practical day-to-day struggles of the conflicting trajectories of theological interpretation in South Africa. He received his initial theological training under the 1961 Theological Training Policy, which not only supported separate development of the races but also prescribed inferior education for black ministers, as well as a theology that was disagreeable to their own human experiences. He was ordained as a minister, and he ministered for approximately 10 years within the confines of a theology that was not his own, and that of his people.

From his student days as a trainee minister, Mazamisa had caught the wave of Stephen Bantu Biko's black consciousness, in those years, as Biko's contemporary. Following his ministerial studies, Mazamisa continued studying through University of South Africa (UNISA) leading up to his scholarship to study abroad. He was current and active within the developments of black theology throughout the 1970s. He witnessed the horror of 16 June 1976 and suffered the pain of the brutal murder of Biko in 1977. His opportunity to study in the Netherlands, afforded him the chance to engage in the struggle of theological interpretation in South Africa in his own right as a thoroughbred New Testament scholar and world-class theologian.

In the Netherlands in 1977, he arrived just as Farewell to Innocence was newly published, as Boesak had just completed his doctoral dissertation the previous year at the same institution in 1976. At the same institution, he worked closely with Daan Cloete, who would complete his dissertation, Hemelse Solidariteit, in 1980. Takatso Mofokeng, the systematic theologian, was there too, and in 1983 published his dissertation on Christology, The crucified among the crossbearers. Ntoane, who was also among them, published his work A cry for life: An interpretation of 'Calvinism' and Calvin in 1983. In his dissertation, Mazamisa also references Maimela, Mosala, Tlhagale and others, demonstrating his depth of black consciousness and black theology that undergirded his scholarly cloak. Not only was he an expert exegete and literary scholar, his fluency in philosophic hermeneutics was also demonstrably far ahead of that of his academic peers. To illustrate the point even more vividly, during the mid- to late 1980s, the battle of interpretation in South Africa was becoming more serious and robust from every side, to the point that it could be called 'white versus black hermeneutics'. For instance, this time another interesting volume by Allan Boesak came out in 1984, entitled 'Black and reformed: Apartheid, liberation and the Calvinist tradition'. This piece of work is one among the works that clearly illustrate the struggle of hermeneutics in South Africa. Even though this book does not directly address the hermeneutical questions, it does clearly prove what Lategan had observed and defined as the crisis. Two years later in 1986, Mosala published an article, 'Social scientific approaches to the Bible: One step forward, two steps backwards'. Within that very same context, another momentous volume came out in 1989, 2 years apart from Mazamisa's publication, again from the pen of Itumileng Mosala, entitled 'Biblical hermeneutics and black theology in South Africa'. In this volume, Mosala (1989) makes the bold assertion that:

[B]iblical appropriations and interpretations are always framed by the social and cultural locations and commitments of those who do them. For black theology the relevant base is in the historical, cultural and ideological struggles of black people. The category of 'struggle' at all levels and through various phases of black history should be taken as the key hermeneutical factor. (p. 6)

This illustrates clearly that what Lategan had observed early in the 1970s was correct, and that the issue demands serious attention.

Through his dissertation, 'beatific comradeship', Mazamisa steps into the hermeneutical debate, which Lategan suggests had been mainly characterised by two competing extremes. It was the structuralist objectivism of the imperialist trajectory on one hand, and the materialist subjectivism of the liberationist trajectory on the other.

Pieter de Villiers

In his article, entitled 'Methodology and hermeneutics in a challenging socio-political context: The first 25 years of the New Testament of South Africa (1965-1990)-Part Two', published in 2005 by Neotestamentica, Petier de Villiers surveys the history of the New Testament Society of South Africa's study endeavours over its first 25 years. It also examined the position and role of the Society's research in relation to a wider range of South African politics and global academic endeavours. It is in this study that de Villiers concludes that the first 25 years of the Society's history have unquestionably been marked by a consistent and unwavering opposition to such retrograde ideas. Its most redeeming contribution to the future of the discipline, local theology, and, for that matter, the future of South African society as a whole, may be its fundamental and important rejection of exclusivity and a closed mind, and its clear policy of promoting inclusiveness, openness, and critical thinking. We can only hope that as we continue on this difficult road into the future, the strength of past victories and the sadness of errors and omissions will serve as our inspiration and guides.

Sadly, the difficult road that has been encapsulated by past victories and mistakes has indeed proved to be real in today's New Testament scholarship. The reality of biblical hermeneutics has been a challenging one in South African landscape. The increasing, or rather widening, of the gap between black and white hermeneutics is a very concerning issue. The call to inclusiveness in society also implies inclusiveness in all endeavours of society, especially in this regard of interpretative approaches of the New Testament. The issue spotted by de Villiers is clearly demonstrated in the recent publication form faculty of New Testament at University of Pretoria during the celebration of the 100 years of existence of the institution. Janse van Resnsburg (2017:87-88) makes the very same call in what she calls 'embodied hermeneutics' as a fresh approach to African hermeneutics. In her endeavour to advocate this fresh approach, she critically pushes away other forms of interpretation from within the spectrum of ABH, which is cognisant of the negative effects of globalisation and multiculturalism. She claims that her supposed approach is theoretically built from UBUNTU philosophy and advances from Gabriel Marcel's idea of non-objectification and participation. She argues that her proposed hermeneutical tool emerges from what she identifies as a void in recent African research, further identifying this emptiness from African hermeneutical perspectives (e.g. black liberation, womanism, bosadi etc.). Her critic of these forms of African hermeneutics fail to participate in the global arena. This criticism sounds innocent but in actual fact it is very unfair and unfounded, largely because the author seems to confuse decolonisation with denationalisation, which are significantly different. African hermeneutics is another means to call for Eurocentric epistemologies not to remain the order of the day, as is Deist's call for abandonment of the Eurocentric station. This is by no means to suggest exclusion but rather to respond to the cry to take seriously the African epistemologies in our endeavour to interpret the biblical text, so as to inform the ways and forms of knowledge as we strive not to overlook the conditions of the African reader. This exemplifies exactly what de Villiers has warned us about. Again, should they consider the work of Mazamisa, perhaps the debate would be on another level, or rather have taken a different turn.

Mazamisa: Aim

Remarkably, on stating the aim of his dissertation, Mazamisa begins not with his title, but his subtitle. 'The aim of the present study is revealed by its subtitle: An exegetical-hermeneutical study on Lk. 10:25-37' (Mazamisa 1987:9). He goes on to imply that in this subtitle, the problem of his study is also disclosed, as he declares his title to be a 'narrowing of the focus of this problem' articulated by the subtitle. The problem he refers to here is the problem of considering a text both exegetically and hermeneutically within an academic context where the two perceptibly different approaches to the text are thought to be in competition, and even irreconcilable in some instances. This is the case to which Lategan refers in his own analysis of the debate in hermeneutics at that time. The structuralists were demanding exegesis, while the liberationists were placing more emphasis on reader-response approaches that were loosely clubbed, along with the rise of the centrality of hermeneutics over exegesis. More about this problem shall be unfolded below, under discussion of the research problem of this dissertation. For now, Mazamisa further suggests that also in the title 'Beatific comradeship' is something of the anticipation of the outcomes or hypothesis of the study (Mazamisa 1987:9). That shall be observed later under the discussion of his hypothesis or rather synthesis, and outcomes.

Mazamisa: Background and/or rationale

It is my grandparents who encouraged me to study theology. My grandfather once told me that theology has to play a role in the liberation of the people. He once preached on Lk 10:25-37. That sermon is still fresh in my memory. (Mazamisa 1987:8)

In these words, for Mazamisa, the subject matter of his dissertation is deep-seated and complex, the extent of which may not have been totally comprehensible to him, let alone to his readers. However, Michel Foucault, cited by Carrette (2011), brings such complexity into perspective when he says:

The key to a personal poetic attitude of a philosopher is not to be sought in his ideas, as if it could be deduced from them, but rather in his philosophy-as-life, in his philosophical life, his ethos. (pp. 89-90)

Whatever can be made of this observation in relation to Mazamisa's indebtedness to George John Mazamisa and Garenathata Emily Mazamisa-Molema, it speaks of some lifelong impression they have made on him, which now underscores his theology and constitutes background to his fundamental thought in this dissertation. There is a strong case to be made that this fundamental thought was UBUNTU, a value for which Mazamisa is best known to those who knew him in person.

Elsewhere within his work, Mazamisa (1987) says that:

The interpretation of a biblical text calls for a theological self-understanding of the reader. Theological self-understanding is not intended to operate as a methodological detour in order to subvert a text-oriented methodology, but it is a recognition of the fact that the biblical text has a theological agenda which has to be acknowledged. Instead, the dialectic theological self-understanding and scientific methodology must for once coinhere in the interpretation. (p. 81)

It is probably within the framework of this self-understanding that Mazamisa justifies his reading of Luke 10:25-37. In a rather ideologically charged description, he refers to other readers as theologians from the North, with him being a reader and theologian from the South. South is not merely a geographical location, but more an ideological presupposition that is significantly different from that of the so-called reader from the North. In his further explanation, the Northern reader readily identifies with the charitable Samaritan in the parable, when the Southern reader identifies with the wounded stranger, bleeding to death by the side of the road. This radical difference suggests Mazamisa's rationale: that this parable has yet to be critically read in the South, by a Southern reader who shares in the wounds of the wounded stranger in the text (1987:9).

Mazamisa: Theoretical framework

Mazamisa's literature review is decidedly brief and concise. In his own words, he says 'The intention of this sub-section is not to give a detailed historical account on the interpretation of Luke 10:25-37'. In his brevity, he nonetheless proves to be extensively informed of developments in the history of interpretation of parables in general, and of the parable of his study in particular. He acknowledges Adolf Jülicher (1910) and his tripartite classification of the parables in general. Jülicher divides parables into Gleichnis [similitudes], Parabel (parables), and Beispielerzählung [exemplary stories]. Where the parable under consideration can be regarded as an exemplary story, Mazamisa reserves his consent, and rather feels that such a classification would be inadequate. Thus, Luke 10:25-37 is not totally encompassed by Jülicher's classification.

From the more extensive histories of interpretation of this parable, by Werner Monselewski (1967) and Hans Gunther Klemm (1973), Mazamisa notices a wider and more resilient conception of this parable as allegory in scholarship of that time. Therefore, he gives it some consideration as a possible case in the classification of this parable. Here is what he says:

Our intention is to focus on two phenomena of perennial interest and vast dimensions in the general interpretation of parables, but in particular the parable of our study. They are allegorical and allegorical-Christological interpretations of Scripture.

In his process of this consideration of allegory, he contrasts Briger Gerhardsoson (1958), an exegete, and Karl Barth (1970), a systematic theologian, in their respective readings of this parable.

In the underlying juxtaposition of exegesis and hermeneutics of this overall study, the contrast between the two interpreters is to some extent indicative of this dichotomy. The one probably imagines itself more objective in its exegesis of the allegory than the other, and the other approaches the allegory with a deliberately subjective Christological hermeneutical interest. Mazamisa takes a step forward with this contrast, and takes two steps backwards and rather settles for this parable as a literary sociological text with a theological meaning.

Research problem

Notably, Mazamisa does not reject the diversity of conceptions and approaches to this parable within its Wirkungsgeschichte. He says that 'our stance is that all these interpretations must be taken seriously in their attempts to render for their particular audiences the meaning of the parable which lay before them' (1987:85). However, in his observation, the text is characterised by unmistakable presence of profanity, which he also refers to as 'skandalon', and neither of these exegetical and hermeneutical readings of the ideological North account for this seemingly deliberate and pervasive profanity within this parable. Profanity, therefore becomes the focus research problem of this study because of its conspicuousness that remains virtually unaccounted for by other interpretations.

He says that 'What is specific in this pericope, is the role played by profanity' (1987:85-86). The dramatis persona in the parable is Samaritan, which is profane to the Jew. However, the profane fulfils the sacred Law when he extends his έλεος [mercy] and proves himself to be a man of σπλαγχνίζειν [compassion] towards a Jew beaten up and left for dead, forsaken by his very own. On the literary level of meaning, therefore' says Mazamisa 'we are confronted with the problem of the role of profanity, without which it is possible to decipher the tropical level of meaning'. Then his research question is 'What is profanity in this context' (1987:86)?

At this juncture in Mazamisa's observation of the Wirkungsgeschichte of the parable, this question had not been addressed adequately, not even within the ensuing debate between those who emphasised exegesis and those who were more comfortable with hermeneutics. For Mazamisa, the inadequacy of both exegesis and hermeneutics (as they were seemingly conceived at that time in the South African debate) to sufficiently account for the obvious in the text was problematic, in that a third way was desperately necessary to move beyond this stalemate.

In understanding Mazamisa' methodology

This dissertation is divided into three parts, the lengthiest part being the first part. It is devoted to methodology, at a stretch of 84 pages in total. This is understandable because in this work Mazamisa addresses himself to the problematic theoretical battle between exegesis and hermeneutics in South Africa. Therefore, much of his attention is given to methodology, so that his eventual dealing with the text can exemplify something of the practical resolution to this theoretical tension.

 

Hans-Georg Gadamer

As it is Mazamisa's perspective that methodology is generally motivated by some philosophy or other, considering the philosophy behind his own methodology may be just as important in understanding him. Without a doubt, Mazamisa is Gadamerian. Not only is his demonstrated grasp of Gadamer arguably unrivalled at that time in South Africa, but he is also rather too comfortable with Gadamer, to the point of challenging other scholar's reading of him. He is at home in Gadamer and the spirit of Gadamer's philosophy permeates his dissertation.

If it be granted that learning is in some respects an analogical exercise on the part of the learner, it seems that Mazamisa has some analogical advantage in his grasp of Gadamer, probably more readily than some other readers. In arguing for this advantage, one could consider Gadamer's Bildung² ([1960] 1989). It could be said to be analogous to Mazamisa's conception of UBUNTU. In much of Mazamisa's oral discourses on UBUNTU, one cannot easily tell where UBUNTU begins and where Bildung ends. Gadamer's Bildung is self-consciousness of one's own limitation in relation to the other, whereby one feels the responsibility to step into the shoes of the other and to see the world from that perspective of the other. Mazamisa characteristically conceptualised UBUNTU as the other person being the other side of self, emphasising self's responsibility to conceive self as the other, under different circumstances.

Among some of his illustrations of this Buntucal self-understanding, he would say of the beggar by the side of the road at the traffic lights that people are often quick to drop a coin on the hand of the man or woman begging by the side of the road. He maintained that this is probably a mistake, as it usually delays the holistic redress of the predicament facing the person by the side of the road. His suggestion was that, rather than merely dropping a coin in the beggar's hand, each one of us should in our reflection step into the destitute beggar's shoes and allow ourselves in our thoughts to be the other, mindful of the other as the other side of self. In that manner, he believed a more sustainable solution to the problem would emerge.

That is typical of Mazamisa's UBUNTU, but that could just as well be Gadamer's Bildung. UBUNTU is the profound and everlasting virtue that Mazamisa learned from his grandparents. That same idea stood out to him when, many years back, his grandfather preached from Luke 10:25-37 and that value he carried with him throughout his theoretical development. And in his wrestling with Gadamer, he discovered a concept more readily analogical to UBUNTU, thereby falling at Gadamer's feet and rising to master his philosophy more easily. True to its sense of self-consciousness, Gadamer's Bildung is affected dialogically, in a dialectic, and Mazamisa's approach is similar to this discussion. He is not for debate, but for progressive dialogical discussion, where all parties win with the progression of the discussion.

 

Literary sociological text with a theological meaning

In order to balance his own philosophy and theology with his methodology, Mazamisa settles for a text that is literal, sociological, and theological. Before he does, he affirms the locus of the meaning of the text to be the text itself without neglecting its production and reception in the process of uncovering its meaning. It is a necessary step in the interpretation process to determine and define the nature of the text under consideration for a better understanding of the text. That his text is literal implies at least four elements about it: (1) It is grammatical, in that it pertains language. (2) It is logical, because in order for words to have meaning, they have to follow a deliberate sequence. (3) It is rhetorical, as its intention is one way or the other to persuade the reader. (4) It is aesthetical, in that as a complete text with the preceding elements, it is coherent in its efficient integration of its grammar, logic and rhetoric. While there is seemingly a disagreement between Jauss and Boucher on whether the aesthetical element is internal or external to the text, the first three elements are adequate in their obviously external nature to suggest that the text is also sociological, in addition to being literal. The rhetorical element within this sociological nature of the text further suggests that this text is also theological. Therefore, reading of this text must account for the literal, the sociological, and the theological aspects of the text. This collective nature of the text, requires scientific methodology to decipher. Hence, Mazamisa argues (1987:162) that 'the task of the theologian is to employ scientific tools in the dynamic and ever-changing process of biblical interpretation in the ever-changing everyday reality'.

 

Dialectica reconciliae

According to Mazamisa (1987), a dialectica reconciliae (dialectic of reconciliation) is a combination of exegesis and hermeneutics, which is characterised by the progression of the hermeneutical circle or the completion of the spiral movement. This movement therefore:

[I]s the incessant pendular motion from the whole to its parts and from the parts to the whole which, if consistently executed, can prevent one-sidedness and cure us from becoming fixated upon one particular view the way. (pp. 156-157)

Exegesis without hermeneutics, or vice versa, leads to alienating one-sidedness. While the materialistic literary theory approaches literature from the primacy of production, it is nonetheless reader-oriented, because of the fact that the productive function of reception is constitutive of Marx's dialectic of production-consumption. Jauss (1984:153), as cited by Mazamisa, is spot on when he argues that the social constitutive function of this approach is identical to the productivity of the reader. Moreover, this approach enquires into the identity of the original as well as the modern reader: their type of society, class affiliation, and their interests.

 

Synthesis and final remarks

Mazamisa's 'bantufic' reading of the parable of the good Samaritan lends two main conclusions. Firstly, the Samaritan is the irrupting 'Other' and the comrade of God. He argues that although God is invisible, he is nonetheless personal, and his presence in history is actualised by human presence. No covenantal relationship with him takes place outside human relationship. No single human except his only begotten Son reveals him; neither the Samaritan nor the priest nor the Levite is a privileged locus of God's revelation because God is incarnate in human form. The incarnation of human in human is epiphanized in interhuman comradeship: a comradeship that is an irreducible structure upon which love of the neighbour is anchored. The Samaritan becomes the comrade of the man who lies on the side of the road. On the one hand, the wounded man is the recipient of mercy; on the other hand, he gives mercy to the Samaritan, for he is the bearer of God's eternal mercy. The question then is this: how does God relate to human beings? By becoming flesh, he participates in the human existence and essence, as well as the historicity we have. Boesak (1977:21) emphatically claims, 'he is truly God who sides with the weak and needy and who liberates the oppressed. Who cannot do that is not God'. Secondly, Mazamisa concludes that Jesus is the parable of God par excellence and the comrade of humanity. The word 'parable' should appropriately be regarded as dialectical because of the fact that Jesus is the parable within the parable, while he simultaneously transcends it and does not allow himself to be detained by its language-event. It is he who dynamizes and actualises it; otherwise, as literary genre, it would have been lost in the mists of antiquity, through which, mingled as it were with the dust of the Palestinian desert, we could dimly perceive its relevancy. Jesus in a sense is the parable in a way no human parable can be, he tells the parable in a way no human person can tell it. He is a parabolic revealer par excellence.

 

Conclusion

The intention of this article is to bring to the conversation the works of Mazamisa as another piece of work to be considered in the South African landscape. This dialectica reconciliae approach in essence seeks to foster a conversation among various approaches to the interpretation of the text, with a view to reconcile the differences, for a more holistic understanding of the biblical text. If the likes of Nelson Mandela, Bishop Tutu among others, are known or perceived as the fathers of reconciliation in South African politics, then Professor Welile Mazamisa should be counted too as such in the course of New Testament interpretation. He is one among the few who have attempted to contribute to the whole hermeneutical discourse in South African landscape to bridge the gap between white and black hermeneutics. This is how I position him: to me, his work is such a remarkable contribution, which I think remains relevant to this day. When most black theologians of his day were focussed more on the context-oriented reading of the hermeneutical premise, while most white South African biblical scholars focused more on an imminent, structuralist reading of the biblical text, Mazamisa came with the philosophical hermeneutical approach - the dialectica reconciliae. He never claimed that this method originated with him, but he learned and adopted it as the tool to unlock the New Testament as it is clearly exemplified in his book published in 1987.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

M.H. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the University of Pretoria.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

References

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Boesak, A.A., 1977, Farewell to innocence. A social-ethical study of Black theology and black power, Wipf and Stock Publishers, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Boesak, A.A., 1984, Black and reformed: Apartheid, liberation and the Calvinist tradition, Skotaville Publishers, Johannesburg.         [ Links ]

Botha, N., 2015, 'An encounter between black theology and reformed theology: The involvement of Govender, Mazamisa, Mofokeng and Ntoane', Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 41(2), 69-81. https://doi.org/10.17159/2412-4265/2015/347        [ Links ]

Carrette, J., 2011, 'Thinking Differently: Foucault and the Philosophy of Religion', in E.T. Young (ed.), Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, Vol. 4, pp. 89-90, Springer Science and Business Media, Dordrecht.         [ Links ]

Conradie, E.M., 2020, 'A journal for biblical, theological and / or contextual hermeneutics?', Scriptura 119(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.7833/119-3-1692        [ Links ]

Deist, F.E., 1978, Heuristics, hermeneutics and authority in the study of scripture, UPE, Port Elizabeth.         [ Links ]

De Villiers, P., 2005, 'Methodology and hermeneutics in a challenging socio-political context: The first twenty five years of the New Testament Society of South Africa (1965-1990)-Part Two', Neotestamentica 39(2), 229-253.         [ Links ]

Gadamer, H.-G., [1960] 1989, Truth and method, 2nd rev. edn., transl. J. Weinsheimer & D.G. Marshall. London: Sheed & Ward. German original Wahrheit und Methode first published 1960.         [ Links ]

Gerhardsoson, B., 1958, The good Samaritan the Good Shepherd?, Egmont Publishing, Kopenhagen.         [ Links ]

Humboldt, W.V., 1793/1794/2000, '―Theory of Bildung‖ (―Theorie der Bildung des Menschens)', in A. Flitner & K. Giel (eds.), Wilhelm von Humboldt. Werke in fünf Bänden, Bd. I, pp. 234-240, WBG. Westbury et al. 2000: 57-61, Wissenschaftliche Buch-gesellschaft, Darmstadt.         [ Links ]

Jauss, H.R., 1984, Asthetische Erfahrung und literarische Hermeneutik, viewed 25 October 2023, from https://www.degruyter.com/journal/key/arbi/.         [ Links ]

Janse van Resnsburg, H., 2017, 'Celebratory nostolgia: Reflecting on the work and impact of the New Testament studies at the university of Pretoria', in D. Human (ed.), Theology at the University of Pretoria - 100 years (1917-2017). Past, Present and future. Verbum et Eccleasia, pp. 87-92, AOSIS, Durbanville.         [ Links ]

Jülicher, A., 1910, 'Die Gleichnisreden Jesu. Auslegung der Gleichnisreden der drei erste Evangelien', Die Gleichnisreden Jesu, Teil 2, n.p. Tübingen, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt.         [ Links ]

Klemm, H.G., 1973, Das Gleichnis vom Barmherzigen Samariter, Berlin Köln Mainz, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart.         [ Links ]

Lategan, B.C., 1973, 'Vereistes vir effektiewe Nuwe-Testamentiese hermeneutiek', Nederduits-Gereformeerde Teologiese Tydskrif 14, 150-160.         [ Links ]

Lategan, B.C., 1984, 'Current issues in the hermeneutical debate', Neotestamentica 18, 1-17.         [ Links ]

Mazamisa, L.W., 1987, Beatific Comradeship: An exegetical-hermeneutical study of Luke 10:25-37, Kok, Kampen.         [ Links ]

Mosala, I.J., 1986, 'Social scientific approaches to the Bible: One step forward, two steps backwards', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 55, 15-30.         [ Links ]

Mosala, I.J., 1989, 'Biblical hermeneutics and black theology in South Africa', William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Monselewski, 1967, 'Der barmherzige Samariter', Eine auslegungsgeschichtliche Untersuchung zu Lukas 10, pp. 25-37, Buch antiquarisch kaufen, Mohor Sebiek, Tubingen.         [ Links ]

Rossouw, H.W., 1980, Wetenskap, interpretasie, wysheid, Universiteit van Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth.         [ Links ]

Vosloo, R., 2017, 'On reading scripture: The Dutch Reformed Church and the biblical justification of apartheid', in Reforming memory: Essays on South African church and theological history, pp. 127-138, African Sun Media, SUN Press, viewed 30 November 2023, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1nzfxdf.2.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Mphumezi Hombana
m.hombana@up.ac.za

Received: 20 Sept. 2023
Accepted: 15 Dec. 2023
Published: 06 Mar. 2024

 

 

1 . Conradie (2020:1-10) recently published an article that digs into Scriptura longstanding focus on 'Biblical, Theological, and Hermeneutics' themes spanning four decades. It explores methodological tensions among these aspects, raising the question of whether the conjunction 'and' could be interpreted as 'or'. While not suggesting a resolution, the discussion commends Scriptura for providing a platform to further investigate these tensions within the South African context as well as questions related to hermeneutics in South Africa.
2 . See also, in Humboldt's fragment titled 'Theory of Bildung' from either 1793 or 1794, the central concept is elucidated in various ways, with unclear internal relations among them (Humboldt 1793/1794/2000). Humboldt appears to equate 'Bildung, wisdom, and virtue'.

^rND^sBarth^nK.^rND^sBotha^nN.^rND^sCarrette^nJ^rND^sConradie^nE.M.^rND^sDe Villiers^nP.^rND^sHumboldt^nW.V.^rND^sJanse van Resnsburg^nH.^rND^sLategan^nB.C.^rND^sLategan^nB.C.^rND^sMosala^nI.J.^rND^sVosloo^nR.^rND^1A01 A02^nBalázs D.^sMagyar^rND^1A01 A02^nBalázs D.^sMagyar^rND^1A01 A02^nBalázs D^sMagyar

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Reformation of marital laws in Hungary: Early reception of Luther, Calvin and Beza before and until 1667

 

 

Balázs D. Magyar^{I, II}

^IDepartment of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Social Ethics and Church Sociology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, Debrecen Reformed Theological University, Debrecen, Hungary

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The main achievements of the huge research on the history of the Hungarian Protestantism show that at the beginning of the Protestantism the local reformers and preachers were interpreting Luther's ideas, but from the 1550s Calvin's doctrines became decisive. The reception of the great reformers' ideas was far from being evident in the practice. It means pastors and preachers in Hungary did not cite directly from the written heritage of Luther (Pelikan & Helmut 1955-1986), Calvin (Calvin 1863-1900) or Beza. They used to use the Bible itself. Nevertheless, many new and unknown problems raised, which deserved prompt and clear theological and moral advice. Most of the challenges were related to the burning, everyday questions of sexual sins and of family life. Therefore, it is not surprising that contemporary preachers were trying to commit everything to renew the public morality of people. The article intends to illuminate the evolution of the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary after the temporary 'collapse' of the Roman Catholic Church and its canon law in the 1550s. At the same time, it is raising the question, how did the 'great reformers' influence the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article is based on the field of systematic theology. The study intends to understand the development of Hungarian Reformed regulations of marriage in the 16th and 17th century from theological, judicial and historical perspectives.

Keywords: marriage; adultery; Hungarian Protestantism; Calvin; Beza; Melius; Tarpai.

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Introduction

On the basis of the well-known Calvin Handbook dedicated to the jubilee of the Genevan reformer's birth (2009), it is apparent that he paid strong theological and ethical attention to the evaluation of the general topics of marriage, family life and sexuality (Witte 2010, 455-465). He devoted himself to building up the New Jerusalem in Geneva (Kingdon 1990:158-172, 1995, 1996:21-34; Lambert 1998; Magyar 2014:375−386, 2022a:109-142; Manetsch 2006:274-314, 2010:283-307, 2017:103-117; Monter 1976:467-484; Naphy 2003; Watt 1993:429-439, 1996:63-86, 2002:439-456, 2020:111-114; Witte 2013:245−280). Nevertheless, the footsteps of the strong reception of Calvinism in Central-East Europe with special attention to Hungary remained almost unfolded (cf. Antalóczy 2001; Erdélyi 2012:31-60, 2015, 2017:183-208, 2020:595-623, 2022:41-58).

During the 16th century, in the midst of the rapid political and economic changes, the inner spiritual content and the social dimension of marriage and family life raised several questions. The article intends to illuminate the evolution of the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary after the temporary 'collapse' of the Roman Catholic Church and its canon law in the 1550s. Without any doubt, the main contributions of Hungarian pastors shaping a new marriage law system were enthroned by the elaboration of the first Reformed monography on marriage and divorce entitled Libellus repudii et divortii Christiani (Tarpai 1667). The monograph was authored by Andrew Szilágyi Tarpai who made a name for himself because of his international studies and experiences in Utrecht (1649) and Leiden (1651). Furthermore, the present article opens a wide window of a possible linage of Hungarian and international study of the Reformation raising the question, how did the Swiss reformers (i.e. Calvin and Beza) influence the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary?

 

Models of the 'great reformers' to follow?

As a fruitful consequence of the trading contacts and of the peregrination of students, the ideas of Luther and Calvin have received widespread reception in Hungary since 1550 (cf. Révész et al. 1927; Baráth & Szabadi 2009; Bucsay 1978; Hörcsik 1990; Magyar 2016; Rácz 1997, Ulrich 2022). Unfortunately, the practical realisation of their thoughts concerning the theological and judicial backgrounds of Christian marriage was certainly not suitable for entire adaption (Sípos 2012:127-158), because of the different Hungarian context. Because of the fact that the Protestantism has been taken up by German nobles, who were the true supporters of the reformation, marriage cases became 'Worldly things' (cf. Serm. Mt 18,9, LW 67:390) in the eyes of Luther regulated by the civil magistrates. In linear terms, he insisted that 'marriage is a civil affair. In all its outward circumstances it has nothing to do with the church, except insofar as there may be a case of conscience' (Table Talk 4068, LW 54:315 -cf. LW 67:390, LW 54:305, 4068, LW 54:315, 4716, LW 54:363). His exegetical and theological arguments confirmed his consideration, because on the basis of the Holy Scriptures, Luther denied the sacramental character of the marriage (Luther: De captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae, WA 6:550). According to him, the Church has to imitate Christ, who during His entire lifetime was not functioning as a lawyer or a governor to prescribe any regulations for judicial cases, because He was a preacher instructing the conscience (Comm. Mt 5,31-32, LW 21:93, cf. Table Talk 414, LW 54:65-67). At the same time, Luther admonished magistrates that their marriage rules ought to be a mirror of God's Law, thus their enactment cannot miss the Christian content (cf. Comm. 1 Cor 7,10-11, LW 28:31).

Another possibility arose when John Calvin's thoughts reached the country. According to the valuable bibliographies on Calvin, he can be depicted as a learned, qualified jurist of the Genevan Republic, who took pains to draft the Constitution of the City-State of Geneva in 1543 (Kingdon 1988:225-253; Magyar 2019:209-220). On the basis of his last testimony to the syndics and to the magistrates of the Republic, the reformer considered himself a first-line jurist of Geneva. This kind of self-confession was far from being wrong, since after his return from Strasburg in 1541, one of the first actions of Calvin was to re-establish the church discipline in Geneva. Doing this 'holy project', he created the Consistory, which was a so-called 'joint committee' of the local pastors and magistrates. Its task was to oversee and to improve the life of the people in religious-spiritual matters. It is beyond dispute that most part of the cases before the Consistory and city councils were related to sexuality and marital and family life. This is why the Small Council asked Calvin in October 1545 to prepare a draft of a possible marriage ordinance (Witte-Kingdon 2005:40-41. f. 29). However, he met the magistrates' engagements and made several minor changes to it in 1546. The ordinance was circulating as an 'oral law' among ministers of the City-State until the official approval of Ordonnances Ecclésiastiques of 1561 (Péter 2012 80-135). Its main part finally gave effect to Calvin's draft about marriage, which introduced new regulations on permission, promise, banns, consanguinity, affinity, annulment, and divorce (transl. Witte-Kingdon 2005:51-61). The reformer's work makes clear, he viewed the topic of the marriage not only as a 'wordly thing', but a judicial 'mixture', which meant a kind of 'cooperation' of the two kingdoms, so of the pastors and the magistrates. Unfortunately, this pure Genevan-Calvinist model was too idyllic to adapt in general, because in Hungary the nobility and the king were considerably hostile to the new belief. Only a handful towns (Debrecen, Hajdúböszörmény, Sárospatak) and lords (István Bocskai, Gábor Bethlen) showed sympathy for Protestantism on the eastern borders of the Turkish subjection and in the Principality of Erdély. Among these circumstances, only an 'independent' Reformed law system could give solution to the everyday practice.

 

No, but towards an 'independent' law system of marriage

Though the members of the early Protestant synods in Óvár (1554) and Erdőd (1555) were discussing the main questions of marital impediments, banns and divorce, still the compilation of a detailed marriage ordinance was not possible yet, because the Lutheran and the Calvinist wing of the Protestantism were living together. At the same time, it is beyond dispute that the creation and the operation of the 'partial' and 'general' church synods were successful. Therefore, the inspection of the validity of marriages, the publication of the temporary separation of the parties (mensa et thoro), and the declaration of the divorce got into the jurisdictional territory of Protestant churches (Magyar 2021:179-210). Finally, the adoption of Confessio catholica (Debrecen-Egervölgy Confession: Melius 1562) under the leadership of Peter Méliusz (Melius) Juhász (1532−1572), an influential bishop of the Reformed Church in Debrecen made the Reformed wing wholly separated. Its chapter on marriage contains allusions of the decrees of Boniface, Gratian, Gregory and of the works of Hieronymus, Justinian, Lombard and Augustin. However, as we have seen, this early confession did not have a direct reference to John Calvin's legacy; still some of his ideas reflect from the text. First of all, it stands out that marital cases are not only 'wordly things', but a judicial 'mixture' under the strong influence of the congregations and the pastors (Kiss 1881:170). The confession stresses that the main goals of the marriage are: (1) mutual favour, (2) procreation and (3) an aid to avoid fornication and adultery (Kiss 1881:168-169). It shows, like Luther and Calvin, Peter Melius accepted wholeheartedly only two elements of the system of bonum triplex elaborated by Saint Augustine. Certainly, he underlined the bonum prolis as an intention to have offspring and the bonum fidei as a pledge of the carnal-spiritual faith. Nevertheless, the third pillar of Augustine's theory, namely the bonum sacramenti was left out of the interest of Luther (Magyar 2018:84). Regarding the required (minimum) age of the partners, however, the confession shows relevant differences from Luther and Calvin. Luther, a reformer with rural background insisted, the legal age is 15 years for a son and 20 for a daughter (The Estate of Marriage, LW 45:37), while Calvin declared that sons with 20 years and daughters with 18 years (later on Calvin changed them to 24 and 20: Kingdon-Witte 2005:53) have to have the power to contract a marriage without the permission of their father. Because of the fact that Hungary used to be a country with strong agricultural influence, the Confessio catholica encouraged its readers to establish a family. Therefore, daughters - being capable for marriage - could contract partnership above 13, sons 18 years (Kiss 1881:172). Besides the disputation of the legal age of the partners, the confession gives an account of the impediments in general. On the basis of the canon law, Calvin listed five impediments to engagement, namely: (1) infancy, (2) precontract, (3) incest, (4) contagious disease and (5) desertion by either party. The Marriage Ordinance (1546), moreover, named the following impediments to either engagement or marriage: (6) discovery of the lack of presumed virginity, (7) lack of consent by either party, (8) lack of parental consent to a party under the legal age (roman law: minor), (9) fornication with another by either party and (10) failure of a condition that went to the essence of marriage (cf. Witte-Kingdon 2005:43). Regarding impediments, on the basis of the 'Holy Scripture, the example of the saints, and the regulations of the emperors, and of the popes' the Confessio catholica gave emphasis to the requirements of the parental consent and of the consent by either party (Kiss 1881:168). Another main contribution was the editor's attempt to create a list of causes for divorce. At this point, Melius could have cited Luther's understandings, who found possible to suit for divorce in the case of: (1) desertion, (2) adultery, (3) unsuitable for marriage, (4) either party does not fulfil their matrimonial (i.e., sexual) duty and (5) application of an irreconcilable controversy (The Estate of Marriage, LW 45:30-35). Calvin did not go far afield, he accepted the acts of the: (1) desertion and (2) of the adultery. Although the Confessio accepted the means of: (1) desertion and (2) of the adultery, still it opened new ways for divorce naming the possibility of (3) hidden fact of consanguinity, (4) the impotence, (5) when either party becomes separated by religion ('religion gap'), (6) homicide act against their spouse, (7) secret marriage and (8) marriage lacking parental (or either party's) consent (cf. Kiss 1881:171).

In the following year, when bishop Melius published The Book of Ceremonial Remonstrance (Szertartási intelmek: Melius 1563), he decided to unfold not only the judicial but also the theological backgrounds of marriage. Unfortunately, he did not have reference to the written heritage of the reformers, Melius cited only one time the 'legacy of Ignatius, and of the doctors of the Church' (Fekete 2020:233). As an important regulation, Melius emphasised again the importance of the parental consent, the free will of the spouses and of the public swearing before accurate witnesses (Fekete 2020:235). Besides this, he devoted long sections to the dangerous consequences of the huge dissension in age (Fekete 2020:231). However, the volume did not specify what the 'huge difference' means, still it prescribes minimum 13 or 14 years for daughters. Unfortunately, Melius did not make remarks for sons. Nevertheless, the most noteworthy statement in the document is the following: 'everybody makes a mistake, who bids the marriage to priest, church, altar, and date' (Fekete 2020:229). Therefore, Melius believed the marriage could be contracted, for instance before a layman, the church only provides its adequate legal regulations, the act of the banns or ensures the ideal place for the nuptial ceremony. All the same, mostly, marriages were celebrated before a Reformed pastor and become effective after the copulation of it. Without any doubt, the central part of the passage represents a wonderful theological contribution to the topic of marriage and family life. According to the text, the first purpose of the marriage is the mutual support of the spouse (Fekete 2020:235), when the husband looks like a wise adviser for his wife, helping her with his minds and cherishing her with his hands in the times of troubles (Fekete 2020:234). Wives are well advised to serve their men without grumbling and keep the house and the livestock in good order (Fekete 2020:234). The act of the procreation was illuminated as a second marital goal, namely to pursue family life not only for avoiding fornication and not for becoming wealthy, but for the enlargement of the Kingdom of God (Fekete 2020:235). The third benefit of the marriage shines as a good remedy against fornication and the last one to testify how deep the secret bond between Christ and the spouses is (Fekete 2020:236-37).

Later on, when the members of the first Reformed Synod gathered in Debrecen, Melius framed his celebrated book, entitled Articuli Maiores (Major Articles 1567) reminding his readers of the importance of the lack of parental consent and of lack of consent by either party. Moreover, the articles emphasised the compulsory character of vows at weddings followed by the usage of rings and the mutual attachment of the right hands (Kiss 1881:576). After that, the regulation makes clear, it is prohibited for adulterers and deserters to remarry; therefore pastors have to obliterate this kind of scandalous partnerships from the Reformed church avoiding the pollution of the body of Christ (Kiss 1881:577). However, the early Protestant synods established the operation of the 'partial' and 'general' church gatherings in order to oversee marriage cases (e.g., validation, separation, vows, divorce), still all of the cited Reformed materials - like Luther and Calvin previously - kept aloof themselves from restraining the right of the 'civil magistrates' to punish public fornicators and adulterers. For instance, The Book of Ceremonial Remonstrance stressed (Fekete 2020):

Adultery tears the covenant of marriage between husband, wife and God to shred, therefore it is lawful for a Lord or Prince to kill every adulterer. Fornicators should be killed indeed, so do not punish them with rod or fine. (p. 240)

In 1617, only one year before the famous synod at Dortrectht, Stephan Pathai released the first Hungarian Reformed Book of Ceremonies. In this book he discussed the forms of baptism, and the Lord's last supper together with the questions of marriage and excommunication. Regarding the form of the nuptial ceremony, Pathai acknowledged that the unwritten 'oral law' differs in every city and town, still he admitted, the exchange of rings and other habits are marginal things, the main intention of the union rests in the honourable attitude of the partners (Fekete 2020:39). As he thought, the order of the marriage was established by God; therefore it is a 'chaste, honorable, and praiseworthy thing' among the believers. However, Pathai did not cite exactly the works and the authority of the 'great reformers', still it is striking, like Luther and Calvin, he accepted that the main purposes of this peculiar partnership aim: (1) the reproduction, (2) the mutual support and (3) the prevention of fornication (Fekete 2020:41-43). It is an expansive fact that Pathai devoted the most detailed section for the distressing issues of fornication (Fekete 2020:41). Finally, at the end of the chapter, he pointed out, how important it is to praise God for his Mercy bestowing a honourable-faithful spouse, well offspring and strength in mutual care (Fekete 2020:43).

After the sorrowful waves of the 30 Years' War, in 1649 Stephen Geleji Katona published his collection of Hungarian and Transylvanian church laws under the title of Ecclesiastical Canons. Its paragraphs 66-74 give a full overview of marital regulations. Firstly, the document clarifies how important the act of the banns is. Unlike Calvin, who ordered wedding would be proclaimed three times, the Ecclesiastical Canons required only one proclamation before the nuptials. Accurate witnesses or proper records are obligatory in the case of the marriage of newcomers and of previously confined persons (Geleji 1875:33-34, 66). Seemingly, the text is not intended to follow the judicial liberty introduced by Melius (cf. Melius 1563:229), because the articles figure Calvin's thoughts, namely, the wedding ceremony has to take place in the church with pastoral assistance. Mutual promise and the custom of shaking the hands are also an inevitable attachment (Geleji 1875:34-35, 67). Regarding the proper date of the ceremony however, the document shows a fundamental departure from Calvin's legacy. According to Geleji, it is generally forbidden to take nuptial promise on Saturday and Sunday (Geleji 1875:34-35, 67), while the Genevan reformer rebuked vehemently those ceremonies that were organised on Sundays, when the Lord Supper was celebrated (Péter 2012:105-106.). The Canons, after the discussion on affinity (Geleji 1875:35-68), point out what the legal age is for spouses, namely: 18 years for a son and 14 for a daughter (Geleji 1875:36-69), which stands closer to Luther, then to Calvin. It goes without saying, that the Canon, because of the substantial goals of the marriage (i.e. prolification), forbids the huge dissension in age (Geleji 1875:36-70). In the 71-73 parts, the Canons was taking up the fundamental topic of divorce (Geleji 1875:36-38). Unequivocally Geleji does not stand into the line with Luther or Calvin, since he accepted only two causes for divorce, namely: adultery and desertion. It reminds clearly to the Genevan rules. Although, The Canons make clear that capital sentence would be the proper punishment for adultery, as Calvin believed (Magyar 2022a, 2022b), still Geleji kept himself aloof from publishing regulations mandatory for every city and region. He knew well, the judgement of the question was far from being unified in Hungarian territories. At the same time, Geleji, like Luther and Calvin insisted not to derogate the rights of the civil government to judge and punish sexual crimes. Marriage promises, says article 74, can be dissolved on of solid grounds, namely serious disaffection (Kiss 1875:39), while the Genevan reformer did forbid it (cf. Witte-Kingdon 2005:53-55).

As a conclusion of the detailed overview of the early Hungarian Reformed confessions and articles concerning the topic of marriage, it is worthy to say, all these documents did not cite directly the written heritage of Luther, Calvin or Beza; but their content displays countless similarities related to the fundamental 'three goals' of marriage, the questions of divorce, age or annulment.

 

'Breakthrough': The first Hungarian Reformed monography on marriage and its backgrounds

Just few years after the publication of Ecclesiastical Canons, in 1667, the reformed pastor, Andrew Szilágyi Tarpai released his high-esteemed monography on marriage, entitled: Libellus repudii et divortii Christiani: azaz, az igaz keresztyének között, a' megmátkásodott és házasságban lévö személyeknek egy mástol valo törvényes és helyes elválásoknak igaz tudománya és az egyházi tanitoknak a' szerént való praxisok. The work was dedicated to Paul Ubrési, who serviced as a vice-county government commissioner in Ungvár county. It is not surprising, Ubrési was a supporter of the local reformation, committing everything to create equal circumstances for Catholics and Protestants. However, the volume had already had a second, facsimile edition (Tarpai 2012); the original copy counted 80 pages enriched with illustrative graphs.

In order to discover the early Hungarian reception of the 'great reformers', it is useful to compile a possible list of sources traceable in the volume. To start with the principle of in medias res, Tarpai refers three times to Calvin (Tarpai 2012:94, 106, 146) and eight times to Beza (Tarpai 2012:81, 89, 97, 106, 108, 137, 145x2). At all times, Tarpai cites not the Institutes, but the biblical commentaries from the Genevan reformer. In the case of Beza, he wielded successfully the work, entitled: Tractatio de repudiis et divortiis: in qua pleraeque de causis matrimonialibus (quas vocant) incidentes controversiae ex verbo Dei deciduntur (1569). There is no need for a great conception to catch the similarities between the title of Beza's and Tarpai's volume. Interesting to note, however, that Beza's volume contains only one reference to Calvin (Beza 1569:53), while he cited, for instance, 115 times the Bible and 45 times the church fathers (Augustine: 39, Cyprian: 4, Tertullian: 2) parallel with the registers of the Roman Catholics church synods (Lateran: 14, Trident: 3). At the same time, Tarpai adapted Beza's illustrative graphs as well (Beza 1569, 14-19 -cf. Tarpai 2012:87-89). It is not surprising that readers do not find references to neither Luther nor Melanchthon. Nevertheless, the pure examination of the references could be misleading, because four times when Tarpai cited the work of Beza (Tarpai 2021:108, 137, 145x2), he mentioned the Genevan church practices, using the term 'Genevensis Ecclesiae Constitutiones', which were not Beza's own ideas, but the requirements of the Ordonnances Ecclésiastiques updated under the influence of John Calvin in 1561. Therefore, from this perspective, Calvin's references increased to seven.

In his dedicational preface, Tarpai made clear what was the main reason for preparing the book (Tarpai 2012:67), namely: because of the widespread attacks of the Hungarian Roman Catholics, for example, by the great Jesuit monk and cardinal, Peter Pázmány (1570-1637), who in his book, entitled Isteni igazságra vezérlő kalauz (Pázmány 1613:135; Szabó 2022) delivered numerous complaints against the Reformed view of marriage and divorce. In base-lines, the volume consists of three large parts: the first one illuminates the huge and complex system of impediments, the second section deals with the burning issues of divorce and the last one refers to additional questions. The inner framework of the volume was based on the pulsating variation of questions and answers, unfortunately without ordinal numbers.

Related to the marital oath, Tarpai stressed, only the usage of the present, not the future tense could establish valid judicial and moral obligation for marriage, employing the solemn saying: 'I am taking You now as a wife' or 'I am taking You as a bride' (Tarpai 2012:83). Thus, valid engagements were enforceable before the magistrates, if the fiancé was not absent from the city. Referring to Beza's Repudii, Tarpai pointed out: if a man had already deserted secretly with malice, after 1 year, the sorrowful case had to be proclaimed three times in the church within 1.5 months the independence has been granted for the bride (Tarpai 2012:107). It is worthy to cite at this point the relevant similar passage from Calvin's Marriage ordonnances (1546) and Ordonnances Ecclésiastiques (1561), which states (Witte-Kingdon 2005; Péter 2012):

[I]f a man, being debauched as aforesaid, has abandoned his wife without his wife having given him occasion or having been to blame […] let the wife wait till the end of a year to see whether she cannot learn where he is […] the deserter (should be proclaimed) in the church for three Sundays, two weeks apart, so that the term is six weeks. (pp. 58; 130-131)

In the case of bridegrooms, Tarpai required only the three publications of the fact without determined awaiting time. Of course, here is another accordance with Calvin, who emphasised: if a wife departs from her engaged man and goes to another place 'the husband shall not be required to wait a year'. At first sight, the same procedure was followed against the wife and the husband, but the phrase of 'wait till the end of a year' was not presented in the text (Witte-Kingdon 2005:59.). Therefore, it is not without good reason to point out: all these allusions show substantial evidences for the measurable presence of Calvin's heritage in the volume, because, say it again, when Tarpai four times cites Beza, in fact he refers to the Genevan church ordonnances worked out by Calvin.

Tarpai on engagement and its impediments

It is relevant that the Genevan reformer paid strong theological and judicial attention for the act of the engagement. As Calvin believed, the statement of 'I promise, I will take You as a wife….' had already had a compulsory character, if: (1) the promise was serious, lacking every kind of moral trifling, (2) two proper witnesses were present, (3) parental permission was declared and (4) their consent was common. This is why Calvin believed that valid promises should turn to marriage (Witte-Kingdon 2005):

After the promise is made, let the marriage not be delayed for more than six weeks; otherwise let the parties be called to the Consistory to be admonished. If they do not obey, let them be remanded before the Council to be compelled to celebrate it. (p. 54)

All the same, Tarpai's main contribution was to clarify the complex questions of impediments (Tarpai 2012:74-83) related to engagements that made contemporary pastors and magistrates constantly anxious. Tarpai condemned: (1) the secret marriages, which were lacking the consent of the parents in the years of the youthfulness. Of course, the presence of the proper witnesses was also crucial. (2) As an important survivorship of the Roman Law, the strait recital of the oath was obligatory. (3) Close grades of affinity and (4) the forced consent was also abhorred. (5) Besides these, Tarpai took the aspects of deceit seriously. He introduced five ways of spite deceit (Tarpai 2012:76-79), namely: (1) when the party was abused in person (case of Jacob and Leah), (2) in the 'footing'/'fortune' of the partner, (3) in rank, (4) in morality or (5) in the state of health concerning the procreation. According to him, the promise withdrawal only in the case of 'a', 'd' even if when it is found by sufficient proof that a girl who was taken for a virgin is not one, and in the case of 'e', when the cause of inability is found in the nature, or if not, it is contagious and incurable (time for investigation: 3 years). Another question was: if it happens that parties contracted marriage by their own action through (6) drunkenness, the promise turns to marriage only when the vinous person repeated their vow. Among the last aspects, if any of the parties had (7) a serious mental illness prior to the promise, it was annulled; however, if it was found after the engagement, the appropriate waiting period (three years for women and five years for men) was set up to prevent the withdrawal. (Tarpai 2012:78). Besides these, Tarpai (2012:110) mentioned the possibility of (8) monastic vows and (9) spiritual kinship which he entirely rejected. Related to the questions of impediments, Calvin was not intended to give a completely elaborated system of impediments nor in his Marriage ordonnances or in the second version of Ordonnances Ecclésiastiques. The only topics discussed were the regulations pertaining to the degrees of affinity (Witten-Kingdon 2005:56; cf. Péter 2012, 37-38, 108-116), the two grounds for annulment of the engagement, i.e. when a girl accepted as a virgin is not one, and the circumstances surrounding the engagement (Witten-Kingdon 2005:56, cf. Péter: 2012, 34, 95-96). As we have seen, Tarpai acknowledged these two facts.

Tarpai on divorce

According to the forceful attacks of the Catholic priest, Peter Pázmány, the Reformed pastors guaranteed divorce for money; therefore Tarpai devoted a long chapter to the evaluation of Christ's words on divorce (cf. Matthew 19,9). Using three commentaries of the text (from 'Jansen', 'Alphonsus de Castro', 'Croquetius'), Tarpai - in clear accordance with John Calvin - stressed: because of the never-ending temptations of the Satan, and the people's readiness for committing sin, the marriage is dissoluble (Tarpai 2012:120). The most detailed sections of the chapter give a deep-seated discussion of the reasons of adultery and desertion as two 'exceptions', but it is obvious, in the case of 'religion gap', as Calvin did (cf. Kingdon 1995:143-164) Tarpai too accepted the possibility of divorce (Tarpai 2012:113). However, Tarpai cited none of Luther's works; it is worthy to point out that the German reformer in his book, entitled The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520) believed, only the sorrowful acts of: (1) adultery and (2) desertion give cause for divorce (LW 36,70), still later in his sermon on The Estate of Marriage (1522) other reasons were named by him. These were: (3) the situation in which the husband or wife is not equipped for marriage, because of bodily or natural deficiencies of any sort, the situation in which one of the parties deprives and avoids the other and finally the case when there is an irreconcilable conflict between them (LW 45:30-35). It is so obvious that neither Calvin, nor Tarpai was so opened and indulgent. Nay, Tarpai decidedly resisted to grant for divorce on the ground of bodily illnesses deuces or infertility. From this aspect, it seems, Luther was a far more practical theologian (cf. Csepregi 2017:139-147)!

It is striking, the early Hungarian Reformed thoughts on the sin or crime of fornication and adultery represented in the volume makes clear, the contemporary pastors and preachers were intended to improve the general level of public morality in every town and city. They believed all of them were 'building up the City of God, the New Jerusalem' in Hungary. Aiming to reach a high-level Christianity, they reshaped the ordinary life of the local townsfolks. This is why cases, involving sexual crimes, made them constantly anxious. Although, as we have pointed out, after 1541 Hungary had been divided into three parts, which silenced the validation of the territorial laws, still churchmen and pastors welcomed the provisions of Ofner Stadtrecht of Buda (1421). This law made clear:

[M]embers of the law court should persecute adulterers. So, let them to be named not only in the private, but in the public sphere as well. Magistrates have to unfold the justice in case of torture even. A pit should be grubbed for them right next to a gibbet and let them to be laid down alive in it, then a stick should be run through either of them (p. 288).

As a result, it is not surprising that so many years before the legacy of Tarpai, as already as in 1560s for instance, bishop Melius was firmed in the right of the 'civil magistrates' to punish public fornicators and adulterers (Fekete 2020:240).

He really expected that they had to do so. Of course, these Hungarian approaches were far being unique at that time, because Luther and Calvin represented the same argumentation. Though Tarpai did not cite Luther's written heritage, still according to the German reformer, the most ideal penalty for adultery would be the capital punishment: 'So I wish, only in the case of adultery that the sentence of decapitation should be put into practice' - wrote Luther, but criticising the laxity of the magistrates, he grievously confessed: 'If adulterers pay with their lives, and they suffer decapitation, we would have little work to enquire for the right punishment' (Tischreden 6934, WA 6:278-279. -cf. Tischreden 6935, WA 6:279-280). In other place, Luther argued: 'The blame rests with the government […] the temporal sword and government should […] put adulterers to death' (The Estate of Marriage, LW 45:30) In spite of the fact that Calvin had a very different social and political situation in Geneva, as a high esteemed moderator of the Genevan Consistory, he stressed over and over again: adultery violates the sacred covenant of God, therefore biblical stories on this topic proof:

[T]hat adultery has been greatly abhorred in all ages. The law of God commands adulterers to be stoned. Before punishment was sanctioned by a written law, the adulterous woman was, by the consent of all, committed to the flames. (CO, 47:190. Translation: CTS, 17/2:322, CO, 23:499. Translation: CTS, 1/2:286, CO, 47:190-191. Translation: CTS, 17/2:323)

Similarly, Tarpai was criticising two times the judicial laxity of civil magistrates (Tarpai 2012:116, 143), who failed to inflict the death penalty and the adulterer, showing a bad example, can betake himself and remarry in a foreign country. However, in the eyes of Tarpai, marital cases are in the segment of the civil magistrates and of the church's authority. The procedures including divorce are pure judicial matters, when a petitioner suits for divorce because of a wrong conduct of the respondent (Tarpai 2012:125). Also, Tarpai angled the importance of the accusation against the abuser and mischievous deserted person. According to Tarpai, it is obvious that the rights of a husband and of a wife are equal in this respect (cf. Witte-Kingdon 2005:57). Therefore, in a general sense, one of the parties proves by sufficient testimony or evidence and asks to be separated by divorce. As a result, after a successful divorce, like in Geneva or in Wittenberg, a power has been granted for the true party to marry again (Tarpai 2012:114). Also, it catches the eyes, though Calvin and the early Hungarian Reformed synods urged severe punishment for adultery, which was the most frequent cause of divorce. In the case of proved adultery, not only in Geneva and Wittenberg, but also in Hungary, a 'judicial door' was open(ed) for the true party to practice Mercy toward the wicked (Magyar 2022a, 2022b). Therefore, Calvin stated in accordance with Tarpai that, 'one may exhort him to pardon his wife. But let no pressure be brought to compel him against his will' (Witte-Kingdon 2005:58). At the end of the section concerning the evaluation of adultery, Tarpai like Calvin emphasised: 'divorce shields the true party, therefore if it happens when all of the parties committed adultery, it certainly does not give occasion for divorce' (Sermon on Deut 5,18, CO XXVI, 336, translation: Calvin 2011, 170, -cf. Tarpai 2012:128).

It is by no means surprising that Tarpai because of the very special political and social circumstances in Hungary had to deal with so many questions of desertion. As it is well known, several men were pursuing agricultural or trading business, and others were involved in sorrowful military actions against the Turkish army. As the fates show: some of them were murdered, seriously injured, captured or lost. These circumstances required prompt and clear rules to follow. To Tarpai the desertion meant a special variation of mensa et thoro when the absence of one of the parties was suspending or permanently abolishes the fulfilment of the purposes of the marriage (Tarpai 2012:129). Reading the formulas represented in Tarpai's volume, it is evident that the author was utterly familiar with the church canons existing in Calvinist Geneva. Like in Calvin's town, if a man abandoned his wife and went to a known place, but he refused to return or the 'religion gap' was no more tolerable, the deserter was proclaimed straightway in the church 'for three Sundays, two weeks apart, so that the term is six weeks' (Witte-Kingdon 2005:58; cf. Tarpai 2012:137). Another question arose when the husband through debauchery or some evil feeling went away and left his place of living for an unknown location, in Geneva the wife had to wait till the end of a year, commending herself to God, after she could suit for divorce with the public proclamation process detailed above (Witte-Kingdon 2005:58). According to Tarpai's published regulations, a wife in Hungary had to wait two or three years before the case could be initiated.(Tarpai 2012:138). But it is curious that in spite of Tarpai's particular knowledge related to the Genevan church ordonnances and the compelling Hungarian situations, he did not refer to one of the most crucial points of Calvin's Ordonnances (1561), which requires (Witte- Kingdon 2005; Péter 2012):

If a man goes to a journey to deal in merchandise or otherwise (i.e. military service) without fraud or alienation from his wife, and he does not return for a long time and it is not known what has happened to him […] let his wife not be permitted to remarry until after a term of ten years has passed since the day of his departure, unless there is certain testimony of his death. (pp. 57; 39-124)

An other difference between Calvin and Tarpai is that the Hungarian pastor did not mention the special legal procedure concerning the desertion of a woman, when after the return of the wife, the true husband could 'refuse to take her back because of the suspicion he has that she mismanaged her body' let the husband's request to ascertain whether she did fornicate or not (Witte-Kingdon 2005:59).

The third part of the book deals with some additional questions. The main task was to confirm the publication of the banns in the church, which was required before the wedding three times in Geneva (Witte - Kingdon 2005:55), but only one time in Hungary (Tarpai 2012:146). Calvin did not appreciate the long-time engagements; therefore he insisted: 'the marriage not be delayed for more than six weeks' (Witte - Kingdon 2005:54); Tarpai did not publish this rule. Like in Geneva, the ceremony was organised in the church before the pastor (Witte - Kingdon 2005:54). The outward implements (the usage of rings, mutual attachment of the right hands) can differ from region to region (Tarpai 2012:147). Nevertheless, Calvin and Tarpai emphasised: the celebration of the marriage should be modest without drummers (Witte-Kingdon 2005:55; Tarpai 2012:148) or dance (Magyar 2019). As a last task, Tarpai clarified what are the fundamental obligations of church and 'state' related to marital cases. The magistrates are called to publish marital regulations and edicts on the basis of the Scripture, but at the same time, they are warned to punish the wicked fornicators and adulterers. Pastors and the ecclesia are responsible for celebrating the wedding and publishing the divorce (Tarpai 2012:150-151).

 

Conclusion

According to the main achievements of the huge research on the theological 'rainbow-bridge' between Calvin and Hungary, it is worthy to point out that at the beginning of the Protestantism the local reformers and preachers were interpreting Luther's ideas, but from the 1550s Calvin's doctrines became decisive (Bucsay 1980:209-228, 1985; Szabó 1912:113-173). At the same time, during the renewal of the public morality of people and of the religious dimensions of family life, Protestant pastors in Hungary did not cite directly from the written heritage of 'the great reformers', because they were concentrating on the principle of Sola Scriptura (Hörcsik 2009:15). They were quoting only from the Bible itself. Therefore, it is not easy to find out which reformer influenced the early Hungarian Reformed confessions and religious convictions (Kiss 1881). Nevertheless, because of the research concerning the presence of Calvin's volumes in early modern Hungarian private and church libraries, we have already had a more complex picture about the practical reception of John Calvin's thoughts in Hungary. In spite of the sorrowful fact that Hungary after the guileful siege of Buda in 1541 (Ács 2019; Kálmán 2020; Molnár 2001:xiii; Wien 2022) had been divided into different areas, still the cultural intercourse between Hungary and the Western countries remained vivid at that time. As a valuable outcome of the peregrination to Protestant universities, students were purchasing theological books as first pieces of their private collections. Based on a study of the remaining pieces and catalogues of private, church, and public libraries, the main recognitions (cf. Hörcsik 2009:26-29; Márkus-Karasszon 1996:95-132; Oláh 2011:116-148; Ősz 2011:149-187, 2014) indicate that Calvin's commentaries (altogether 342 items) were more prevalent than his systematic works like the Institutes (a total of 189 items). Therefore, Calvin's exegetical works certainly paved the way for the renewal of public morality in Hungary. However, it seems, the availability of the contemporary sources is limited, still it is hard to deny that in the 16th century Hungary, besides the 'traditional topics' of the Protestantism (e.g., original sin, church discipline, forgiveness, justification and mercifulness), the reflection on everyday questions of marriage, family life and cohesion was a substantial element of the pastoral ministry.

The article pointed out, on the basis of the Hungarian Reformed confessions and articles concerning the topic of marriage, that early pastors and preachers did not cite directly the written heritage of Luther, Calvin or Beza. The different political and social situation in Hungary did not make possible to adapt completely the revolutionary thoughts of the reformers. This is why the contemporary local synods and edicts have been formulated first of all after the guidance of the Holy Scripture interpreted by the reformers. Thus, as we have seen, it is not possible to deny that content of the early Reformed articles shows so many similarities between the Western and Hungarian theological thinking, related to the fundamental 'three goals' of marriage, the questions of impediments, proclamation, divorce, age or annulment. Nevertheless, the closing fundamental remark is the following: John Calvin's theological and social ideas were certainly recognised in Hungary by the interpretation of Theodor Beza.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

B.D.M. declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Balázs Magyar
magyarmogyoro@gmail.com

Received: 22 July 2023
Accepted: 03 Nov. 2023
Published: 07 Mar. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Dissenter Protestantism and moral and social change

 

 

Arne Rasmusson^{I, II, III}

^IDepartment of Literature, History of Ideas, and Religion, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
^IIFaculty of Theology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
^IIIStellenbosch Institute of Advanced Study, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Dissenter Protestantism, Pietist, and revivalist movements have played a crucial but often overlooked role in the emergence and development of democracy, the abolition of slavery and the struggle for women's rights. The article focuses on the emergence of dissenter Protestantism in 17th century England, its continuation in the USA and similar movements in other parts of Europe. Drawing on theories from sociology, moral psychology and other behavioural sciences, the article argues that the social impact of dissenter Protestantism was the result of a complex combination of theology, practices, institutions and specific historical circumstances. While the theology of these movements was not unique, their emphasis on following Jesus Christ and sanctification was a significant aspect. Other factors contributing to their impact include the role of friendship and strong social networks, a relative egalitarianism, a certain distance and independence from dominant institutions and cultures and the creation of self-organised and relatively autonomous organisations. This combination of theological and social elements created free spaces that facilitated the development of new or different practices. Another crucial aspect was their ability to integrate reasoning and affective powers, uniting theory with metaphor and narrative. Finally, the specific practices and institutions within these movements allowed individuals to grow and enter into communities that shaped their lives.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article combines theological and historical analysis with theories from sociology, moral psychology and other behavioural sciences. It shows the fruitfulness of using empirical social science for theology and history.

Keywords: dissenter Protestantism; democracy; abolitionism; women's rights; feminism.

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Oberlin

In the summer of 1832, John Jay Shipherd, a Presbyterian minister in Elyria, Ohio, received a visit from his former fellow student, Philo P. Stewart (the following is based on Morris [2014]). They began discussing the prospect of establishing a community and college somewhere in Ohio. Both of them were products of the great revival known as the Second Great Awakening, with Charles Finney as its most prominent leader. In 1833, the community of Oberlin was founded, and several families relocated there. The foundation of Oberlin was based on a covenant that aimed to bring both the church and the world 'under the entire influence of the blessed gospel of peace' (Covenant of the Oberlin Colony). As part of this new community, they also envisioned the creation of a college that would be open to individuals of all races and genders. They successfully persuaded Finney to join as a teacher and eventually serve as the college's president.

Oberlin played a significant role in the revivalist movement, emphasising repentance, sanctification and the moral transformation of both individuals and society. For Finney, the struggle against slavery was a natural outcome of the gospel. He believed that slavery, along with the treatment of Native Americans, was the greatest sin in the country. Finney refused to administer communion to slave owners and criticised the hypocrisy of the Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed that everyone is created equal while its authors owned slaves and displaced Native Americans. He also condemned the defence of slavery within churches and their silence on the oppression of Native Americans. Finney believed that if churches united against slavery, it would be abolished promptly (Finney 1988:Lecture 15, 2013:Lecture XXXIV:VII [Loc. 12458-12646]; Hambrick-Stowe 1996; Smith 2007).

Oberlin also became an important hub in the so-called Underground Railroad, aiding escaped slaves in their journey to Canada. In 1839, Ohio made it a crime to assist escaped slaves, and in response, Finney defended the right to civil disobedience.

Furthermore, Oberlin was the first college to admit both men and women, and it produced several influential leaders in the women's rights movement. One notable figure was Lucy Stone, who became one of the iconic leaders of the early women's movement. Her close friend at Oberlin, Antoinette Brown, became the first woman in the United States to be formally ordained as a minister in her denomination. Lucy Stone was also a close student mentor and then lifelong friend of John Mercer Langston, an African-American student who went on to become a lawyer, university president, ambassador and congressman. These are just a few examples from the early 1840s. Stone and Brown were often critical of the conservatism they encountered at Oberlin and they pushed and broke boundaries, but it was Oberlin that gave them the opportunity (McMillen 2014).

The revival movements created many other similar colleges, often drawing inspiration from Oberlin, and frequently by former Oberlin students. Many former Oberlin students, both white and black people, went on to build educational systems for former slaves in the southern states after slavery was abolished. Others became missionaries, particularly women. In 1888, John Langalibalele Dube, a South African student, began studying at Oberlin. Dube later co-founded the African National Congress (ANC) and became its first president¹ (Hughes 2011).

 

A hidden history

This story of Oberlin illustrates the role of churches and congregations in moral formation, as well as the often overlooked contributions of dissenting Protestantism and revivalism in shaping the modern world. While traditional narratives often focus on the Enlightenment and the French Revolution or the Protestant Reformation (Rendtorff 1970), and are challenged by Catholic counter-narratives (Gregory 2012), Oberlin represents an alternative narrative that can be woven together with these other stories. However, because of its distance from political and cultural powers and the limited control dissenting Protestantism has had over leading educational institutions, much of this history has been neglected or marginalised. But Oberlin is just one example of a broader historical trend that has been unfolding for centuries. In the following sections, I will briefly explore this history, focusing on three moral and social revolutions: the emergence of democracy, the abolition of slavery and women's rights. I will then present a theoretical framework that may help explain this history.

 

Dissenter Protestantism, revivalism and social and political change

I will begin in 17th century England with the emergence of Dissenting Protestantism or Nonconformism (Bradstock 2010; eds. Larsen & Noll 2017-2020). These groups challenged the idea of compulsory national or politically established churches and sought to establish self-governing congregations of followers of Jesus Christ. They emphasised God's action in human life, the following of Jesus Christ and sanctification and separation from the world. While sharing theological similarities with Luther and Calvin, they also drew from medieval Catholic traditions.

One of the crucial factors here is the relationship with political power. In 17th century England, the churches could be roughly divided into four groups: Anglicans; Presbyterians who wanted to replace the Anglican state church with a Presbyterian state church; Separatists, Baptists, Quakers and others who sought self-governing churches separate from the state; and finally Independents (the forerunners of the Congregationalists) who held a position between Presbyterians and Separatists. Eventually, Presbyterians also became part of the non-conformist movement because of losing the power struggle. Shipherd and Finney were Presbyterians, although in a later and very different American context. The so-called New Divinity Presbyterians in America, influenced by Methodism, became important in the reform movements.

One of the pioneers of Baptism in England, Thomas Helwys, wrote a book in 1612 advocating for religious freedom, which he believed should extend to all Christians (Protestants and Catholics), as well as to Jews and Muslims (Helwys 2009:155-310). He was imprisoned almost immediately and died in prison four years later. He had many followers. In fact, almost everyone who at this time advocates for and writes about freedom of religion and freedom of speech tends to come from this type of Christian background (Wilken 2019).

This includes several influential women. We know of about 300 female preachers in England during the years 1640-1660 (ed. Freeman 2011:17). Katherine Chidley, one such example, published The Justification of the Independent Churches of Christ in 1641, arguing for church independence, freedom of conscience and religion and the idea that local church members should elect their own leaders. Notably, this was the first such argument published by a woman in English (Chidley 2011).

This is the background to philosopher John Locke's less radical but more well-known defence of freedom of thought and religion (Wilken 2019:169-179). In the American colonies, Baptists and Quakers also led the struggle for general religious freedom, and they went on to play a key role in getting religious freedom enshrined in the US Constitution.

Baptists, Independents and Quakers formed strong communities characterised by intense religious practices and developed alternative institutions. Their internal democratic practices, such as the principle of 'one person, one vote', sometimes including women, served as a model for political reform movements such as the Levellers, who advocated for universal male suffrage, equality under the law and freedom of conscience in 17th century England. The Levellers had much of their social base in Baptist congregations. Chidley, who was part of the Leveller movement, also argued for women's participation in the political process (Gillespie 2004:ch. 2; Rees 2016).

In Germany, there were Moravians and various Pietist movements that shared similarities with English Dissenting Protestantism in terms of congregational structure, piety patterns and practices, although they were usually less radical in relation to the political authorities. Women often played significant roles in these movements (Olson & Collins Winn 2015; Shantz 2013). However, there is a significant difference: political oppression on the continent was more severe, making it more difficult to create independent congregations. Historians have long debated why England and the United States, on one hand, and Germany, on the other, developed so differently. While there are, of course, many reasons for this, German historian Hartmut Lehmann has suggested that one contributing factor was that the Pietist movements were not given the opportunity to form independent congregations and movements. Consequently, a broad popular civil society developed much later in Germany (Lehmann 2010).

It was the same types of churches that played a substantial role in the struggle against slave trade and slavery in England and America, especially Quakers, but also Methodists and other dissident and revivalist Protestants, including revivalist Anglicans, were influential (Brown 2006; Dayton & Strong 2014; Fogel 1989). The economic historian and Nobel Laureate Robert Fogel (1989) has asked about the role of the Quakers:

How could the policies initially embraced by so small and isolated a sect, one that was initially widely despised and severely persecuted by the Anglican majority, become so influential that these policies became embedded in a new orthodoxy and became a central feature of the prevailing political ethos? (p. 208)

Their impact was linked not only to their theological convictions about equality before God and in the church, but also to their emphasis on a common holy life, a strong group identity and robust domestic and international organisations and networks (Carey 2012). Together with other dissenting Protestants, particularly Methodists, they created the first modern social movement. However, this began with the internal practice of the church. This history is very complex and ambiguous, and I do not have the space to develop it here. Later on, Oberlin became a prominent part of this history.

The emergence of the modern women's movement can be traced back to similar circles, with roots dating back to Baptist and especially Quaker influences in 17th century England. The background included a more egalitarian and independent ecclesiology, theologies about spiritual equality and the experience and conviction that the Spirit of God was working through women. This not only led to a re-interpretation of the Bible but it also created a new public space for women. Chidley is just one example. Of course, there was considerable resistance both outside and inside these churches. In 1666, the Quaker Margaret Fell published the book Women's Speaking Justified, Proved and Allowed of by the Scriptures (Fell 2018). The Methodists, with direct support from John Wesley, also accepted female preachers. However, after Wesley's death, the English Methodists prohibited women from preaching in 1802 (Chilcote 1991). A remarkable example is Dorothy Ripley, an English Methodist who was active both in Britain and the United States as an itinerant revivalist preacher. She opposed slavery, often worked with black churches, started schools for former slaves and authored five books. In 1802, she invited herself to the White House to meet with President Thomas Jefferson. She criticised him for owning slaves, for arguing that black people did not possess the same intellectual abilities as white people, and for his views on women and education for women. In 1806, she preached in the Capitol building in Washington with Jefferson in attendance, becoming the first woman to do so (Everson 2007; Ripley 1810, 1822).

No movement gave women a larger role than the Quakers over time. Margaret Hope Bacon (1986) writes that in the 1840s two centuries of Quaker practice had shaped Quaker women:

The experience Quaker women had accumulated in public speaking, holding meetings, taking minutes, and writing epistles prepared them for leadership roles when the time was ripe for a women's right movement to emerge. (p. 2)

The two maybe most famous public women of the 1830s in America were the sisters Sarah and Angelina Grimké. They came from a very wealthy and influential slave-owning family in Charleston, South Carolina. The family was Anglican. But first Sarah and then Angelina converted to Presbyterianism and then after a few years they became Quakers. They were among the first women to speak to mixed-gender groups outside the context of church meetings. They began as anti-slavery agitators, but soon started lecturing and also writing about women's rights. Gerda Lerner writes that Sarah Grimke's feminism, grounded in her Christian faith and reading of the Bible, developed the sex and gender distinction as early as the 1830s, discussed the intersection of gender, class and race, developed social theories about the causes of male power dominance, stressed the importance of feminist consciousness and pioneered feminist political activism (Grimké & Lerner 1998:40). Later more famous feminists such as Lucretia Mott, Elisabeth Cady Stanton and Lucy Stone were all strongly influenced by her. In 1838, Angelina Grimké became the first woman in USA to address a legislative body, when she gave two speeches to an overfilled Hall of Representatives in the Massachusetts State House in Boston, on the issue of slavery and on the role of women in politics (Grimké & Grimké 2014; Grimké & Lerner 1998; Lerner 2004).

In 1848, five women planned a conference that took place in a Methodist Church in Seneca Falls in which a Declaration of Women's rights were written. It is, in traditional narratives, seen as the beginning of the women's rights movement. Four of these five were Quakers; the fifth had been converted in a revival meeting with Charles Finney (Bacon 1986:1).

But more important than these individuals were the social movements that made the struggle for women's rights possible and which consisted to a large extent of women formed in congregations. Particularly important was the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, led for a long time by Methodist Frances Willard. Her parents studied in Oberlin, and she therefore lived there as a child (Evans 2022:18-21). The World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union was the main organisation working for women's suffrage in New Zealand, the first country in the world to introduce women's suffrage in 1893 (MacDonald 2009) and in Finland, first in Europe 1906 (Sulkunen 2009). It was also important in several other countries, including Sweden (Bengtsson 2011). They used the social and moral capital they had acquired in the churches to the struggle for suffrage and women's further rights.

This is an extremely complex, contradictory and multifaceted story. There are, of course, many other social, economic and political factors and actors involved. Dissenting Protestantism is both shaped by and interacts with these other factors and actors. The more religion becomes an established and integrated factor in a society, the more it interacts with factors such as nationalism, ethnicity, politics and social class. Dissenting Protestantism and revival movements could also work against democracy, abolitionism and women's rights. They often changed when they became more embedded in the surrounding society. For example, as Baptists and Methodists in America grew and searched for respectability, they increasingly accepted segregation also in their own churches, which in reaction led to the creation of independent black denominations. And as white Methodists and Baptists gradually migrated to the southern states, they soon also came to accept slavery. Both Methodists and Baptists split on the slavery issue. After the Civil War, the white southern denominations became strong defenders of segregation and white supremacy (Wilson 1980). The same can be said in relation to women's rights. Resistance to women as preachers and leaders was strong, and it also grew in churches that once pioneered such practices when these churches became more established and respectable.

But my argument is not that these kinds of dissenting churches and revival movements and denominations automatically supported, for example, the struggle against slavery. But it is still the case that opposition to slavery and support for women's rights mainly came from minorities within dissenting Protestantism and revival movements. They neither, for example, came from the Anglican Church in the United States (the Episcopal Church) nor from the American Catholic Church. Both broadly supported slavery and resisted women's rights. In Europe, established national churches did not pioneer democracy or women's rights. Nor did opposition against slavery in USA emerge primarily from more Enlightenment-oriented circles, which were politically far more powerful than the revivalist movements or the Quakers. Harvard University, for example, played little part in the resistance to slavery. Harvard was then as now the most prestigious university in the USA, more shaped by Enlightenment thinking and well-integrated into the social elite. At the time Oberlin was created, Harvard had long been dominated by Unitarians and other Enlightenment currents. Children of southern plantations often studied there and Harvard often received funding from slave owners (Harvard University. Presidential Committee on Harvard and the Legacy of Slavery 2022). Harvard did not create a movement or new institutions, as did the schools dominated by the revivalists, such as Oberlin, Yale and Wheaton. Harvard was also much later in admitting both African-American students and women.

Moreover, it is no coincidence that the largest black churches in USA are Methodist and Baptist. Many of the black leaders, both men and women, came from just this kind of Christian background. Richard Allen, the founder of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and Jarena Lee, an influential preacher in the same church, are two renowned and influential figures. They pioneered theologies, practices and institutions that would, in the long run, reshape not only the USA but also the world. Why this background and not some other? The civil rights movement in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s had its primary social base precisely in black Baptist and Methodist churches and was only conceivable in terms of the long-time role of the black churches (Chappell 2004; Dickerson 2020; Gates 2021; Newman 2008).

If I have had more space I could also show how traces of this history turn up in social science studies. I have reviewed various areas ranging from studies on democracy, economic development, social trust and corruption to studies on female education and gender-based violence. But presenting this requires a separate article. I provide some examples in Rasmusson (2021).

 

On the influence of dissenting Protestantism: Theoretical perspectives

What conclusions can we draw from the story I have told and how can we explain it? Why has the kind of dissenting Protestantism and revivalism that I have described had such a significant relative influence despite its limited size and relative distance from the majority culture and political and cultural power? My answer is that it is a complex combination of theology, practices and institutions together with specific historical circumstances. One must also distinguish analytically between 'everyday moral practice' (such as degrees of trust and generosity), 'extraordinary everyday moral practice' (such as the Oberlin community or religious orders) and 'work for radical change in moral, social and political structures' (such as the struggle against slavery). Everyday generosity, albeit distorted, can exist within a community alongside acceptance of or blindness to major and often structural injustices and oppression. Similarly, movements working for social justice in one area can be blind to injustices in other areas. History is full of such examples, both within and outside the churches. The American women's movement, for example, split on the race issue.

The traditions I have described have no unique theology. The practices they develop are also rooted in earlier traditions. Similar to all other human action, these actions are based on common human processes, practices and institutions. However, the movements in question have developed specific combinations of theology, practices and institutions that, in certain circumstances, have been of great importance. The roles these movements have played are, as I have repeatedly said, not unambiguous. A particular constellation of theology and practices may have different consequences in different areas and circumstances. The beliefs, practices and institutions that I will describe here can, in certain contexts, also corrupt and deform people and communities and lead to destructiveness and evil. There are many examples of this in Dissenter Protestantism and revivalism as well.

A theological characteristic of these traditions is the emphasis on following Jesus and sanctification. Such an emphasis naturally leads to varying degrees of disruption and disassociation from surrounding cultures and social practices. Theologies of sanctification are therefore interrelated with ecclesiology. Churches that are largely embedded in the majority culture tend to emphasise that morality is based on natural law or built into the demands of created life, of everyday life. The emphasis is more on forgiveness than on sanctification. There is a sceptical attitude regarding the possibility of moral transformation. The more radical demands of a Christian ethic are either addressed to particular groups, such as the monastic orders, or are seen as demands of the law that awaken insight into one's own sin, as in some forms of Lutheranism. But for Anabaptists, Baptists, Quakers, Pietists, Moravians, Methodists and others, sanctification was central, which also made them much criticised by outsiders. The search for individual and social holiness and the creation of separate congregations were two sides of the same thing. This search for holiness did not only lead to stronger separation from the wider society but also to heightened work for social reform. It was precisely this dissenting practice that made the historical role concerning democracy, slavery and women's rights I have described possible. The radicalisation of Quaker abolitionism was, for example, closely connected to a holiness revival and reformation among both British and American Quakers (Brown 2006:413-419).

These traditions were and are therefore often criticised for asserting an individualistic or sectarian Christianity in relation to churches embedded in the dominant social or cultural life of a culture or nation. But they also create strong communities. Many social science studies show that friendships and communities play a very important role in shaping the morality of individuals and communities. And no community seems, according to these studies, to have as great a shaping role as religious communities. Political scientists Putnam and Campbell (2010) write:

Having close friends at church, discussing religion frequently with your family and friends, and taking part in small groups at church are extremely powerful predictors of the entire range of generosity, good neighborliness, and civic engagement. (p. 472)

No other type of organisation or factor (including gender, age, education, political views and income) comes close. Individual religious beliefs do not have this effect, nor does worship attendance as an individual act (Haidt 2012:285-318; Lewis, Macgregor & Putnam 2013; Miller 2018:229-241; Putnam & Campbell 2010:443-493).

Richard Sosis (2000) has compared the longevity of 200 religious and secular (mostly socialist) communities in the 19th century USA. He sees it as a kind of natural experiment on the ability to deal with the problem of collective action. The religious communities survived on average four times longer than the secular ones. And this was after he had removed the most successful religious communities, the Hutterites, from the study. Through increased devotion, loyalty and trust in community members, 'religious groups are able to avoid or minimise costly monitoring and punishment systems that are otherwise necessary to overcome the free-rider problem that typically plagues communal enterprises' (Sosis 2000:72). The traditions I describe more rarely created the type of communities studied by Sosis, but it is these same mechanisms that are behind the strength of their churches.

If friendships and tight social networks are one factor, the relative distance these communities create from dominant culture and social and political structures is another. Social change often comes from creative minorities (Sunstein 2019). The very position of a minority helps to create the free spaces needed to imagine and practice new possibilities, without being constantly seen and controlled by dominant elites and groups (Calhoun-Brown 2000; Polletta & Kretschmer 2022). It is therefore no coincidence that it was in these types of churches that women were sometimes able to take leadership roles and speak in public. Another prominent example is the role of black churches in USA as free and creative spaces.

Related to this is the fact that these traditions created self-organised and self-governing organisations and often international networks. It is in self-governed assemblies that democratic practices and habits begin to develop. It is also the beginning of the creation of an independent civil society. For the surrounding society, it is precisely the strong internal community and relative autonomy of the religious communities that is seen as threatening (Bradstock 2010; Smith 2007; Woodberry 2012; Woodberry & Shah 2004). 'Free spaces' that are not controlled by society are seen as dangerous. And it can easily lead to very closed communities. At the same time, these 'free spaces' are a prerequisite for social change. The social order was threatened, as happened in 17th century England, when Baptists and Quakers demanded the right to organise themselves or when the Grimké sisters made public speeches against slavery in mixed-gender groups. Here we find a tension between being so closed off from the surrounding society that one cannot influence it and being so embedded in society that one cannot challenge it. The history of the Quakers is a good example of this tension.

A further significant factor is the relative egalitarianism or 'mild hierarchy' (Christakis 2019) based on Christian beliefs about spiritual equality that often characterises these movements, especially in their early stages. 'Mild hierarchy' can easily lead to fragmentation and individualisation. But it also enabled the development of democratic practices and a greater role for women, 'lay people' or African-Americans and other minorities. But it requires good structures and leadership. Again, Quaker and Methodist history provide instructive example of this.

A further factor contributing to the strong formative power of religious communities is their ability to unite reasoning and affective systems, cognition and emotion, theory with metaphor and narrative (Haidt & Kesebir 2010; Railton 2014; Smith 2013 & Smith 2015). We know that moral knowledge by itself has little action-motivating effect (Schwitzgebel & Rust 2014). It is not just about being able to reason well, it is also about being motivated to act, and that requires emotions and thinking to work together. And we are much more motivated by examples, stories and friends than by moral theories. Examples, stories and metaphors speak to the whole person, not just to abstract thinking. In her book Exemplarist Moral Theory, where she incorporates insights from neuroscience, cognitive science and moral psychology, philosopher Linda Zagzebski has developed an entire moral theory based on the emotion of admiration. Good people are those we admire after critical reflection, and we learn what to do from those we admire. Admiration has both cognitive and affective aspects, and therefore it has a much stronger motivational effect than theoretical moral reasoning. Several moral psychology experiments support this theory (Algoe & Haidt 2009; Miller 2015:77-101; Zagzebski 2017).

A final factor I will address is the role of structures, institutions and practices. Moral training is about growing into, learning and being able to critically use historically developed social practices, traditions and narratives and sometimes creating new ones. Following these practices creates habits, a kind of behavioural autopilot, living without being constantly guided by one's thinking. This is also what makes change so difficult. The way we live, think and see the world is built into everyday practice (Smith 2010:317-383).

It was very difficult in a slave society to see the reprehensibility of it. It was naturalised. For slave owners, Christian practices such as daily personal prayer could be incorporated into daily life with slaves and legitimise their own actions (Winner 2018). It was also very difficult to break with these practices. The price was high. The Grimké sisters had to leave South Carolina. One might compare with how difficult it is for us to deal with climate change both on individual and collective levels, because institutions and practices are in place and are not easy to change.

But practices and traditions are also resources. People living in Oberlin were able to enter into a network of institutions and practices that shaped their lives. Black and white people could study, live and eat together. The mere fact of sitting at the same table at dinner was a revolution for many, changing one's feelings and attitudes in a way that a purely theoretical knowledge of the equality of all did not (cf. Thaler & Sunstein 2009).

Again, we can see how all these factors are interconnected: theology, dense communities, free spaces, leadership structures, the interplay between reasoning and affect, the role of examples and stories and how we live through institutions and practices. Hence, the importance of ecclesiology.

This is true in general, but we have seen it develop in particular ways in the traditions I have described. With the result, as sociologist Robert Woodberry says, that things such as democracy, freedom of religion and expression, women's rights and the abolition of slavery 'was not the inevitable result of economic development, urbanisation, industrialisation, secularisation, or the Enlightenment, but a far more contingent process profoundly shaped by activist religion' (Woodberry 2012:270).

 

Instead of a conclusion

It is difficult to fit the history I have described into unambiguous theological and ecclesiological templates and models. However, many theologians and church leaders are critical of the movements I have described, of their theology, ecclesiology and practice. But on the issues I have discussed, most church traditions now affirm what these movements, or minorities within them, once pioneered, even if this affirmation came after initial and often prolonged resistance. At the same time, the ecclesial practices that helped create this new reality have often, and not infrequently for understandable reasons, continued to be criticised. However, as formerly socially established churches have increasingly lost their established role, elements of the congregational practice once developed by dissenting Protestants and Pietists have become more attractive, while the latter movements, including in their search for respectability, have evolved in the direction of the traditionally dominant churches.

 

Acknowledgements

This an edited and much shortened version of an article written in Swedish (used with permission) (Rasmusson 2020). Some of the research on which this text is based was conducted during a 5-month research stay in 2019 at the Stellenbosch Institute of Advanced Study in South Africa.

Competing interests

The author declared that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

A.R. is the sole contributor for this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author's and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Arne Rasmusson
arne.rasmusson@gu.se

Received: 24 July 2023
Accepted: 11 Sept. 2023
Published: 29 Feb. 2024

 

 

Note: Special Collection: Morality in history.
1 . Much of the early leadership of the ANC stemmed from this kind of background. To mention just two of the most famous examples: Albert Luthuli, the ANC's leader from 1952 to 1967 and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1960, was also a devout Congregationalist (Couper 2010). Nelson Mandela, a Methodist, was very active in youth work and shaped by mission schools (Cruywagen 2016).

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Inaugurated eschatology from a transgender perspective

 

 

Hannelie Wood

Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Practical and Systematic Theology, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Many people who identify as transgender, experience discrimination, stigma and societal marginalisation as if they are not really human beings created in the image of God. This article argues for more acceptance of transgender people within a Christian world view. I contend that gender and the imago Dei can make room for more inclusivity and inherent human dignity for all people. Transgender identity, the idea of inaugurated eschatology as 'already/not yet' with the arrival of the Holy Spirit, the restoration of God's image, and the acceptance of transgender individuals in God's Kingdom will be focussed on. Inaugurated eschatology enlightens us on who we are in Christ. The topic focusses on transgender issues in relation to inaugurated eschatology and its effects on transgender roles within the Christian faith community. The nature of the research is qualitative and descriptive, either contradicting or supporting different views on transgender and inaugurated eschatology.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: To encourage discussion and deeper exploration of the concepts of transgenderism and inaugurated eschatology that could contribute to more inclusivity and inherent human dignity for all people in the fields of theology, gender studies, politics, philosophy, history and psychology

Keywords: inaugurated eschatology; transgender; gender; image of God; Holy Spirit; inclusion.

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Introduction

Eschatology is a biblical concept as it permeates the entire message of the Bible. It is a Christological category concerned with the return of Jesus Christ and is closely connected with the work of the Holy Spirit. Through the Holy Spirit as the gift and agent of inaugurated eschatology, previous expectations and the promise for the future that is yet to come are fulfilled. The Holy Spirit aids, among other things, our moral beliefs, social transformation, misplaced desires and also our views about inequality.

Transgender people suffer under stigmatisation, prejudice and social exclusion as if they are excluded from being human or created in the image of God. This article therefore makes a case for greater inclusivity for transgender people within Christian thinking. With inclusivity, I propose that gender and the imago Dei should symbolise inclusion and fundamental human dignity to all human beings. I therefore argue that the power of the Holy Spirit, as the fulfilment of the eschatological promise, is working through all the followers of God.

The article focusses on transgender identity, the concept of inaugurated eschatology as the 'already/not yet' with the coming of the Holy Spirit, the restoration of God's image and the inclusion of transgender people in the Kingdom of God. The nature of the research is qualitative and descriptive, either contradicting or supporting different views on transgender and inaugurated eschatology. The aim of this essay is to discuss how inaugurated eschatology helps us understand who we are in Jesus Christ. The discussion focusses on 'transgender' through the prism of inaugurated eschatology and its implications for transgender roles in the Christian faith community.

Although the term 'transgender' has a complicated and controversial definition, it will be used in this article as a term for people whose gender identity is different from their gender that they were given at birth.

 

(Trans)gender identity

In many discussions, the issue of gender takes centre stage. This is not limited to theological considerations but also finds its way into other disciplines such as politics, philosophy, history and psychology. Although deliberations on the gender concept are embraced in settings such as the Church, society and culture, the question about transgender and sexuality has caused much division among different Christian traditions (Huttunen 2016:14).

However, the many forms and definitions for the term 'gender' still make it an ambiguous term in many disciplines. 'Gender' is commonly understood as something for women by women or merely being male or female, and conversations about sex and gender are about the physical body as being male or female (sex) and how one lives in one's physical body (gender) (Wood 2019:3). Although the concepts 'gender' and 'sex' are often used interchangeably, these are two separate terms. 'Gender' is a social construct that includes characteristics, norms, relationships and behaviours of men and boys, as well as women and girls in society (WHO 2023).

Being connected to one's body, identity, culture and social constructs, gender relates to one's choice to identify as a man or a woman. Gender can therefore change - it is personal and complex. Sex, as a person's bodily traits as male, female and intersex, is based on 'chromosomes, hormones, internal and external reproductive organs, and secondary sex characteristics' (Healthline 2022). The term 'transgender' in this article is used to refer to non-conforming views of gender, specifically those who do not identify with the sex that they were born with.

Included in the gender debate is the issue on transgender and intersex genders, where we often find ourselves at a loss of words or ill-prepared when the topic arises. For this reason, it is important to clarify the terms 'gender', 'transgender' and 'intersex'. 'Transgender' is the umbrella term for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, queer, intersex, asexual, pansexual and allies. Definitions vary from the gender identity of someone who does not identify with an assigned sex at birth, a gender outside the man or woman binary and someone who does not identify with any gender or one who identifies with multiple genders (LGBT Resource Centre 2023). Although the term represents a specific group of people, it includes gender fluidity and sexual identities (Wamsley 2021). Intersex individuals do not fit into a particular male or female gender norm, and the term is used by those whose reproductive anatomy is not biologically typical (Wamsley 2021).

Transgender people assert that their bodies and minds are separate, and that their self-awareness determines who they are. For them, their outward appearance - which depicts how others observe them - represents a false self. Garcia (2018:3) says that for some transgender people, their self-concepts come first and their physical minds are distinct from their physical bodies. People often reject transgender people, even within their own family, Church and social circles (Garcia 2018:5-7). Cornwall (2022:358) states that there are transgender interpreters who hold the view that gender is uncertain or irrelevant. However, gender must have some significance argues Cornwall because so many individuals, including transgender people, regard it as a critical component of their sense of identity. If gender were ultimately to have no meaning, human life might not resemble much of anything in both the eschaton and life as we currently know it (Cornwall 2022:358).

Biblical texts, especially those that are referred to as 'clobber verses'¹ are read, quoted and interpreted to silence transgender individuals, which often resulted in hate and violence against transgender people. Ironically, these texts are used to both celebrate and condemn the transgender concept (Garcia 2018:1). Michels (2015:1) claims that if the queer-bashing tradition is a living tradition, especially among significant influencers within and outside the Church, prophetic voices and communities, then God will call his people to repent. They will be called to repent for the violence of marginalisation and worse, for the actions that they carry out, consciously or not, in God's Name, against non-heterosexual people. Biblical texts are therefore used for or against transgender people. However, these texts do not represent a checklist for stereotyping transgender people.

How do we respond to transgender people confronted with a body they were born with and who experience and perceive a sense of estrangement from their biological sex? Who we are in the present does not define who we will become, but what we are becoming in Christ. As a result of Christ's resurrection and the promise that he will return, we find out who we are in Christ (Makant 2016:410).

It is therefore essential to understand how inaugurated eschatology influences what it means to be transgender in Christ, what it means for the future of transgender existence and what it means for the theological topic of inaugurated eschatology.

 

Inaugurated eschatology

Eschatology is an intrinsic and a deep-seated part of revelation infused in the entire Bible. Texts about the end-time in the Old Testament refer to the 'Latter Days' prophesies. According to Beale (2016:5), these prophesies point to a time when the Messiah will defeat Israel's 'enemies when some gentiles will submit to God', a time in the future 'of God's reign on earth', Israel's redemption and 'restoration from exile', the crumbling of the empire, the establishment of God's Kingdom on earth, the great tribulation, Israel's deliverance, the resurrection and a new creation.² The term 'Latter Days' in the New Testament³ refers exclusively to the future regarding the coming of the Messiah. God's reign began with the Davidic king, Israel's enemies were defeated, and it marks the beginning of the tribulation, false teachings and persecution of God's people. Israel's restoration has already begun, Jesus was resurrected, and the outpouring of the Spirit and the resurrection took place (Beale 2016:8).

Generally, eschatology studies discuss matters of 'death, the intermediate state, the Second Coming of Christ, the resurrection, the last judgement' and the new Heaven and Earth. Having a teleological dimension, eschatology deals with hope, death, the future, and the belief that there is a life after death. Human beings therefore have a 'beyond' after death. Death is not the end of life or a final destination (Mayemba 2009:1). It is rather the coming of the inaugural eschatological Spirit, who is more than the charismata, who brings gifts of change and renewal for an eschatological reality that forms part of the view of the eschatological community and the Church.

Eschatological energy permeates every central tenet of the Christian religion. Beale uses green tinted sunglasses to explain that everything the disciples saw, had an end-time tint, much as everything seems green when you put on green tinted sunglasses. Christ had given his disciples eschatological glasses via the power of the Holy Spirit (Beale 2016:4).

According to Voelkel (2020:215), eschatology is a reflective thinking on our Christian faith and that would be at risk if we fail to realise the opportunities which our hope offers us. It has a profound impact on both the individual and the community as it is concerned with God's anticipated reign over all creation and the fulfilment of human existence. Eschatology is not only about death or the hereafter, but also about a common, fundamental hope for the world as it is right now. The fact that Jesus' work will only be consummated upon his Second Coming is significant for the idea of an inaugurated eschatological (Dunn 2021:18; Gladd & Harmon 2016:xi). God's Kingdom was formed when he manifested as Jesus Christ '(incarnation) to make peace between God and humans (cross)' (Dunn 2021:86; Gushee & Stassen 2016:96). The resurrection of Jesus and the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the Church acted as ultimate signs of the eschaton. Jesus' resurrection is not only a token of God's favour towards his son, but it also marks the beginning of the end times and their entry into human history (Beale 2016:17).

Inaugurated eschatology should also direct our understanding of who transgender people are in Christ. Transgender people are leaning toward alternative eschatologies, such as queer eschatology, gay eschatology and transgender eschatology because, according to Carroll (2021:1), '[w]e inhabit the world in a fundamentally different way, and thus experience God in a fundamentally different way - in many ways, a richer way than normative Christians'.

According to Yasuda (2022:72), who writes from a queer eschatological perspective, Christian eschatologies failed to take smaller ends⁴ into account, arguing that there are endless eschatological possibilities to deal with the end, such as the end of civilisation, nations, cultures, communities and people because of war, political and economic corruption and catastrophic natural events. She claims that transgender people criticise the Christian eschatology and advocate for an alternative eschatology (Yasuda 2022:73). The sense of injustice of a heteronormative future orientation brings about ends and deaths. However, queer temporalities reject this concept of time and instead suggest alternative eschato-/eschatologies by facing it and demanding the abolition of heterosexual eschatologies (Yasuda 2022:89). She places queer eschatology in the realm of postcolonial and decolonial challenges against the Western eschatology to decentralise the End (Yasuda 2022:87). Yasuda also argues that eschatology is achievable by laying bare how a Telos-orientated eschatology shapes time and how transgender people are haunted by an end that bears eschatological graveness for them (Yasuda 2022:87). Giffney (2008:61) states that transgender (queer) eschatology should persistently gaze toward the future, preparing for the arrival and the end of heteronormativity, adding that '[q]ueer Eschatology would … fantasize a queer heaven in the future or afterlife, not confronting (enough) the cruelty of the 'now' in our heteronormative world'.

Transgender interpreters contend that although gender is ill-defined, ephemeral or not particularly significant, it is important in some way, firstly because people, including transgender people, understand gender to be a fundamental part of their sense of self, and secondly, because if gender were ultimately to have no bearing, creaturely life in the eschaton might not be quite a resemblance of life as we know it in this world, causing us to stop being recognisable to ourselves (Cornwall 2022:359). Coakley (2013:283) states that gender in the eschaton 'will certainly not conform to anything we can catch and hold in gender stereotypes in this world', presumably because there would not be any gender in the afterlife. The last day will see the resurrection of transgender individuals, along with their biological sex and their related personal gender identity (Mason 2017:1 of 13).

According to Cornwall (2022:358), several implicit and explicit clues from the religious past show that after death, gender will not persist as it was on Earth, while Garcia (2018:11) narrates that our feeble, dishonourable and dying bodies will be turned into living, magnificent and powerful bodies because of the Holy Spirit's infusion and control, as the body's transformation is heralded by the resurrection. The body that will rise on the last day will be transformed, powerful, immortal and gorgeous and says Makant (2016:9), it includes biological sex and the associated personal gender identity.

This article postulates that gender fluidity is not a means to an end, but rather points to something more profound and deep, to the future as an eschatological horizon where bodies will be given final significance, a life of abundance in the Trinity, the moving of the Holy Spirit and where the 'restless, fluid postmodern body can find some sense of completion without losing its mystery, without succumbing again to appropriate or restrictive gender roles' (Coakley 2000:70).

People are experiencing a growing awareness of gender incongruence (Health Direct n.d.).⁵ The Sydney Report (2017), titled 'A theology of gender and gender identity', states that discussions on transgenderism have provoked more discussions on appropriate clinical and pastoral responses to gender. Research shows that over the past decade, different views on sex and gender arose, specifically those of people who experience gender congruence. Christians discuss sex and gender issues in light of the biblical principles of creation, including how human sin has corrupted and disordered it, how Christ's atonement has restored it and how eschatological hope holds out the possibility of renewal and restoration. It recognises the worth of every person as one made 'in the image of God, the biblical commandments of kindness and love' and the necessity of living by trust in Christ in submissive obedience to God's word (Sydney Report 2017).

 

The Holy Spirit and the 'Already/Not Yet' principle

The arrival of the Holy Spirit in the New Testament leads to both an eschatological anticipation of God's future work and the fulfilment of earlier eschatological expectations. The work of the Spirit makes future aspects of salvation a reality by giving us a foretaste of what is to come. The pneumatology is replete with this 'already/not yet' eschaton reality (Gabriel 2016:210).

The Spirit is the one who guarantees and guards our inheritance for the future, as his eschatological work continues through the future resurrection of believers. The outpouring of the Holy Spirit is directly linked with Jesus' exaltation, according to Acts 2:33: 'Exalted to the right hand of God, he has received from the Father the promised Holy Spirit and has poured out what you now see and hear'.

As the agent of inaugurated eschatology, the Holy Spirit forms and sanctifies the moral belief of a Christian society and promotes, among other, koinonia, social transformation, liberation, peace and the nurturing of the marginalised (Falconer 2018:97). With the coming of Jesus Christ, the Kingdom of God as the rule of God broke into history as a new inaugurated reality, into the world, being here but not of this world, both concealing and exposing, and is real but invisible (Eliastam 2009:vii, 124).

At Pentecost, God's promises were fulfilled, allowing the Kingdom of Jesus Christ to continue and advance the goal of creation for, in and with us (König 1989:42). It inaugurated the Kingdom of God's sacrament, and we will be empowered to bear witness to Christ's presence and the message of the forgiveness of sins. The Holy Spirit's outpouring at Pentecost marked the beginning of the end times, which are symbolised by Jesus' life, death and resurrection (Falconer 2018:97). Eliastam (2009) confirms:

[T]he power that transforms the body at the resurrection is the power of the Holy Spirit. The Spirit brings the future into the present, but in a way that is partial and incomplete. At the resurrection, the power of the Holy Spirit will be experienced to a degree that is utterly transforming and which reconstitutes our humanity. (p. 137)

The eschatological nature of the Spirit ought to compel us to embrace the 'radical nature of the authority' God has granted us. 'The Spirit is the foretaste of the age to come' (1 Cor 2:9-10; cf. Heb 6:4-5), as well as the 'first fruits' (Rm 8:23) and the 'down payment (2 Cor 1:22, 5:5, Eph 1:13-14) of our future inheritance'. 'The world should get a glimpse of the Kingdom by how believers treat one another' because those who are experiencing the powers of the age to come should be living examples of that age (Keener 2018:9). Robertson (2019:23) states that the Holy Spirit is also working in and 'through sexual minorities to bring about redemption and renewal in contemporary Christianity'. Carroll (2021:2) argues that although it is essential for our confession, it is easy to forget that the Christian religion is not only in the now but also in the future. It suggests that salvation is a fact that has already been revealed and started although it must still be completed. 'The eschatological gift of the Spirit is the fruit of God's liberating love' (Carroll 2021:2) also for transgender people.

After his resurrection, the last Adam has given his followers the life-giving Spirit. But according to Mason (2017), it does not imply an 'ontological fusion' between Christ and the Spirit, but rather that:

Christ is so identified with the Spirit that the Spirit becomes his Spirit: 'to have the Spirit is to have Christ; to have Christ is to have the Spirit'. (p. 8)

Therefore, just as God breathed the breath of life into Adam, the rising Christ breathed the Spirit into his disciples (Jn 20:22).

Jesus told his disciples in John 16:7 that it is to their advantage that he goes away and that he will live and work through the Holy Spirit, who will lead them in truth, conviction and redemption of sin, righteousness, and judgement (Jn 16:8). People are transformed into the likeness of Jesus Christ by the coming and work of the Holy Spirit, according to 2 Corinthians 3:18 (Mason 2017:8 of 13).

Although the inaugurated eschatology has already begun, we are still waiting for the Holy Spirit's future work; thus, an eschatological tension exists between what is 'now' and the 'not yet' and points to the link between the Kingdom of God and the arrival of the Holy Spirit (Gabriel 2016:207). Gabriel (2016:208) claims that the Spirit is the mark of the new covenant (not of the letter but of the Spirit), and it is the Spirit that gives life (2 Cor 3:6), the one who guides us to transform into the image of Jesus, with ever-increasing glory.

In Paul's eschatological context, the 'already' and 'not yet' are important because, according to Cornwall (2007:181), without it, the resurrection runs the risk of either being completely separated from the body or reduced to a psychological event that only affects the disciples rather than being a universal event. Paul views the resurrection as something that the believer already participates in as it is rooted in the historical resurrection of Christ, but it is also somehow deferred to the end of time. This is important because we live in the 'already', and as believers we have been made new as Paul argues in 2 Corinthians 5:17, 'If anyone is in Christ, that person is a new creation'. However, we still live in an imperfect, fallen world while we wait for Jesus' return when all the remaining imperfect bodies and the world will be transformed and renewed. The 'already/not yet' principle implies that believers actively and directly participate in the Kingdom of God.

Paul's use of the phrase 'in Christ' implies experiencing the eschatological tension that results from the fact that, despite God's previous grace and redemption of them from slavery (1 Cor 2:20), Christians still commit sin, still die and still require a complete transformation into the likeness of Christ. Christians enjoy Christ and his gifts, but when redemption is complete, there will be incomparably more to come (Thiselton 2000:90). One of the many 'in Christ' texts that describe the new reality brought about by the in-breaking Kingdom of God is Galatians 3:26-29. The religious Christian community should define and build the future, which is already permeating the present, in all facets of life, including transgender relations (Eliastam 2009:127).

Although diverse views and theories exist on how this will happen and how the change will be affected, a consensus exists that it points to the coming of the Kingdom of God (Eliastam 2009:93). The Kingdom as 'already' and 'not yet' gives rise to an eschatological tension between the present and the future, where the coming of the Kingdom implies that we both live in this age and the one to come. We live in the present Kingdom, as God's reign is breaking into this world with the knowledge (eschatological hope) of a future reality while waiting for the final consummation (Eliastam 2009:118).

At the resurrection, the Holy Spirit will fill and control our weak and dying bodies (those of us who are then still on Earth) and transform them into living, glorious bodies. This is the start of a glorious transformation into the image of God. Because it signifies our renewal and reintegration as moral beings, the resurrection is good news. The risen Christ has sent the Spirit to his followers to transform and change them altogether, down to the depths of their beings, even in the lowest and most challenging parts of their life, rather than merely their mortal bodies (Mason 2017:12 of 13).

According to 1 Corinthians 15 and Luke 20:27-39, eschatological hope is fundamentally linked with bodily resurrection. Paul ties the resurrection of our bodies to the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15) and states in Philippians 3:21 that our bodies will resemble Christ's magnificent body. As a result, the body of the resurrected Christ serves as a model for the resurrection of our bodies and helps us to understand its nature (Eliastam 2009:136).

The Kingdom of God must necessarily come in a hermeneutical way (cf. Carroll 2021:3), so that people can use their past experience to find a way to the salvific reality, which is Christ's revelation under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. This indicates that Christian salvation lives in a condition of 'already/not yet', realised in an interaction between positive and negative experiences that is rooted in the reality that the Kingdom of God has yet to become fully realised but can partially be witnessed through history. However, for Carroll (2021:3), this world is insufficient for transgender people because there exists a future in which queerness may be fully realised, Muñoz (2009:1, cited by Carroll 2021:3) endorses it: 'Queerness is a structuring and educated mode of desiring that allows us to see and feel beyond the impasse of the present'.

The Spirit was poured out at Pentecost on all genders - thus all human beings that are his followers, are equal through the Holy Spirit. As a redemptive movement, it brings a sense of equality when and where gender inequality persists. It is my position that all genders are eligible for this Spirit-given gift.

 

The Image of God: A symbol for transgender inclusion and human dignity

The teachings, practices and structures of Christianity have history and continue to do so in gendered ways (Beattie 2014). Genesis 1 presents the beginning of humanity. Humanity was given the power to dominate, fill and conquer the planet through reproduction after being created as male and female in God's image and likeness.

All people are ontologically and fundamentally the same. Every person was made in the image of God, and therefore we all possess the same worth and dignity. The imago Dei identifies the core of who we are as people. Our gender, as well as cultural, emotional and experiential factors, is crucial but not essential (Esqueda 2018). The idea of the imago Dei can be used as a sign representing the worth of each individual and the dignity of all genders and is a symbol that can be used against all forms of gender inequality (Szczerba 2020:13).

The concept of the imago Dei can be used to symbolise inclusion and fundamental human dignity for transgender people. One's identity is in the core of one's character, being created in God's image (Lidums 2004:78). We are not only created in God's image but also as God's image, which is significant for the dignity and identity of all human beings, including transgender people. Although much has been done to enhance transgender equality, there is still a widespread abuse and violence against these groups (Marumo & Chakale 2019:8). The concept of the imago Dei can serve as a religious symbol of inclusion and human dignity (Szczerba 2020:14).

Robertson (2019:49) makes a case for transgenders in the Church in what he calls 'a more inclusive vision for the Kingdom of God'. He uses Peter (Ac 10:9-16) to argue his views on the inclusivity of transgenders in the Kingdom of God as created in God's image. Peter who fell into a God-induced trance received the calling in a dream to preach the gospel to unclean gentiles. He heard the voice of God saying, 'Stand up, kill, and eat'. After he replied that he could not kill and eat unclean animals, God responded, 'Do not call unclean which I have made clean'. After Peter's trance, Cornelius requested him to come and preach the gospel to him and his household. That is when Peter realised the vision was not about unclean animals but unclean people. For Robertson (2019:53), the conversion of the gentiles became the cornerstone for an inclusive theology, as Cheng (2011:8) notes that the dissolution of clean and unclean started with the ministry of Jesus Christ and his interactions with 'unholy' individuals that became the theological approach of the earliest prophets.

Referring to Peter as an example to argue for the inclusion of transgender people, Robertson (2019:54) opines that the authors of the Bible came to understand that gender and sex evolved towards an egalitarian approach, and it points to an ethical trajectory of a more liberating and inclusive posture for all people. If this is true for women, Robertson argues, the same trajectories are also key to the inclusion of transgender people. Kirk (2016) states that:

For the same reason that we cannot claim anymore that men are better than women, for the same reason that we do not hold to a biblical view of marriage in which a man owns his wife, for the same reason that we err in excluding women from leading as they are gifted by the Spirit, the ground has been cut out from the ancient framework that excludes the notion of same-sex intercourse. (n.p.)

Robertson (2019:57) states that social views in the Bible dominated non-conforming effeminate men by keeping them under their power to control and influence society. If a trajectory of liberation for sex and social class is visible, there should also be a trajectory of liberation for sexual minorities. The Holy Spirit is working in and through sexual and gender minorities to bring about redemption and renewal in the Christian faith, while the ethical trajectories of the biblical texts generally point towards more inclusive ways of perceiving and being in the world (Robertson 2019:23).

Theologically, our identities are revealed in our relationship with God in Jesus Christ. Through the concepts of inclusion and human dignity, transgender people are part of the imago Dei in the same way. The imago Dei includes all genders, regardless of religious beliefs, because the imago Dei should serve as a symbol for the inclusion of all genders to be treated with human dignity.

 

Conclusion: Listen to their voices

I often say that trans bodies are cathedrals.

Why? Because cathedrals

are so often partially knocked down, and rebuilt,

and different parts are in utterly distinct styles,

and they're still beautiful, still holy.

Even filled with scaffolding.

Even in the middle of being remade. (Hulme, J., 2021, [Twitter] 9 October. Available at: @jayhulmepoet (Viewed 9 October 2021).

This article aimed to discuss transgender people suffering under stigmatisation, prejudice and social exclusion as if they are excluded from being human and therefore created in the image of God. The focus is on transgender identity, the concept of inaugurated eschatology as the 'already/not yet' with the coming of the Holy Spirit, the restoration of God's image and the inclusion of transgender people in the Kingdom of God. Transgender people also form part of the imago Dei, which symbolises the inclusion and human dignity of all human beings.

The transgender movement is growing, and Christianity needs to address this issue with wisdom. We must acknowledge that transgender people's bodies, sexuality and selfhood are participating in the Kingdom of God. As a result, an inaugurated eschatological reality implies that transgender individuals might come to know themselves through the Holy Spirit's transformational process, not by looking backward to a predetermined order but by looking forward to beginning a road of unexpected transformation.

Transgender authors such as Yasuda, Roberson and Carroll, whose documents are used in this article, express the need to be heard and seek peaceful integration and inclusion in the Christian community, together with the opportunity to demonstrate that, even though they are transgender, they are like any other Christian.

From creation to Christ's birth, suffering and resurrection, the human body is fundamental to the Christian faith. Being embodied souls does not mean that souls are imprisoned in bodies. Thus, being physically embodied is a fundamental component of the human experience, including the experience of transgender people. We 'are' our bodies and they are excellent, not just that we 'have' them.

If we reason that believers are one in Christ, then we should do everything in our ability to prevent exclusion and promote the inclusion of transgender people. Humans do not exactly know what the nature of the bodily resurrection is. Yet they can comprehend that there are still suffering bodies that prompt people to seek as much of their redemption as they can here on Earth.

We must grow a culture where we can listen to the voices of transgender individuals who are confronted with the bodies that they were born with, but experience estrangement from their biological sex. Considering this, we might interpret their transition in a theologically eschatological manner, in order to promote healing and wholeness - a wholeness that serves holiness in that it creates a space for an embodied encounter with reciprocal grace. God's in-breaking into the world to come, gives us hope for redemption, resurrection and reconciliation, and this hope includes transgender people.

Queer people were denied the opportunity to live as fully human beings and are often entrapped in a society that fundamentally negates their existence. Although they understand that this world is not the end to everything, a future for queerness and transgenders can be fully realised in the eschaton. Muñoz (2009) states:

Queerness is not here yet. Queerness is an identity. Put another way, we are not yet queer. We may never touch queerness, but we can feel it as the warm illumination of a horizon imbued with potentiality. We have never been queer, yet queerness exists for us as an identity that can be distilled from the past and used to imagine a future. The future is queerness's domain. Thus, transgender identity is the hope for a better fluid future. (p. 37)

There is a moral order in creation that God constructed for the formation of human beings, including their sex, gender and gender identity. The resurrection strengthens, renews and perfects this moral order and speaks to questions of gender dysphoria difficulties in general and ethical challenges with a gender reassignment in particular. One can only say this with sensitivity, gentleness and patience, as well as clarity. We are not autonomous moral agents possessing absolute authority over our bodies and their sexual form; we live in a moral space that is shaped by God's purposes in creation and its renewal in the resurrection.

Despite the fluidity of gender (and the resulting implicit potential to diverge), having a sex is different from being a gender, as it 'presumes a fixed body' through which gender may be performed or onto which gender can be 'carved out'. To speculate about the possibility of having several genders and ask what it means to enact trans identities, people seldom examine the possibility of not having any visibly gendered traits.

An eschatological vision of inclusivity is a reality for transgender Christians who have their own physical concerns and who experience rejection and shame. I concur with Grenz (2001:321-322) that transgender people who are united with Jesus Christ share a relationship with God as the Son is the eternal Son. Even while this is already the case, the ecclesial self,⁶ which comprised of participation in divine life, remains fundamentally future and is only partially present in this era. Therefore, the ecclesial self is essentially eschatological.

We all have moral and social responsibilities and should react against the abuse and exploitation of transgender people. All genders have a human nature, given to us by God's action in creation and are equally ontologically interconnected parts of the same body. We are responsible for reflecting the relational imago Dei towards each other as brothers and sisters, whether we agree on gender issues or not.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contribution

H.W. has declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, or the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Hannelie Wood
hannelie.wood@gmail.com

Received: 18 Sept. 2023
Accepted: 02 Feb. 2024
Published: 28 Mar. 2024

 

 

1. Examples are Leviticus 18:22, 20:13, 1 Corinthians 6:9, 1 Timothy 1:10, Romans 1:26-27 and Genesis 19:1-29.
2. Old Testament: Genesis 49:1: Jacob's prophecy concerning the futures; Numbers 24:14: Balaam's prophecy; Isaiah 2:2: Some gentiles submit to God; Ezekiel 38:16: Israel oppressed; Hosea 3:4-5: Return from exile; Daniel 2:28: Empires crumble and divine kingdom set up; Daniel 10:14: Coming of the antichrist and persecution; Daniel 12:2: Resurrection.
3. Outside of Paul's corpus are texts such as 2 Peter 3:2-3; John 6:39-40, 44, 54; John 11:24; John 12:48 and 1 Peter 1:5, 20. In Paul's letters, the term 'latter days' is used in 1 Corinthians 10:11; Galatians 4:4-7; Ephesians 1:9-10, 20 and 1 Timothy 4:1.
4. Yasuda (2022:71) uses the term 'smaller ends' to refer to as the end of civilisation, nations, cultures, communities and people because of war, political and economic corruption and catastrophic natural events.
5. 'Gender incongruence' is the term people use when they choose another gender than the one they were born with. People with gender incongruence may describe themselves as transgender (trans) or gender diverse (2024 Healthdirect Australia Limited).
6. For a further discussion on the ecclesial self, see Grenz (2001:303, 305, 312-331).

^rND^sBeale^nG.K.^rND^sBeattie^nT.^rND^sCarroll^nR.^rND^sCoakley^nS.^rND^sGabriel^nA.K.^rND^sGiffney^nN.^rND^sHuttunen^nH.^rND^sMakant^nM.^rND^sMarumo^nP.O.^rND^sChakale^nM.^rND^sSzczerba^nW.^rND^sVoelkel^nB.^rND^sWood^nH.J.^rND^sYasuda^nM.^rND^1A01^nTimothy W.^sShirley^rND^1A01^nMalan^sNel^rND^1A02^nEsias E.^sMeyer^rND^1A01^nTimothy W.^sShirley^rND^1A01^nMalan^sNel^rND^1A02^nEsias E.^sMeyer^rND^1A01^nTimothy W^sShirley^rND^1A01^nMalan^sNel^rND^1A02^nEsias E^sMeyer

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Building welcoming and inclusive congregations: Biblical hospitality as a theological paradigm

 

 

Timothy W. Shirley^I; Malan Nel^I; Esias E. Meyer^II

^IDepartment of Practical Theology and Mission, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria,South Africa
^IIDepartment of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article addresses the question, 'how can congregations that exhibit prejudice toward LGBTQQIA+ persons (different expressions of nonheterosexuality), overcome bias and discriminatory practices to become missionally holistic, hospitably welcoming, and inclusive of these individuals?'. The answer can be found in engaging an alternative biblical hermeneutic that emphasises the socio-historical context of a given narrative, thus creating a broader and deeper understanding of the principle of biblical hospitality as a fundamental theological premise inherent within the Judeo-Christian scriptures. Accomplishing transformative change demands intentionality by clergy equipped to engage the issues effectively. Pastoral ministers must cultivate the exegetical skills needed to guide local missional churches towards greater inclusivity, with the goal of creating more hospitably welcoming and inclusive faith communities.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article engages a dialogue between biblical and practical theology as missional praxis supporting congregational development as ecclesial reformational transformation to enable local churches to become hospitably welcoming and inclusive

Keywords: biblical theology; congregational development; exegesis; hermeneutics; hospitality; inclusivity; LGBTQQIA+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, asexual-aromantic/agender, plus); nonheterosexuality; progressivism; postmodernism.

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Introduction

In the early 1990s, Tony Campolo (1988:105-120) named homosexuality one of the 20 'hot potato' issues facing the Church. Campolo's prediction quickly came to be realised as Christian denominations, and churches struggled to engage matters related to nonheterosexual persons. The results have been mixed, with churches in opposition refusing to embrace an unqualified invitation to all people. Ecclesial opinions continue to be varied on the subject with sides being intractably taken, and conflict and schism, often accompanied by forced removal from denominational affiliation, sometimes an unfortunate result.

 

Background

The Church throughout its history has generally considered nonheterosexual behaviour in any context to be sinful. Prior to his becoming Pope Benedict xvi, Cardinal Joseph A. Ratzinger (2003) called homosexuality 'deviant'. To uphold traditional Church teachings on matters of human sexuality, Ratzinger blanketly condemned nonheterosexuality, with homosexual acts singled out as the most immoral. It may be argued that the purpose of Ratzinger's pronouncement, that his motivation determining his methodology as the head of the Catholic Church as its major gatekeeper, was to preserve the status quo traditionally accepted in Roman Catholic ecclesiology and theology. It may also be argued that Pope Benedict, while being practical, was not engaging practical theology. The current Pope Francis, has certainly taken a more open and less judgemental stance with the LGBTQQIA+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, asexual-aromantic/agender, plus) community, including a way, devoid of a Sanctuary and Sacrament, to bless the relationships of nonheterosexual couples (cf. Becky Sullivan¹).

For the purposes of this article, Church (upper case C) (from the Greek ecclesia), refers to the universal Church namely, the faith movement begun by early followers of Jesus of Nazareth. The term church (lower case c) refers to a local gathering of persons for the purpose of religious or spiritual worship or instruction. In this context, the term church is used to describe Christian congregations exclusively.

Views regarding nonheterosexuality are made from a surface reading based on 6 to 12 presumably prohibitive texts, a number determined by the way these scriptures are grouped. These specific biblical texts are historically cited to forbid nonheterosexual acts (Gn 9:20-27 and 19; Lv 18:22 and 20:13; Jdg 19; Rm 1:21; 26, 27; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Tm 2 1:10; Pt 2 2:6; and Jud 1:7). These texts being acknowledged, the Church and local missional congregations, particularly over the last three decades, have had reason to revisit and reconsider how best to relate to nonheterosexuals. Narrow biblical and theological perspectives regarding persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation are becoming increasingly subject to debate because of the influence of science, particularly scientific discoveries found in the fields of anthropology, biology, psychology, and sociology. Arguments once considered settled are now being approached by many congregations that are pondering a more open perspective, allowing for a broader position, creating dramatic shifts in corporate life.

The letters LGBTQQIA+ serve to define different expressions of nonheterosexuality, including persons of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, asexual-aromantic/agender, plus orientation. Some individuals prefer 'pansexual', determining that this term is broader and more expressive than say, bisexual. Despite members of the LGBTQQIA+ community being categorised as a homogenous group, these individuals are diverse and varied in their political, social, and theological preferences. For the purposes of this article, however, these individuals are discussed as a community, because as such they continue to be ostracised by churches because of their sexual or gender orientation. Not surprisingly, however, the results of the research did indicate that churches affirming of this people group are employing a wide range of ministries in their attempts to engage this community, while recognising the diversity within it.

 

The role of the Bible and tradition

From its canonisation, the Bible has been used by Christians to support dogmatic viewpoints leading to doctrines and creeds. Those who consider themselves biblical literalists often claim the text to be 'infallible' and 'inerrant'. From such a narrow perspective, biblical texts may seem clear on many issues, and especially so regarding nonheterosexuality. Church leaders, however, should encourage parishioners to consider more than just the written words. By applying the best methods of current biblical scholarship to their preaching and teaching, clergy can help congregants engage meaning beyond the words themselves. There is always more to these ancient texts than may appear from a surface reading, particularly with regard to the contextual and cultural milieu of a narrative (Bessler 2020:4-5, 8). Providing parishioners with a window into the complexities of the biblical narrative may help sincere Christians raise appropriate questions and address a major ecclesial concern in this 21st century postmodern era.

Throughout the Church's institutional evolution, congregations have faced numerous societal challenges to ecclesial authority and influence. This article explores the impact of synthesising an interrelated intersection of biblical hospitality, ancient Near Eastern hospitality - including its contemporary praxis - and the role of science in forming the nexus driving ecclesial inclusivity as a means toward building up a local missional church. A local church can certainly be missional and not be inclusive of the LGBTQQIA+ community, but that is a debate for someone else on another day. This article argues for a more comprehensive, holistic, hospitable welcome and inclusion of all persons. Biblical and ancient Near Eastern hospitality go hand in hand, both of which no doubt informs and impacts the other. The customary practices contained within each create a paradigm for hospitably welcoming those generally deemed to be the other, in this case persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation. For some churches, this unbound invitation has served to revitalise them in new and exciting ways, giving these willing congregations a new life, a dynamic which has certainly served to build them up in ways never imagined. By design, the connections between the Bible, Near Eastern hospitality as an ancient custom and practice, including its contemporary, postmodern, expressions, and scientific discovery, all combined can bring about processes towards reformational transformation in terms of mission and ministry (Nel 2015).

Although volumes of literature (cf. Alexander & Preston 1996; Baird & Baird 1995; Cleaver 1995; Edwards 1985; Glaser 1990; Kader 1999; Piazza 1997; White 1994) exist on the topics of nonheterosexuality and the Bible and nonheterosexuality and the Church, little consensus has been achieved regarding the issues. In his book on practical theology, Ray S. Anderson (2001, 266-283) includes a chapter titled 'Homosexuality', in which he discusses the inherent challenges of missional ministry with LGBTQQIA+ persons. Anderson (2001) presents the usual pro and con arguments, and determines that,

… a theological and pastoral approach to the issue of homosexuality within the church must consider a wider spectrum of biblical teaching than the few texts that condemn specific homosexual acts. (p. 271)

Succinctly stated, Anderson advocates for a larger role for the Bible in practical theology.

This article advocates for the Church and local missional churches to explore deeper meanings within biblical texts traditionally believed to exclude this specific people group, as well as texts calling for respecting and welcoming outsiders. Through this work, Christians can find support for embracing persons of nonheterosexual orientation and inviting them into every aspect of congregational life.

 

Practical theology and the study of hospitality

A potential task of practical theological inquiry may be to objectively address the convergence of the Bible, the Church, and persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation by examining all sides of this complex issue. This process would include dialogue and debate about positions held by the Church throughout its institutional history. In this regard, the goal of practical theology is to explore new ecclesial possibilities based on a broader and deeper understanding of a people group that has been subject to abuse, ostracism, and rejection. An exegetical study of the Bible that employs the best methods of modern biblical scholarship can lead local missional churches to a more hospitable hermeneutic. Such discussions must not be isolated within academia, but also readily available in local congregational settings. Clergy have a responsibility to assimilate this information from recognised scholarly sources and disseminate it among the laity. Clergy who attend theological institutions which teach historical-critical methodologies will possess the tools needed to explore the cultural milieu that framed the biblical texts relevant to such discussions. When this level of scholarship is lacking, however, congregants may remain unaware of the contextual complexity that spawned a given text.

Congregational development and hospitality

In his book Identity Driven Churches: Who Are We, and Where Are We Going? Malan Nel provides a detailed analysis of the steps that are necessary for determining and formulating identity and enacting transformational reformation as a byproduct of this kind of process, creating an environment for the kind of change that is impactful and contains integrity of process (Nel 2015:203-346). The goal put forth by Nel (2015:12) is to, not only describe 'in a positive way what Congregational Development or building up missional congregations of local churches is all about', but to outline ways that congregations can develop their self-understood identity and can then go about the task of transformational reformation that will empower a local missional church to go about the business of being on mission. 'It is a matter of being and not so much of doing missions' (Nel 2015:12). The hard work with any congregational initiative begins with a church determining who and what it is, discovering and claiming its purpose for being, and then moving towards strategic action plans. Nel reminds his reader that the starting point for any congregational conversation in terms of 'building up' a local missional church requires, 'What the Bible has to say about this subject' as 'the primary consideration', with 'most theological paths' coming 'together on this point' (Nel 2015:13). Nel (2015) adds:

The use of this metaphor [building up] in Scripture and the particular meaning given to it by Jesus and especially Paul is of great value for congregational/development/building up or cultivating a local church in our own time. (p. 13)

As is always the case with any ecclesial dialogue, the Bible is the beginning point for any consideration, always at the centre of any debate or discussion.

Osmer's four tasks of practical theology and hospitality

Practical theologian Richard R. Osmer offers a framework for gaining clarity around engaging an issue or problem within a local congregational setting, including ways to find solutions. Osmer offers four questions representing four tasks, suggesting that these must be asked, not only when engaging in practical theological research, but in addressing concerns and solving problems within local churches as well. The tasks and accompanying questions are included here.

1. The descriptive-empirical task. Gathering information that helps us discern patterns and dynamics in particular episodes, situations, or contexts. What is going on? (Helminiak 1994).

2. The interpretive task. Drawing on theories of the arts and sciences to better understand and explain why these patterns and dynamics are occurring. Why is this going on? (Levine 2022).

3. The normative task. Using theological concepts to interpret particular episodes, situations, or contexts, constructing ethical norms to guide our responses, and learning from 'good practice'. What ought to be going on? (Spong 2005).

4. The pragmatic task. Determining strategies of action that will influence situations in ways that are desirable and entering into a reflective conversation with the 'talk back' emerging when they are enacted. How might we respond? (Osmer 2008:4; Trible 2022).

In his blog, 'Imagining the Normative Task of Practical Theology', Wesley Ellis (2015) comments:

We cannot offer something as normative if it only includes a privileged few. The God revealed in Jesus Christ - the God who shares God's very identity with the 'least of these' (cf. Mt 25) - refuses to afford us such exclusivity.

As John Swinton (2000) has argued:

If a definition includes the weak and vulnerable … then this is a strong indication that such an understanding may be concomitant with the God who reveals [Godself] in the Biblical narrative and especially in the life of Jesus, that is, as a valid theological understanding. If it in any way excludes such people, then it must be considered an inauthentic representation of the God who 'secures justice for the poor and upholds the cause of the needy … '. (n.p.)

Osmer employs a pragmatic circle or cycle, or as Kevin G. Smith (2010:101) prefers, 'the hermeneutical spiral', to clarify the interdependency among these four tasks. Using Osmer's paradigmatic guide in discussing nonheterosexual persons in relation to the Bible and to the Church, clarity begins to emerge as to ways to engage what is frequently a controversial subject confronting both denominational and nondenominational churches. 'What is going on?' is the fact that many congregations continue exclusionary practices, discriminating against persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation based on biblical theology. 'Why is this going on?' is based on a traditional biblical and theological premise that nonheterosexuality is sinful and is thus a disqualifier for church membership and even attendance. This traditional understanding is born of the idea that human sexuality is based on a choice to be made or is the result of influence and environment rather than being a natural part of the DNA of an individual. 'What ought to be going on?' is exploring another perspective gleaned from careful biblical exegesis determining a different, perhaps new, hermeneutic that removes traditional barriers to church participation by persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation and thus hospitably welcoming and including them into every aspect of a local missional church's corporate life.

Root's broadening of Osmer's model: Now what?

Andrew Root (2014), commenting on Osmer's model, declares,

Therefore, from my perspective, it may be better to see Osmer's normative question, what ought to be happening? not solely in an ethical frame, but also in a revelatory one, that is, asking, what ought to be happening [what ways should we perceive of reality, ourselves, the church, our practice, and conceptions of God] now that God has encountered us? What ought to happen now that we have experienced the event of God's encounter? I might change this question to, now what? After we've had an experience with the living Christ, now that the divine presence has come to us in hole or dream, in our very concrete and lived experience, ministering to us. Now that we've called these experiences real, now what?. (p. 26)

The approach Root takes to the normative task of practical theology indicates a desire to discover new pathways, new avenues for growth and development in local churches. There is less emphasis on preserving traditional paradigms and ministry models, and more emphasis on increasing missional opportunities. Underneath the movement toward becoming hospitably welcoming and inclusive of all persons is the hope of the Church that the movement of God will be experienced in the process, as LGBTQQIA+ persons become the focus of love rather than judgement. 'How might we respond?' is found in honestly engaging the issues, developing an openness to persons of every sexual orientation, and valuing all individuals for who they are and were created to be. It may be said that Root's motivation, always determining methodology, is found in addressing a mode of engaging practical theology while not specifying a particular issue.

The nature and scope of the research

In a survey of 22 randomly selected ministers from four denominational bodies known to include churches that are hospitably welcoming and inclusive of the LGBTQQIA+ community, participants recommended ways to empower local churches to become more inviting of this specific people group. Survey transcripts were analysed with both the ATLAS.ti and NVivo qualitative analysis instruments. The results revealed the consistent influence of ecclesial and theological environments on the faith formation of these clergy. Beliefs and practices were, for the most part, developed from childhood and youth. One consistent comment among these pastors was the need for better and deeper Bible study. These pastors argued for modern biblical scholarship as a necessary tool in the curricula and the didactic programmes of the church. Discovering textual nuance, subtleties, and variants within a given text can lead to finding meanings with greater breadth and depth. One interviewee recommended that churches

[D]eeply study the Bible, paying careful attention to literal interpretations of scripture that I (and many others) would argue do not exist. Be open to metaphorical interpretations of texts where we admit what we do not know, understanding the ways that symbol and meaning change from one eon to the next.

Another clergy person noted the need to 'Read the Bible through the lens of historical and theological understanding. This approach demands taking a thorough delving into the biblical narrative'.

The origins of hospitality as a customary practice

According to New Testament scholar John Koenig (1985:2), hospitality is 'inherited from the ancient Greek and near-Eastern peoples … concerning a sacred (unbreakable) bond between guests and hosts', an ancient practice 'which has virtually disappeared from contemporary Western culture…' Koenig (1992:299) points out that 'the practice of receiving a guest or stranger graciously was common to many social groups throughout the period in which the OT and NT were composed'. Hospitality was first practised by nomads and eventually codified by the Bedouins to assure safe travel among mistrusting tribes and clans. O'Gorman (2005:146) observes that 'the oldest collection of texts that refer to hospitality are those of the literary genre of ancient Near East texts'. Koenig (1992) notes that:

[T]he practice of receiving a guest or stranger graciously was common to many social groups throughout the period in which the OT and NT were composed. But special nuances of hospitality, particularly regarding the guest and host roles played by God or Christ, serve to distinguish the notions of the biblical writers from those of their contemporaries. (p. 299)

Martin (2014:2) argues 'that any attempt to construct a Christian theology of hospitality must utilize a variety of resources, including theology, Christian tradition, political realities, social customs and the biblical witness'. Tuohy (2012:35) notes that in the ancient Near East, eating was rarely done alone and food sharing was a core component of hospitality as a cultural phenomenon of this period. John Dominic Crossan (1991:261-264) argues for 'open commensality' as a distinguishing element in Jesus' proclamation and modelling of the 'kingdom of God'. He declares, 'An open table and an open menu offered alike against any cultural situation in which distinctions among foods and guests mirror social distinctions, discriminations, and hierarchies' (Crossan 1991:262). As R. Alan Culpepper (conversation, December 2023) notes, "Jesus" 'eating with tax collectors and sinners' was particularly scandalous to Pharisees who formed chaburot or communities that observed strict ritual purity so that they would not be rendered unclean by eating with someone who did not maintain their standards of purity'. It could be argued that hospitality in the form of table fellowship, even more than circumcision, was the most controversial issue facing the early Church as it expanded beyond Jewish proselytes to embrace Gentiles heavily influenced by Hellenistic culture.

Katherine Southwood (2018) notes that,

Hospitality is an extremely evocative topic with political, cultural, and ethical overtones that induces unrelenting questions about how the stranger, traveler or migrant is to be welcomed. It suggests a structure which dichotomizes social relations between self and Other, inside and outside, kin and non-kin, home and away, private and public, as well as guest and host, both on an individual and at an international level. The concept is enormously relevant for contemporary discussions concerning migration but is an equally important idea for examining narratives of migration within the Hebrew Bible. (p. 469-470)

Expanding on Katherine Southwood's thesis (2018:469-470), hospitality may be extended to any individual or group that lives on the fringes of society, the dispossessed and disenfranchised. Interpreted in this manner, hospitality can be understood as a social justice issue involving any person at any time, in any circumstance or situation. This is certainly the case with regard to the LGBTQQIA+ community which has long been shunned by society in general, and the Church and the churches in particular. Southwood's work calls for a much broader circle of inclusion, made possible by a studying scripture with a new biblical hermeneutic employing greater objectivity and the latest and best exegetical tools and techniques.

Biblical hospitality

It might be argued that hospitality, as conceived among nomadic cultures in the ancient Near East and codified by the Bedouins, has largely been overlooked as a biblical and thus a theological concept. First appearing as a detailed event in Genesis 18 in the story of Abraham, Sarah, and their surprise guests by the oaks of Mamre, hospitality subtly and strongly appears as a recurring theme throughout the Bible. From the care of widows and orphans to the respect and protection of those referred to in the Hebrew Bible as aliens, foreigners, and strangers, to the numerous individuals and groups welcomed into his circle by Jesus, including the embrace by the early Church of Gentiles, the Bible offers a panoramic view of hospitable welcome and inclusion. An understanding and embrace of hospitality as a theological premise based in the Bible has the potential to assist clergy in their profound roles as transformational leaders. Hospitality as a biblical and theological concept has for the most part been lost or overlooked, the term now associated with the 'hospitality industry', including inns, hotels, motels, restaurants, and other service-related businesses. While hospitality has come to be defined from this contemporary perspective, this term has a long and storied history birthed in the ancient Near East. A recovery of hospitality located in its foundational roots not only seems to be an imperative for contemporary congregations but has the potential to offer local missional churches new avenues for discovering an unqualified welcome and inclusion of all people, in this specific case the embrace of a people often shunned by the Church, persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation. Biblical hospitality then and now is a rich resource, a treasure trove, of rich theological imagery that can be foundational, a significant building block to developing congregational identity or ethos, an instrument of grace, a tool enhancing the ability of clergy to work toward 'building up' local missional churches. Biblical hospitality as a theological concept can directly aid in the reformational transformation of churches seeking to broaden the scope of their invitation, to widen the circle of what should be an ever-expanding reach as a mandate of what is called the Great Commission in the Gospel of Matthew. According to certain scholars, the phrase panta ta ethnē is better translated as 'people', rather than 'nations' some suggesting that the text refers exclusively to the inclusion of Gentiles while others posit that it also includes Jews (cf. Culpepper 2021:582; Danker 2000, 276; Stagg 1955). Matthew 28:18 and Acts 1:8 both call the Church to resist every impulse toward nationalisation and tribalisation, including every discriminatory social, ethnic, or gender boundary.

 

A pivotal text

The quintessential text demanding the level of exegetical analysis that has been described is the story of Lot and his guests in the story of Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis 19. The text is traditionally understood as a blanket condemnation of homosexuality because of the desire of the mob of men at Sodom desiring to gang rape Lot's visitors. A careful review of the text strongly indicates that the sin in question in Sodom was that of inhospitality, homosexual rape being the occasion and not the issue at stake in the narrative. While there has been significant debate regarding the interpretation of Genesis 19, Old Testament scholars such as Walter Brueggemann argue that homosexuality was not the root cause of the condemnation of Sodom and Gomorrah (Brueggemann 1982:164). The fate of Sodom, based on its wickedness, had already been sealed, Abraham previously bartering for sparing the city (Gn 18:22-32). Ezekiel (16:49) claims that other sins were committed at Sodom while the Gospel of Matthew (10:15) attributes a quote to Jesus who authenticates inhospitality as the egregious violation of the male citizenry of Sodom. This is the kind of intensive study that needs to be invoked whenever one of the presumably prohibitive texts is cited in condemnation of homosexual behaviour. The comments gleaned from the clergy interviewed regarding their views on biblical hospitality and homosexuality are reminders of the need for a deeper engagement of the Bible, something to which all Christians could probably agree.

 

An exemplar case study engaging a New Hermeneutic

Gerald O. West, Sithembiso Zwame, and Charlene van der Walt (2021:5-23), in an article titled 'From Homosexuality to Hospitality; from Exclusion to Inclusion; from Genesis 19 to Genesis 18', which is a contemporary theological project, have conducted an interesting Contextual Bible Study (CBS). They invert Genesis 18 and 19, reading them in reverse order, to illustrate clearly that hospitality, versus inhospitality fuelled by hostility, is the actual sin committed by the men at Sodom, rather than homosexuality. Their research provides a working example of the way the Bible can be approached through the lens of practical theology. In their contrast of the hospitality described in Genesis 18 and the inhospitality described in Genesis 19, clear distinctions come into view. It can be argued that gang rape, misappropriated as homosexuality, was the occasion in the story at Lot's house in Sodom, but that the lack of hospitality was the defining issue. Misinterpretation and misunderstanding of the thrust of this text has led to centuries of homophobic behaviour, exacerbated by an obviously biased agenda, and resulting in pain and sorrow for LGBTQQIA+ individuals. By 'moving textually from Genesis 19 to Genesis 18 and moving contextually from concerns about homosexuality and exclusion to concerns about hospitality and inhospitality and inclusion', (2021:5) conversations can be initiated that address the traditional biblical and theological interpretations and understandings about homosexuality specifically and nonheterosexuality in general. This textual approach can also serve as a springboard to discuss human sexuality from a more holistic perspective, considering ideas from anthropology, biology, psychology, and sociology.

Citing the work of the Ujamaa Centre at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, West, Zwane, and Walt describe the way that this organisation devotes itself to agendas related to social justice, human sexuality being but one part of the equation defining marginalised individuals and people groups. The approach of the Ujamaa Centre incorporates a practical theological methodology that undergirds its goal and purpose in striving to facilitate social change, enacting a different societal perspective, understanding that necessary societal shifts can be achieved through a different didactical approach, specifically employing a new exegetical and hermeneutical approach to the Bible. According to West, Zwane, and Walt, the work of the Ujamaa Centre, specifically their engagement and their inversion interpretive approach to Genesis 19 and Genesis 18 have caused traditionalists to give 'textual pause and cause to reconsider. Proclamations of hate have been transformed to gestures and words of welcome. Welcomed strangers have shared gifts. Exclusion has been transformed into inclusion' (2021:23). All these changes are possible when Biblicists are open to new interpretations and understandings that have been germane to these ancient texts all along. To understand fully the primacy of hospitality in both Genesis 18 and Genesis 19, a reading of both texts must be a part of any disciplined analysis of either.

 

Conclusion

This article addresses the question, 'how can congregations that exhibit prejudice toward LGBTQQIA+ persons overcome bias and discriminatory practices to become missionally holistic, hospitably welcoming, and inclusive of these individuals?' Not that the process is simple in any way, but the short answer to helping congregations overcome bias and discriminatory practices toward persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation can be found in the continuing education of both clergy and laity, a dynamic that was revealed in the survey responses. Knowledge gleaned from deeper and more comprehensive studies of the Bible, including curricula devoted to nonheterosexuality and the Bible and the Church can enable and even empower congregations to become missionally holistic and hospitably welcoming and inclusive. Invoking a didactic engagement of science, specifically as it relates to discoveries about human sexuality as informed by anthropology, biology, psychology, and sociology, would also go a long way to encouraging local churches to develop attitudes that are less fearful and more open, accepting and affirming, of persons from the LGBTQQIA+ community, enabling and even empowering them to do so from a biblically based perspective. Curriculum is available! By employing the best methods of modern biblical scholarship, a different interpretation leading to a new hermeneutic becomes possible, knowing that maintaining fidelity to scripture to be an imperative for many Christians.

Processes leading to radical reformational transformation are invariably slow and challenging, requiring meticulous intentionality and sensitivity on the part of clergy. While the issues may be different in terms of creating change within specific congregational systems, the principles enabling, even empowering, shifts of any significance remain static. A major factor in making these advancements is found in a local missional church's development through claiming its unique identity, assuming that congregational identity is always adapting and evolving. A challenge accompanying this discovery process is that churches not merely accommodate, acquiescing to cultural mores without invoking a solid biblical and theological baseline. There can be a tendency to 'feel' pressured to make decisions based on societal concerns.

Helping congregations overcome bias and discriminatory practices toward persons of LGBTQQIA+ orientation requires continuing education of both clergy and laity. Knowledge gleaned from deeper and more comprehensive studies of the Bible, the Church, and nonheterosexuality can empower congregations to become missionally holistic and hospitably inclusive. Engaging anthropology, biology, psychology, and sociology, as they relate to human sexuality, can encourage local churches to overcome fear to develop attitudes that are more open, accepting and affirming of LGBTQQIA+ individuals. Employing the best methods of modern biblical scholarship can lead to a biblical hermeneutic that supports a new openness of thought as well as the integrity of scripture.

Biblical hospitality provides a means of encouraging local missional churches to expand their circle of welcome, specifically regarding the invitation to persons from the LGBTQQIA+ community. The resulting expanded welcome from churches not only has the capacity to enhance local communities in general but will also help to build up a specific local congregation. 'Building up' local missional churches through reformational transformative process comprises a major emphasis described in detail by Malan Nel (2015:25, 205). Though not addressing the parameters associated with this issue, Nel's research was especially helpful regarding this study focussed on creating local missional congregations, specifically informative in developing hospitably welcoming and inclusive faith communities, churches that are open to the LGBTQQIA+ community.

A better understanding of the Bible from a holistic perspective, employing all the tools of modern biblical scholarship can lead congregations to embrace a wider perspective of invitation and outreach, but any resolution regarding how the church understands and engages issues related to nonheterosexuality and the Church will continue for some time to come. There will continue to be disagreement and division among sincere Christians, and the Bible will continue to be used to defend every perspective on the issue. But there is hope that cross-contextual and cross-cultural congregational conversations can become more prevalent on local missional churches, allowing for the potential to bridge the divide characterising this polarising issue facing 21st century Christendom.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

E.E.M., M.N. and T.W.S. conceptualised the research and performed the investigation. E.E.M. and M.N. assisted with project administration, gave direction with writing (review and editing), and supervision.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the University of Pretoria, Faculty of Theology Ethical Committee and ethics consent was received on 7 February 2018.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available upon request from the corresponding author, T.W.S. The data is not publicly available because of it containing information that could compromise the privacy of the research participants.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Timothy Shirley
timwshirley@gmail.com

Received: 03 Oct. 2023
Accepted: 11 Jan. 2024
Published: 04 Apr. 2024

 

 

1. https://www.npr.org/2023/12/18/1220077102).

^rND^sBessler^nJ.A.^rND^sKoenig^nJ.^rND^sLevine^nA.J.^rND^sMartin^nL.R.^rND^sO'Gorman^nK.D.^rND^sSmith^nK.G.^rND^sSouthwood^nK.^rND^1A01^nPieter N.J.^sDuvenhage^rND^1A01^nPieter N.J.^sDuvenhage^rND^1A01^nPieter N. J^sDuvenhage

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Reflections on Habermas's discourse ethics

 

 

Pieter N.J. Duvenhage

School of Philosophy, Faculty of Arts, North-West University, Potchefstroom, North West, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

In this article Habermas's discourse ethics is critically interpreted. The article starts with a brief intellectual biography of Habermas (section 1), showing that his life and work has always had a strong ethical and political dimension - leading to the concept of discourse ethics. Next, it is indicated how Habermas's work in the 1970s culminated via four steps in his major philosophical work - the Theory of Communicative Action (section 2) published in 1981. In the next two sections Habermas Theory of Communicative Action is applied to ethics and morality in the form of his discourse ethics - the heart of this contribution (section 3). In this process the following four aspects of Habermas's discourse ethics are discussed: Its qualified Kantian deontological dimension, as well as its universalist, cognitivist, and formalist dimensions. In the following section (4) the discussion of discourse ethics is shifted to Habermas's theory of law, deliberative politics, and democracy which is a further application of ideas developed in his Theory of Communicative Action. The contribution then ends with some critical remarks on Habermas discourse ethics and sketch of law and politics (section 5) Three arguments are presented in this regard. First, Habermas argument is judged to be too closely related to abstract rationality. Secondly the distinction that Habermas makes between morality and ethics is critically investigated. Finally, the Habermasian use of justification in his argument is critically compared with the concept of application. These points of criticism, though, indicate that the debate on Habermas's discourse ethics is ongoing.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article deals with the concept of discourse ethics (in the Kantian tradition of ethics) as developed firstly by Karel Otto Apel and later refined by Jurgen Habermas for his own purposes. The line of argumentation developed here has significant relevance for philosophy, moral theory, law, and theology. Discourse ethics can be considered as a contemporary version of Kantian deontological ethics after the linguistic turn

Keywords: Habermas; Karel-Otto Apel; public sphere; communicative reason; discourse ethics; deliberative politics.

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Introduction

Discourse ethics is a contemporary version of morality and ethics that Jürgen Habermas developed in close collaboration with his life-long friend Karl-Otto Apel (1922-2017) (Habermas 2020:627). This contribution, although, will focus on Habermas's version of discourse ethics. Habermas is, without doubt, one of the most influential philosophers of our times. He is known for his communicative contribution to critical theory as a social and political philosophy. His work very much revolves around the concept of communicative rationality, which holds that our capacity for language and communication is the foundation of human sociality and our ability to reason. It is this very concept of communicative rationality that also relates to a further concept of Habermas, namely discourse ethics - a conception of morality in the Kantian tradition, which he developed, as said, in deep conversation with Karl-Otto Apel.¹ Although Apel already developed a version of discourse ethics in the 1960s, Habermas made it a central point of his philosophy from the 1970s onwards (Heath 2019:104).

The basic idea for a discourse ethics is the result of Apel's initial study of hermeneutics, the pragmatism of Charles Sanders Peirce, and a linguistic reading of transcendentalism in the Kantian tradition. In this process truth as agreement (Pierce) becomes in Apel's terms the, 'ideal communication community'. Despite differences (Apel uses the rules of argumentation to provide an 'ultimate justification', [Letztbegründung], for a moral principle, while Habermas follows argumentation in a more pragmatic direction), the following working definition can be distilled for purposes of this contribution. In discourse ethics, the transcendental (subject-centred) self-reflection of practical reason (according to Kant's Categorical Imperative) yields to the pragmatic reconstruction of the normative implications of communicative rationality (Forst 2018:538; Habermas 2008:24-76).

This article starts with a brief intellectual biography of Habermas (section 'Habermas: A brief intellectual biography'), showing that his life and work has always had a strong ethical and political dimension - leading to the concept of discourse ethics. Next, it is indicated how Habermas's work in the 1970s culminated in his theory of communicative reason (section 'Communicative reason: Habermas's main [social] philosophical contribution'), which on its part, can be applied to discourse ethics (section 'The main aspects of Habermas's discourse ethics'), and to deliberative politics, democracy, and law (section 'Habermas on law and deliberative politics'). The article ends with some critical remarks (section 'Discourse ethics: Some critical remarks').

 

Habermas: A brief intellectual biography

Jürgen Habermas was born in 1929 near Cologne. The experience of the Second World War, and more specifically the shock of the Holocaust, had a profound influence on his development as a thinker. In many ways his whole career as a social philosopher, as well as a kind of public intellectual, can be seen as an attempt to come to terms with these traumatic events.

It is interesting, although, that Habermas started his career with a Heideggerian-influenced doctorate on Schelling in 1954 at the University of Bonn (after studies at Gottingen and Zurich). It is here that he became friends with Karl-Otto Apel - a friendship as indicated that later led to work on the concept of discourse ethics. At the completion of his doctorate, Habermas soon became critical of Heidegger's philosophy and the latter's support to Nazis in the 1930s (Thomassen 2010:7). In this process, he came to the insight that the crisis of modern society should be studied from a social-scientific rather than an ontological or metaphysical perspective (Habermas 1992:96). This insight, away from Heidegger, brought him into contact with the figures of Critical Theory (Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno) that returned to Germany after the war.²

In 1956, he became Adorno's research assistant in philosophy and sociology at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt. Both Adorno and Horkheimer were, as Germans with a Jewish background, sceptical about the German intellectual tradition after the Second World War. Their critical questioning forced Habermas to ask deep questions in this regard - especially about how 20th century totalitarianism was possible (Habermas 1992:46). Habermas, although, also had his differences with Adorno and Horkheimer - more specifically their deep cultural and political pessimism about modernity. Eventually differences with Horkheimer obliged him to complete his postdoctoral habilitation under Wolfgang Abendroth, in Marburg. This early work, with the title, Structural Change of the Public Sphere (Habermas 1989, originally 1962), soon became recognised as a modern classic. It is a detailed historical and social-theoretical reconstruction of the bourgeois public sphere from the 18th century (e.g., coffee houses in Paris and London) and its structural transformation under the influence of capital-driven mass media. The early reputation of this work played a role in Habermas being appointed in 1961 as extraordinary professor of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg. In 1964, he succeeded Horkheimer (with his full support this time) as professor of philosophy and sociology in Frankfurt (Finlayson 2005:xiv-xv).

Habermas's first Frankfurt period (1964-1971) was towards the end characterised by turbulent student unrests. After his initial sympathy for the radical students, he dismissed their criticism of any form of authority in 1967 as left fascism (Finlayson 2005:xv). From 1971 to 1983, he was director of the Max Planck Institute in Starnberg. Here, at the head of an interdisciplinary research team, further explained in the next section, he laid the foundations of a linguistic turn in social philosophy (influenced by Apel) that culminated in his magnum opus, Theory of Communicative Action (1981) and his work on discourse ethics (Habermas 1990, originally 1983). In his work, at this stage, it became clear that he was stating an ideal of free interpersonal interaction as it is found in ordinary life and, specifically, in linguistic communication, to serve as the key source of emancipatory impulses (Anderson 2000:50). Influenced by traditions such as philosophical anthropology, hermeneutics, pragmatism, and language-analytical theory, Habermas defended the normative self-understanding of communicatively socialised subjects against the tendency to reduce all intersubjective-practical interests to technical-instrumental ones.

These motives were all present when Habermas returned to Frankfurt in 1983 as professor of philosophy. Together with his friend and colleague Karl-Otto Apel, who was at that time also a professor there, he made Frankfurt a magnet for national and international students. In the latter part of his second Frankfurt period (from around 1987-1992), Habermas formed a Leibniz research team, on politics, democracy, and law, which led to the publication of Facticity and Validity (1992, translated in English 1996). This work and more specifically the concept of deliberative politics (see section 'Habermas on law and deliberative politics') is clearly related to his earlier work on the public sphere, communicative reason, and discourse ethics. After Habermas retired from the University of Frankfurt in 1994, he settled in Starnberg (where he is living with his wife since 1971). Here, after his retirement, he has been more active than ever as a philosopher and public intellectual through regular lectures and publications (Finlayson 2005:xvii). As a philosopher, he worked on topics such as bioethics, genetic manipulation, cosmopolitanism, religion, history (Habermas 2019) and the new public sphere (Habermas 2022). As public intellectual he participated in debates on the European Union, 9/11, the so-called war on terror, Iraq, the new world order (Finlayson 2005:xvii), and the invasion of Russia in Ukraine.

In short: in the case of Habermas, we are dealing with a thinker who draws from a wide variety of sources and disciplines to establish a linguistic theory of society, in continuous dialogue with other thinkers and with concrete developments in society. In this process, the concepts of public reason and communicative action, discourse ethics and deliberative democracy are arguably the golden threads that run through Habermas's lengthy career that is now spanning almost 70 years (Thomassen 2010:12).

 

Theory of communicative reason: Habermas's main (social) philosophical contribution

As indicated above, Habermas's differences with Horkheimer and Adorno, moved him in the late 1960s and 1970s to a reformulation of Critical Theory. This reformulation, deeply influenced by his friend and colleague Karl-Otto Apel, entailed an ideal of free interpersonal interaction as found in ordinary life and, specifically, in linguistic communication, to serve as the key source of emancipatory impulses (Anderson 2000:49-50).

In the 1970s, at the Max Planck Institute in Starnberg, Habermas deepened his reinterpretation of Critical Theory with the help of co-researchers in a research programme.³ His work, at this stage, focused on ego-identity, communicative competence, moral development (Kohlberg 1981), societal pathologies, processes of rationalisation, legal evolution, among others. In addition, he also intensified his study of analytic philosophy of language as part of developing his universal pragmatics of communication. A theory of social evolution and systems-theoretical concepts were added to explain the logic of the development of social rationalisation.⁴ These different research projects eventually culminated in the defining work of Habermas and the second movement of Critical Theory - Theory of Communicative Action (1981).⁵ Here Habermas defends four aspects of the theory of communicative action (cf. the following sections): the difference between strategic and communicative action; a theory of argumentation (in which speech-act theory plays a central role); a theory of social rationalisation; and an interpretation of modernity and postmodernity.

The difference between strategic and communicative action

Habermas's Theory of Communicative Action is a complex and multifaceted social theory that seeks to explain the ways in which humans communicate and reach mutual understanding. In this process he makes an important distinction between strategic and communicative action. Strategic action refers to action that is motivated by self-interest and is aimed at achieving a specific goal or outcome. In this type of action, individuals use their own resources and employ various means to achieve their desired outcome, often at the expense of others. Strategic action is characterised by using power, manipulation, and coercion.

Communicative action, on the other hand, cannot be explained based on instrumental rationality that serves as an explanation of strategic action (TCA 1:101ff.; Pragmatics, 220ff.). Communicative action rather refers to action that is based on mutual (intersubjective) understanding and agreement between individuals. In this type of action, individuals engage in dialogue, exchange of ideas, and open communication to reach a common understanding and a shared goal. Communicative action involves the use of language and reason to engage in a cooperative and collaborative process. This kind of linguistic understanding can only be successful if the respective beliefs of all participants are not coerced (e.g., through violence or deception). Communicative action, thus, depends on unforced, rationally motivated agreement among all the participants. It is also an ideal form of social action, based on mutual agreement and democratic decision-making, and it allows for the integration of diverse perspectives and interests. In this regard, communicative action is a particular kind of social action that cannot be reduced to strategic action (where deception or force is means to achieve goals of action) (Lafont 2018:499-500).

Against this background it is exceedingly difficult to envisage something like a society without communicative action. Additionally, without coordinate action, society would fall apart, and social interaction would break down. Overall, no society can exist based on strategic action including lies, deception, and violence alone (Habermas 1993:163). In defending his concept of communicative action, Habermas, follow three argumentative lines: the theory of argumentation and rationality (cf. 'The difference between strategic and communicative action'); a theory of society, and an interpretation of modernity/postmodernity (cf. 'A theory of social rationalisation' and 'Interpretation of modernity and postmodernity').⁶

A theory of argumentation

According to the speech act theory, there are culture-invariable validity claims - such as truth, normative correctness, and sincerity. Each of these claims represented an aspect of rationality and a part of reality - the objective, the social, and subjective worlds. The aim of understanding [Verständigung] is to arrive at an agreement [Einverständnis] and mutual trust regarding validity claims. If impossible, the level of discourse allows for resolving doubtful validity claims by way of the forceless force of the better argument. This is the case in our everyday, theoretical, practical, and aesthetical discourses.

A theory of social rationalisation

In a next step, Habermas links his views on rational language communication with a model of social rationalisation. In the heart of this model, the historical differentiation between lifeworld and system is situated. This differentiation consists of the communicative understanding (in the lifeworld) as a fundamental reproduction mechanism of modern society, on the one hand, and the development of norm-free action spheres that are accessible by way of system-theoretical analysis, on the other. The interplay of communicative reason and system theory is an essential component of Habermas's social-philosophical theory of modernity.

Communicative understanding (in the lifeworld) is a fundamental reproduction mechanism of modern society, together with the historical development of norm-free action spheres that are accessible by way of system-theoretical analysis. According to Habermas, social reproduction takes place in both the communicative infrastructure of the lifeworld and the historically developed norm-free systems (e.g., money and bureaucracy). In short, the interaction of communicative rationality and system theory is the framework in which a modern social theory conducts itself.

In short, modern societies are functionally differentiated between the economic and political subsystems, on the one hand, and the lifeworld, on the other, devoted to the '… tasks of the transmission of knowledge and interpretive patterns (culture), social integration ("society" in the narrower sense of normative orders), and socialisation (personality)'. In this sense, Baynes (1998) indicated one can:

[… A]lso trace a differentiation among the three values spheres of science and technology, law and morality, and art and aesthetic criticism as each becomes independent of the other and develops its own internal standards of critique and evaluation. (n.p.)

Interpretation of modernity and postmodernity

Through the division of lifeworld and system (as discussed here), Habermas (1981, II:293) describes the invasion of systematic steering mechanisms in the sphere of communicative praxis as a particular pathology of modernity. This dualistic construction enables Habermas to develop a different interpretation of 20th century society than Horkheimer and Adorno. Where they judged systematically organised complexes as the last step in the logic of instrumental reason, Habermas presents a distinctly different view of the role of systems in the lifeworld. The social pathologies of contemporary societies are hence not the inevitable consequence of instrumental reason per se, but rather the result of a one-sided process in which the market and administrative state invade the lifeworld, displacing modes of integration based on communicative reason with their own form of functional rationality:

Habermas describes this dramatically as the colonization of the lifeworld. The primary task of a critical theory is to draw attention to this process of colonization and indicate the ways in which various social movements are a response to it. (Baynes 1998)

 

Discourse ethics: Harbermas's main aspects

The central argumentative lines in Habermas's Theory of Communicative Action, as discussed above, all find their way to his discourse ethics. Here the public, or discursive, use of reason has a peculiar force when it comes to practical and moral question.⁷ In addition, discourse ethics is also a crucial part of Habermas's reformulation of Critical Theory - or critical theory of society.

It is interesting, that although Habermas considers a wide array of thinkers on ethics and morality (including Hegel, Horkheimer and Adorno), its animating idea (a principle of universalisability, which functions as a rule of argumentation for testing the legitimacy of contested norms) resembles Kant's deontology in many respects. There is, although, an important qualification here in the sense that Kant's transcendental reflection of practical reason, becomes in Habermasian terms a pragmatic reconstruction of the normative implications of communicative rationality. Discourse ethics is thus based on the general pragmatic presuppositions of communicative reason in the form of validity claims (as explained in the previous section), and it points in the direction of an ideal speech situation, freed from all external constraints, and in which nothing but the counterfactual force of the better argument prevails (Thomassen 84-85). Habermas's qualified Kantian ethics has four dimensions: it is deontological, universalist, cognitivist, and formalist (Habermas 1990:120-1222; 196-198, 1993:49).⁸

Discourse ethics dimension: Deontology

Deontology is normally distinguished from teleology. Teleology is concerned with a telos or goal. In ethical terms, teleology is concerned with the good, and justice is relative to a given good, whether to the benefit of society (utilitarians) or the maintenance of a tradition (communitarians) or the good life [eudaimonia] (virtue ethics) (Thomassen 85).

The term deontology stems from the Greek [deon], meaning duty or obligation. In the Kantian sense deontological ethics means the duty or obligation to provide reasons for one's action. It further stipulates what we are reasonably obliged to do irrespective of our particular goals [telos] or interests. Ethics is deontological in the sense that justice (the right) is independent of, has priority, and trumps the good (Thomassen 85-86). In other words, deontological ethics endorses a narrow concept of morality, one limited to the norms of correct (or just) action and not addressing questions of 'the good life'. Here a distinction between 'morality' and 'ethics' - or moral norms and ethical values - is made (Forst 2012:chap. 3). While the validity claims of moral norms are strict, categorical, reciprocal and generally binding, the claims of ethical values are redeemed in closer relation to forms of life and individual biographies (Forst 2018:538).

Discourse ethics dimension: Universalist

In this sense it works with two principles. These principles can, rather, be seen as two attempts at getting at the same underlying idea about the relationship between discourse and morality. The two principles are as follows: the first, known as the discourse principle (D), states that 'only those action norms are valid to which all possibly affected persons could agree as participants in rational discourse'. This principle claims '… to transcend culture and to articulate a correspondingly general structure of morality'. The point is that norms justified in practical discourse may substantially only ever anticipate general acceptability; they are also subject to discursive evaluation under all circumstances (Forst 2018):

Therefore, as much as discourse ethics stresses the necessity of the implementation of real practical discourse(s), it still incorporates an element of idealism into the process, which presumes a corresponding measure of moral sensitivity and imagination on the part of morally reflecting parties. (pp. 538-539)

The second principle, known as the 'moral principle,' is commonly understood to be stronger than the discourse principle. It is the principle of universalisation (U), a kind of replacement for Kant's categorical imperative, and reads as follows (Habermas 1990):

For a norm to be valid, the consequences and side effects that its general observance can be expected to have for the satisfaction of the particular interests of each person affected must be such that all affected can accept them freely. (p. 120)

The underlying point here is that this principle can be derived from the general pragmatic presuppositions of communication and argumentation. In the previous section, we have seen that when speakers make utterances they raise distinct types of validity claims, for example, to truth, normative rightness, and sincerity or truthfulness:

These validity-claims, in turn, point to the notion of an ideal speech situation freed from all external constraints and in which nothing but the force of the better argument prevails. The principle of universalizability represents an attempt to formulate this counterfactual ideal as a constitutive rule of argument for moral-practical discourses. (Baynes 1998)

Discourse ethics dimension: Cognitivist

An ethicist must also be cognitivist, Habermas argues. Accordingly, there are sufficient similarities between moral discourse and scientific discourse to make it possible to speak, for example, of progress in learning or of a comparable notion of 'good reason' or argument in both. This means that practical questions about how we should act can be treated in such a way that the answers we produce are rational. Habermas writes: 'normative rightness must be regarded as a claim to validity that is analogous to a truth claim' (Habermas 1990:197, 1993:49). In other words, Habermas does not think that truth and normative rightness are the same; they are analogous. What is right is right because it has been established as such through discourse; this is so in a way that is not the case with claims to truth about the world. However, both kinds of validity can be treated as a matter of discursive vindication of validity claims. In this way, Habermas (1990:120) talks about rationality and knowledge (cognitivism) in relation to ethics: 'moral-practical issues can be decided based on reasons' (Thomassen 86). This is the basis upon which moral norms may be discussed in practical discourses on the (ideal) presupposition that a 'correct' justification exists. Thereby, the essential criterion is their capacity for generalisability - or their 'ideal warranted acceptability' (Forst 2018:539; Habermas 2003:248).

Discourse ethics dimension: Formalist

Finally, discourse ethics is formalist (and proceduralist) in the sense that it restricts itself to specifying a procedure of moral argumentation based solely on principle, which holds that 'only moral rules that could win the assent of all affected as participants in a practical discourse can claim validity' (Habermas 1993:50). In contrast to Kant's conception of moral law (Sittengesetz) and Apel's approach of transcendental pragmatics, Habermas does not grant this principle a moral or 'ultimately justified' power of validity. Rather, it possesses only the force of 'must in the sense of weak transcendental necessitation', which does not correspond to the 'prescriptive must of a rule of action' (Habermas 1993:82; Wellmer 1991).

Given the pluralism of moral views that exist in today's societies, Habermas believes that an ethics for modern societies cannot give substantive answers to moral questions. That is, an ethics cannot be a set of substantive norms telling us how to act. In this sense the formalist character of his ethics must be understood. For Habermas, there should be a procedure for deciding moral questions - a procedure that Habermas reconstructs by asking what the structures of argumentation are:

[… T]hat will yield rational and legitimate answers to moral questions. His discourse ethics is, then, not meant to say what the answers should be, only how we should find them. It is procedural and minimalist. (Thomassen 2010:86-87)

 

Deliberative politics, democracy, and law: Habermas's application

Like discourse ethics (as discussed), Habermas's theory of law, deliberative politics, and democracy can also be seen as a translation of ideas developed in his Theory of Communicative Action (Habermas 1981). Habermas's work in this latter area was developed from the late 1980s onwards in interaction with members of a Leibniz-research group, and eventually published as Faktizität und Geltung in 1992 (translated in 1996 as Between Facts and Norms; and Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy). In a report at the end of the activities of the Leibniz research-group, Habermas refers to four interdependent areas to understand his work in this regard.⁹ Firstly, the relationship between morality and law. Secondly, 'a de-substantialized concept of popular sovereignty', and thirdly and fourthly, the status of law as a mechanism for integration in complex societies (Muller-Doohm 2014:328-329).

As a starting point, the German title, Faktizität und Geltung expresses for Habermas the basic problematic of modern law: a tension between law's facticity and law's validity. In political terms it means, firstly that law cannot be reduced to legality or social facts (facticity) but must also have a dimension of legitimacy to them (validity side of law). The latter implies that although we act in an instrumental and strategic way towards law, we also act out of respect for the legitimacy of the law. This means, secondly, that we can treat laws as legitimate (Habermas 1996; Thomassen 2010)

[… A]s far as we have arrived at them through discourses that are rational, which is to say characterized by inclusion, equality, and sincerity in such a way that only the better argument will carry the day. This is, in essence, what Habermas purports to show with his discourse theory of law and democracy. (pp. 26, 30, 198; 112)

In short, for Habermas, modern law claims both facticity and validity.

In addition, Habermas also addresses the relationship between morality and law. Discourse ethics gave Habermas a way to account for the validity of moral norms, that is, for the moral bindingness of norms. However, morality alone cannot coordinate action in modern, complex societies. It is thus necessary to complement morality with law, according to Habermas. For example, law is the only medium through which a 'solidarity with strangers' can be secured in complex societies' (Thomassen 2010:113). Although law and morality are different, Habermas links them through the discourse principle (D) - as discussed in the previous section:

Like moral norms, it is rational discourse that bestows legitimacy on legal norms. Thus, in the context of law, Habermas translates discourse ethics into a discourse theory of democracy - in short, a deliberative democracy. (Thomassen 2010:114)

Habermas distinguishes his idea of deliberative democracy from other theories of law and democracy. Regarding other theories of law, Habermas positions deliberative democracy as an alternative to both legal positivism and the natural law tradition (Baynes 1998). In terms of democracy, Habermas considers the debate between liberalism and communitarianism (republicanism) that raged mainly in the United States (in the 1980s and 1990s). This was a debate between the liberalism of John Rawls (2005), on the one hand, and the communitarian positions offered by philosophers such as Michael Walzer, Charles Taylor, and Michael Sandel, on the other hand. Habermas's alternative of deliberative politics steers between these schools of thought (Möllers 2018:419).

This middle ground implies that Habermas takes a distance from the liberal presupposition of stable individual preferences, which must simply be integrated into democratic will formation (This critique of liberal empiricism - which treats democratic will formation as a matter of aggregation and views individual voices as 'facts' - can easily apply to positivism, as well.). In short: Habermas rejects the vision of the political process as primarily a process of competition and aggregation of private preferences. Equally, Habermas objects to views that directly assign legitimating value to traditions and conventions - views, that is, that reify real (or putative) forms of cultural identity; here, too, his early critiques of institutionalised thinking are affirmed (Möllers 2018:419). In addition, Habermas views the republican vision of a citizenry - a united and actively motivated by a shared conception of the good life - as unrealistic in modern, pluralistic societies (Baynes 1998).

In his alternative to the liberal and communitarian positions, Habermas writes that (Habermas 1996):

[… T]he success of deliberative politics does not depend on a collectively acting citizenry [or an aggregation of private preferences - PD], but on the institutionalization of the corresponding procedures and conditions of communication, as well as on the interaction of institutionalized deliberative processes with informally constituted public opinions. (p. 298)

This formulation of deliberative politics basically refers to procedures and conditions of communication that goes back to his theory of communicative action and discourse ethics. The basic feature of this is a rational discourse that involves stringent conditions of dialogic equality where no one may be excluded and everyone has an equal right to speak, question, make assertions, and express needs and desires. No form of coercion (internal or external) may be used (Habermas 1996:305-306). The core intuition here is articulated in one of Habermas's well-known phrases: 'the unforced force of the better argument' (Chambers 2019:94; Habermas 1996:306). Apart from the 'institutionalization of procedures and conditions of communication' the quote above also refers to 'the interaction of institutionalized deliberative processes with informally constituted public opinions'. In this regard Habermas (1996:304) adds in more politically concrete terms a two-track process in which there are an interplay between the following institutions in the public sphere. On the one hand there is weak publics (the informally organised public sphere ranging from private associations to the mass media located in civil society) and, on the other, strong publics (parliamentary bodies and other formally organised institutions of the political system in the form of representative democracy).¹⁰

In this division of labour weak publics assume a central responsibility for identifying, interpreting, and addressing social problems. Decision-making responsibility, as well as the further filtering of reasons through more formal parliamentary procedures, remain the task of a strong publics (e.g., the formally organised political system) (Baynes 1998). Strong publics issue authoritative decisions: they rule. Weak publics, although home to a great deal of discourse and deliberation, do not issue authoritative decisions; they do not rule. Freed from the burden of authoritative decision making, weak publics have the space to become 'contexts of discovery'. Their wild and even anarchic nature allows for new claims to emerge, hidden injustices to be unmasked, received truth to be questioned, and new forms of political participation to be tested (Habermas 1996:307):

Creativity, innovativeness, and progressive energy require a medium of unrestricted communication. The anarchic nature of the informal sphere plays an important discursive and epistemic function by holding out the possibility of learning, revision, correction, and change through criticism of and opposition to stands taken and claims made by those who rule. (Chambers 2019:96)

In conclusion, it must be said that Habermas's model of law and democracy, in the early 1990s, focused almost exclusively on the nation-state, as opposed to transnational or supranational institutions. Since then, though, Habermas has presented the nation-state as perhaps just a special case or nonfinal historical stage in the development of constitutional democracy. He writes: 'We must detach the fading idea of a democratic constitution from its roots in the nation-state and revive it in the post-national guise of a constitutionalized world society' (Baxter 2019:241; Habermas 2008:333).

 

Some critical remarks

Jürgen Habermas's discourse ethics (and related ideas of law and politics), as discussed in this article, aims to provide a foundation for an ethics and politics based on rational communication and discourse. While the theory has been influential in contemporary moral philosophy (and wider), it has also faced criticism from various quarters, that will be discussed in the following three points: (1) the limits of abstract rationality, (2) the difference between morality and ethics and (3) the issue of justification and application.

For some critics Habermas's procedural and cognitive formulation of communicative action and discourse ethics neglects the 'concrete and particular social-historical circumstances of the reasoning subject' (Yar 2003:103). For another, Habermas's idea of communicative reason is too narrowly attached to rationalist premises. In this process his version of Critical Theory in rational terms becomes '…less bound by or beholden to the historical and existential exigencies of modernity' (Kompridis 2006:232). As a result of this refashioning, as Dallmayr (2009) puts it, his work moved in the direction of an abstractly rational universalism critical of cultural and practical modes of pluralism and pre-cognitive experience. Consequently, there was a growing 'insensitivity to particularity', justifying the suspicion that the basic concepts of communicative rationality had from the start been 'rigged in favor of the universal' (Kompridis 2006:234).

There are at least two candidates, also open for criticism, can come to the defence of the particular here. The one is the role of the subconscious (and emotions) in rational human life. Carol Gilligan (1982), for example, argues that Habermas's use of Kohlberg's development model of moral consciousness (culminating in the highest stage of post-conventional, universalistic justification of norms) not only has a gender bias but also fails to account for the particularity of moral experiences and judgements. In particular, she claims the aspect of 'care' for the other does not receive due consideration (Forst 2018:389). In addition, other critics, in opposition to Habermas's focus on the individual's capacity for rational self-determination, have emphasised the creative power of the subconscious (the other of reason) via psychoanalysis (Winnicott, Stern, and Castoriadis). A position similar to Adorno's concept of non-identity.¹¹ Within Critical Theory, Axel Honneth (2007) has taken a similar route by considering the other as a unique being and to adopt a form of care (Fürsorge) that is not bound to considerations of symmetry and reciprocity.¹² Then there is also the critiques of people such as Levinas, Derrida, or Lyotard, that the abstract Kantian universalism of discourse ethics does not do justice to the particularities, uniqueness, and differences among persons, nor does it seem able to account for the quality and particularity of social connections between people. To this can be added diverse theories of difference and communitarianism. In response, various efforts were made to affirm the perspective of the 'concrete other' in contrast to acknowledging only a 'generalized other' (Seyla Benhabib [1992], who borrowed the terms from George Herbert Mead). Accordingly, 'interactive universalism' held that the other should be acknowledged and included both as an equal party and as someone who is different and unique (Forst 2018:389). In aesthetical debates, the possible emancipatory role of the other has also been articulated by French philosophers such as Merleau-Ponty, Foucault, Derrida, and Lyotard (in the wake of the older German tradition of Schelling, Hegel, Nietzsche, and Adorno).¹³

Habermas (1990, 1993 and 1998) has reacted to these points of criticisms at various occasions in essays on Kant, Hegel, and Kohlberg (including discussions on Aristotle). For him solidarity as the 'other' of justice and equal treatment are not two separate things. But still, this conception of solidarity is not tied to forms of belonging. For Habermas, it is a specific merit of discourse ethics (and post-conventional morality) to accentuate discursively individual perspectives - and this not in a way that is merely abstract (Forst 2018390).¹⁴

The abstract nature of Habermas's use of reason and its relation to the other, as discussed in the previous point, relates to the distinction he makes between morality and ethics. One of the main issues with this distinction is the tension between the universality of morality and the particularity of ethical norms - an issue that is characteristic of all forms of deontological ethics.

In other words, Habermas emphasises the importance of moral principles that are universally valid and applicable to all individuals regardless of their social, cultural, or historical context. These principles are derived from the basic human interests of autonomy, equality, and rational discursivity - shared by all individuals. It is about what is 'just' (or 'binding') 'for all' - which follows its own mode of validity (Justification). On the other hand, Habermas recognises that ethical norms are shaped by cultural and historical factors and are therefore contingent on specific social contexts. Ethical norms are developed within communities and are often based on shared values, traditions, and practices. It is about what is good 'for me' (or 'for us') - which does not need to be asserted in general or universal terms.¹⁵

This tension between universality and particularity, as discussed, raises questions about the relationship between moral principles and ethical norms. How can we reconcile the universal validity of moral principles with the contingent and context-dependent nature of ethical norms? How can we apply moral principles in concrete ethical situations without disregarding the particularities of the context?

In answering these points of criticism, Habermas proposes that ethical norms should be subject to critical scrutiny and justification through rational discourse to ensure that they are compatible with moral principles. This means that ethical norms should be evaluated based on their compatibility with universal moral principles and the reasons that support them.¹⁶ On similar lines, Forst (2018:390) indicates that the notion of 'two spheres' between values and norms is dynamic in nature, and it remains always the object of discourse - including those discourses in which it remains controversial whether an ethical or moral response is called for (Forst 2018:390). In addition, it does not mean that ethical questions cannot be answered rationally or that they are 'purely subjective' or 'private' in nature; rather, it means that moral obligation must be justified in strictly reciprocal and general terms.¹⁷

Finally, Wellmer (1991:148, 158) has offered interesting arguments about the relationship between morality and democratic legitimation in discourse ethics. His point is that morality does not concern the general justification of norms, as discussed here but concerns justified ways of acting that are to be determined in specific situations (201ff.). Whereas Wellmer understands moral discourses primarily in a kind of hermeneutical way as 'discourses of application', Habermas follows Günther's (1993) distinction between discourses of justification and discourses of application (Justification, 30ff.). On this view, the latter cannot replace the former, but they are still necessary to apply abstract norms to circumstances from the point of view of appropriateness. Here the principle (U), however, remains central to the dimension of moral justification (Forst 2018:389).

These points of criticism are an indication that Habermas's discourse ethics is an important theory in contemporary ethical and moral debates and that the final word has not been spoken in this regard.

 

Acknowledgements

The author wants to acknowledge Dr. Hercules Boshoff for providing intellectual assistance in the writing of parts of this article.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

P.N.J.D. has declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this article.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, or the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Pieter Duvenhage
pd@akademia.ac.za

Received: 28 Sept. 2023
Accepted: 04 Dec. 2023
Published: 19 Mar. 2024

 

 

1. For his major works, cf. Apel (1973, 1980, 1988, and 1998). For good commentaries on Apel (cf. Kettner 1996; Kettner; Mendieta 2002).
2. For a biography on Habermas (cf. Muller-Doohm 2014). For a short earlier interpretation (cf. the 'Introduction' in Bernstein 1985).
3. At Starnberg, Habermas was assisted by co-researchers such as Rainer Döbert, Gertrud Nunner-Winkler (development psychology); Klaus Eder (social evolution); Helmut Dubiel, Ulrich Rödel (Sociology); and Ernst Tugendhat (philosophy) (Anderson 2000 fn. 8).
4. For publications in this era (cf. Habermas 1976; Habermas 1979).
5. See Habermas (1981) and the essays in Honneth and Joas (1991).
6. The interpretation of the theory of communicative action in the next few paragraphs is influenced by Honneth (1995:98).
7. For his major texts on discourse ethics (cf. Habermas 1990:43-115; Habermas 1993).
8. Baynes (1998).
9. Just as in the case of law and politics, Habermas's theory of communicative action can also be applied to religion. Here the issue is context-transcending validity, without being otherworldly - it is innerworldly or thisworldly. Habermas's formulation of 'transcendence from within' is one of the cornerstones of his description of a post-metaphysical philosophy. Such a philosophy refrains from judging the validity of a particular conception of the good (cf. Cooke 2007:224). It is important to observe the following qualification here. Conceptions of the good are always conceptions of the good 'for me' (individual) or 'for us' (collective), while religious beliefs, though, are deemed to have a cognitive content that is of potential relevance for everyone. Thus, a critical engagement with religious traditions does not '…cast light on the truth of religious beliefs but … [it contributes] … to the semantic regeneration of postmetaphysical thinking' (Cooke 2007:225-226).
10. Habermas gets the formulation of weak and strong publics from Nancy Fraser (Habermas 1996:307 footnote 26). Elsewhere he characterises the relationship between representative institutions and public opinion as one between core and periphery (Habermas 1996:354-355).
11. For Anderson (2000), the other of reason in Honneth still remains committed to the Enlightenment heritage of emancipator reason.
12. This stance, according to Forst (2018:390), stands in a tense relation with the Kantian conceptions of morality. For a similar position, cf. Lutz Wingert (1993) for whom the other must be respected (geachtet) both as an irreplaceable individual and as a member who enjoys equal rights (179).
13. On aesthetical themes in the third movement, see the work of Seel, Menke, Früchtl, Fink-Eitel, and Koch. It is widely known that aesthetics plays a peripheral role in Habermas's work (cf. Duvenage 2003).
14. Other points of criticism against Habermas's discourse ethics that cannot be dealt with here in detail is: The normative status of moral validity claims into truth claims made in the realm of theoretical reason.
15. In his critique of Habermas, Seel (1995) argues that deontological morality presupposes an idea of the good as they seek to afford - to all individuals and in equal measure - to live properly. This allows for a formal theory of the 'good life' or the 'succeeding life'. For Forst such a perspective of an objective ethical theory that antecedes discourse is not possible (Inclusion, 21ff.). Such an idea of the good as a claim must still prove itself in moral discourse among free and equal persons (Forst 2018:391).
16. Putnam (2002:111-134) has criticised Habermas here by emphasising the cognitive validity of ethical values (doing justice to religious value orientations and 'thick' ethical judgements). Habermas has reacted that (2003) contextual ethical values do possess cognitive content, albeit in a different way than holds for moral norms (Forst 2018:391).
17. Forst himself, although, has an internal critique of Habermas by finding his position on moral motivation as ambivalent. In this sense, Habermas's notion of a 'communicative form of life' includes both ethical and moral motives; its inherent ambivalence is evident, for example, when Habermas writes that affirming the truth capacity of practical questions involves the 'self-understanding of subjects acting communicatively' and 'is intertwined with ethical motives' (Truth, 274) (Forst 2018:391).

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The conceptualisation of morality in ancient religions at the hand of the Gilgamesh Epic

 

 

Gerda de Villiers

Department of Biblical and Religious Studies, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article addressed 'The conceptualisation of morality in ancient religions at the hand of the Gilgamesh Epic'. After pointing out that ancient languages do not have words for neither morality nor religion, I discussed the following incidents in the Epic: he who saw the Deep; the immoral conduct of a king; the slaying of Humbaba; Ishtar and a death penalty; and a visit to Utanapishtim, the Distant. I alluded briefly to the way that the Epic ends. The aim was to examine whether ancient societies had a concept of morality and what role, if any, did religion play.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The conclusion was that religion played a very minor role, and that morality in ancient societies was a human endeavour

Keywords: ancient; religions; Gilgamesh; Epic; morality.

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Introduction

For these seminars regarding the conceptualisation of the development of morality, I was asked to address the Conceptualisation of Morality in Ancient Religions, to understand how the conceptualisation of morality developed through the ages. However, I faced some serious problems. Firstly, ancient languages do not have a word for 'religion' and secondly, the concept of morality in a 21st century Western world (the context in which this seminar was to take place) is vastly different from how morality was understood 3000 years ago. It seemed almost immoral to impose post-modern Western ideas on a pre-modern ancient Near Eastern civilisation without knowing them - how they lived, what they were thinking, how they conducted their lives and by which standards and norms. All we have are some archaeological remains and texts - broken and fragmented texts.

 

The Epic of Gilgamesh

With regards to the topic of morality, although there was not a specific word for it, the ancient world certainly did have an idea of what is right and what is wrong. This is evident in the various Law Codes drawn up by the rulers, of which the Law Code of Hammurabi (1755-1750 BCE) is probably the best known and is proof of the wisdom of the king (Van der Toorn 2007:25). But there are others; the law code of Ur Nammu (2100-2050) is probably the oldest extant law code in the world.¹ Law codes in the ancient world were intended to establish a just society, to protect citizens, and to maintain law and order in the society.

However, morality in the ancient world is revealed not only by law, but also by wisdom, as wisdom texts likewise consider and give advice on what is right and what is wrong. For the purpose of this seminar, I have chosen to focus on the Epic of Gilgamesh. Firstly, both Andrew George (2003:32-33) and Karl van der Toorn (2007:21) agree that the Epic of Gilgamesh is wisdom literature from the perspective of ancient scribes as well as modern scholars. Therefore, there may be some points of contact between a pre-modern and a post-modern world after all. Secondly, the Epic of Gilgamesh is a masterpiece of all literary works from ancient times to the present. It is the oldest document which we may call 'literature' in the sense that it tells a story,² and thirdly, literature, more than legal or other official documents, reflect the values and morals of its time. Thus, speaking of morality in ancient times, the Epic of Gilgamesh seems to be a suitable point of departure.³

The Gilgamesh Epic has a very long history of development from its Sumerian origins to its final Standard Babylonian version (see George 2003:4-28). I am aware of these issues, but I do not consider it relevant for the purpose of this article. I shall focus on the Standard Babylonian Version (SBV hereafter) which took shape at about 1100 BCE (Salles 2009:83; Van der Toorn 2007:22). Where appropriate, I shall refer to the Old Babylonian Version (OB hereafter). At this point, it suffices to say that the SBV was a reworking of the OB by a scribe, called Sîn-lēqi-unninni (George 2003:28; Van der Toorn 2007:23) beginning with the words 'ša naqba īmuru' - he who saw the Deep. These words considerably change the mood of the OB version which simply bursts with the confidence of an invincible king Gilgamesh. The addition of the prologue of which the words are repeated at the end of the eleventh tablet, reflects 'sombre meditation, is less confident and more introspective …' and '… holds much in common what we call wisdom literature' (George 2003:33).

 

ša naqba īmuru

'ša naqba īmuru'. These are the words with which the Gilgamesh Epic opens. It means, 'he who saw the Deep.' Naqba - the Deep - is the key word in the phrase. Naqba or naqbu has two meanings. It can refer to the totality of everything, or it can indicate the Apsû, the deep body of underground freshwater - the cosmic realm of the god Ea, who is believed to be the source of all wisdom (George 2003:444). The first two lines of the Epic read: 'He who saw the Deep, the foundation of the country, who knew … was wise in everything …' These words are repeated in lines 3 and 4, but in line 3 the 'he' is replaced with 'Gilgamesh'. Thus, it becomes clear that Gilgamesh is the one who saw the Deep, acquired from Ea the necessary wisdom to uphold law and order in society as decreed by the gods (George 2003:445).

In lines 29, 44 and 45, it becomes clear that Gilgamesh is a leader, king of Uruk. In the Ancient Near East, it was widely accepted that kingship descended from heaven, that the deities bestowed kingship on humans and that kingship was regarded as a divine office (Jamme & Matuschek 2014:232; Schneider 2011:118; Sonnabend 2014:81). Lines 35 and 36 of Tablet I attest to Gilgamesh's divine origins: son of the earthly ruler Lugalbanda and divine goddess Ninsun, and line 48 describes him as two thirds god and one third human.

The prologue continues to laud Gilgamesh as a king who 'goes to the fore as a leader, and also goes at the rear, as a trust to his brothers' (I:31-33). These lines concur with the expectations of early Babylonian rule. The king should be to his subjects as a 'shepherd to his sheep. He should guide them, protect them, and rule and judge them fairly' (George 1999:xlvi). His office included the following responsibilities: give sound advice on all kinds of matters; oversee labour; undertaking building projects; administer cities; provide protection for the land and its citizens; provide an abundance of means for survival; perform necessary rituals and offerings to the gods (Schneider 2011:119). Building cities and surrounding them with fortifying walls, building temples for the gods and maintaining or restoring cult centres were especially important in Mesopotamia: 'it was a matter of divine agency and of human imitation of the divine wisdom in building' (Van Leeuwen 2007:73). Furthermore, the king also had religious functions to carry out, namely, to perform appropriate rites (mes) that served the gods, for these reflected the order demanded by the gods, and 'formed an integral part of wisdom' (Beaulieu 2007:7).

 

Disgrace: The 'immoral' (unwise) conduct of a king

In the first 64 lines of the Epic, Gilgamesh seems to fit the bill of a perfect king. He is of noble, semi-divine birth (lines 35, 36 and 48). He built the walls of Uruk (line 11), a fortress that cannot be conquered (Comte 2008:164), there are date groves and clay pits in the city as well as the temple of Ishtar (line 22), he restored the cult centres that the flood destroyed and re-established the proper rites requested (lines 43 and 44).

Initially Gilgamesh appears to be and to do everything to be expected from a good semi-divine king, but soon a rather disturbing scenario unfolds: 'Gilgamesh lets no son go free to his father; day and night he behaves with fierce arrogance; he lets no daughter go free to her mother … no girl to go free to her bridegroom (I:67-76; see George 2003:448-449). Tyranny, abuse of power.⁴ Probably sexual harassment. Perhaps too much fun and games, - the nature of abuse of especially the men is not clear, but the point is, the young men and women of Uruk suffer because of the king's immoral behaviour.

Clearly this is not acceptable. The womenfolk of the city cry out to the gods. Two of them are mentioned in the text: Anu, the father of the gods, and Aruru, a creator goddess. They pay heed to the complaints and answer the request of the women, namely, to create someone equal to the king, a match for his brutal strength, someone to keep him occupied so that they may be left in peace.

Aruru creates Enkidu by casting a piece of clay on the steppe. He is a fully grown adult human, but initially lives in a primitive animal-like state. He is hairy, naked, and his companions are the gazelles at the waterhole. He is a vegetarian. Like them, he eats only grass and drinks water. He protects his friends. He uproots the snares that a hunter lays for the gazelles, and he fills up the pits that the hunter digs for his friends to fall in. He is the opposite of Gilgamesh, the cruel and inhuman ruler. Enkidu is half wild, more animal than human; he does not know civilisation and he preserves nature. Enkidu seems to be what may be described as a 'moral' being.

But there is one grave problem: the hunter cannot earn a living! By protecting the animals, Enkidu prevents the hunter from making his life. Is this moral?

There happens to be two sides of the coin. What is regarded as moral conduct on the one hand (Enkidu), may be to the disadvantage of the other (the hunter). Although the Gilgamesh Epic is not primarily a text on morality but on wisdom, one needs to keep in mind that there are never clear-cut indications of what is right and what is wrong. It may never be possible to reach consensus on the conceptualisation of morality. And, as it will become evident later in the article, what was right in an ancient civilisation is completely unacceptable in a post-modern context.

The story continues. The hunter complains to his father and king Gilgamesh about the savage beast roaming the plains, and they give him both the same advice: take Šhamhat the prostitute to tame him with her charms and introduce him to civilisation. According to the epic, Enkidu is immediately seduced, aroused and '[F]or six days and seven nights Enkidu, erect, did couple with Šamhat' (Tablet I:194; see George 2003:549). Having had his fill, he returns to his old friends, the gazelles, but they smell something has changed and run away. Enkidu follows them but cannot keep up; his powers are fading. Thus, he returns to Šhamhat to ask her, but why? From her, he learns about his destiny: that he is to go with her to the city to counter the unbridled powers of the king and to become his companion.

Back to Uruk, they make a stopover at a camp of some shepherds (beginning of Tablet II). The herdsmen offer them bread and ale which Enkidu is hesitant to consume - after all, he knows only grass and water. Šhamhat, however, assures him it's perfectly safe to try, and after Enkidu gobbles up seven goblets of beer and enough bread until he was sated, he started to sing, his hairy body was groomed, he was anointed with oil and turned into a (civilised) man (see the translation of George 1999:14). One may be quite amused by this anecdote: Enkidu, the free roaming child of nature, passive vegetarian (Schmidt 2019:40) becomes a civilised human being only after he overindulges in sex and becomes intoxicated by food and drink.

Or does that say something about 'civilisation'?

After some days spent at the camp of the shepherds, Šamhat and Enkidu proceed towards Uruk. After all, Enkidu is destined to become a companion for king Gilgamesh.

On their way they meet a stranger who tells them that he is going to a wedding in the city, and also that king Gilgamesh usually claims the privilege of ius primae noctis, before the bridegroom does. Enkidu gets to know culture (Comte 2008:164), but what he learns he does not like. He becomes furious, rushes to the house of the wedding where he blocks Gilgamesh's path.

Whether wisdom or morality, on this point the Gilgamesh Epic still seems to reflect on what is right and what is wrong, and the behaviour of Gilgamesh is certainly wrong. Power abuse and sexual abuse of those in a ruling position cannot be tolerated and must be stopped. Gilgamesh's tyrannical and abusive behaviour must be called to a halt.

A terrible fight breaks out between Gilgamesh and Enkidu, a fight that makes the doors quake and the walls shake (Tablet II:15; George 2003:563), but eventually they seem to recognise their equal strength, stop fighting, embrace and kiss each other. And from this moment on, they become firm friends.

 

The slaying of Humbaba

Peace in Uruk at last! Gilgamesh and Enkidu keep each other busy. But Enkidu is becoming depressed for two reasons: he does not have parents like other people, and he is no longer as strong as he used to be. Gilgamesh comes up with a solution: a death-defying adventure. Not only will this cure depression, but should they perish, they would have established an everlasting name for themselves. The adventure he suggests, is to go and slay Humbaba.

Who was Humbaba? 'His voice is the Deluge, his speech is fire, his breath is death' (II:278-279; see also Comte 2008:165). 'In order to keep the cedars safe, Enlil made it his destiny to be the terror of the people' (II:284-285; George 2003:571). Who was Enlil? Enlil, also known as 'Lord Wind', was the god who ruled the earth and its human inhabitants (George 1999:223). He was a fickle deity and his attitude towards humans was often ambivalent. Just like the wind he could be benevolent, but also violent and destructive. Enlil appointed Humbaba, the gigantic monster to watch over the Cedar Forest to protect it from human invasion (Salles 2009:83).

There are several problems here. Gilgamesh and Enkidu are undertaking a very dangerous endeavour. Humbaba is a terrifying monster. Then they are about to defy the authority of a god, who would certainly not be pleased by their act. With regards to morality and wisdom for that matter, is it justifiable to kill in order to get adrenaline going to overcome depression? Or to kill in order to establish an everlasting name and seek eternal fame? The answer would be no, in ancient as well as in modern times.

To make matters worse, if the guardian of the forest is killed, the forest will be open for humans to fell the cedars and do much harm to the environment. Although a blog cannot really be regarded as a source for scholarly research, I came across one where someone remarked that we should remember that the story - the Gilgamesh Epic takes place in modern day Irak, 'not exactly the place you think of when you imagine huge forests of trees. So, perhaps Enlil was right to put Humbaba there'.⁵ Perhaps the whole landscape would have looked different, had Gilgamesh and Enkidu not killed Humbaba.

When the goddess Ninsun, mother of Gilgamesh, finds out what her son is about to do, she prays to Shamash, the Sun god, god of justice and righteousness. Ninsun says to Shamash: 'Why did you assign and inflict a restless spirit on my son Gilgamesh? For now you have touched him and he will travel to where Humbaba is' (III:46-48) … 'until he slays ferocious Humbaba and annihilates from the land the Evil Thing that you hate' (III:53-54; George 2003:577).

Was Humbaba evil, as the epic portrays him? Or was he simply doing his job, a good job by protecting the forest?

At this point, any conceptualisation of morality really becomes blurred. From the blog I quoted and other comments, it appears that several modern readers think of Humbaba in a favourable way. Yet in the Epic he is portrayed as an Evil Thing, the very opposite of Shamash who stands for righteousness and justice. What is evil about him? Modern concerns are the protection of the environment and to prevent the exploitation of nature. On the contrary, the Epic seems to regard the Cedar Forest as the selfish possession of the gods, especially of Enlil and Humbaba is the evil guardian who protects this divine possession.

However, there is one more cheerful event in this chapter. Ninsun has finished her prayer to Shamash, then summons Enkidu to her. She says to him: 'You are not the offspring of my womb, but now your brood will be with the oblates of Gilgamesh, the priestesses, hierodules, and temple girls'. And she put the symbols around his neck' (III:121-124). In ancient Mesopotamia, there was a custom referred to as 'institutional adoption' (George 2003:462; see also Schimdt 2019:53). Temples took in orphans, foundlings abandoned by their families or children given up in times of famine, where they were looked after and raised by the temple women, and when they were older, they would work in the temple. They were also marked with a special sign - perhaps alluded to by the symbols Ninsun put around Enkidu's neck. This institutional adoption of homeless children seems like an act of compassion and care, which conveys something of morality in ancient societies. Although, I'm not sure what these orphanages looked like in reality. If one reads the novel of Oliver Twist, one shudders…

Tablet V ends with the slaying of Humbaba. Initially it seems as though the guardian gains the upper hand, but Shamash remembers his promise to Ninsun, he intervenes and blinds the monster with thirteen winds to help Gilgamesh and Enkidu overcome him with their weapons. They seek out the best timber, cut off as many cedars as they wish and travel back to the city … with the head of Humbaba.

***The account of the journey to the Cedar Forest and the slaying of Humbaba serves as a reminder that 'right' in ancient times is 'wrong' in present times. When one reads the biblical account in 1 Kings 6-7 which describes King Solomon's building projects, namely the Temple and his palace, one becomes appalled at the amount of wood that was used. Yet, Solomon is also known for his 'wisdom'. Gathering wood to decorate temple and palace is exactly why Gilgamesh and Enkidu went to the Cedar Forest. Clearly, nature conservation was not a priority in ancient times. From these observations I would suggest that in our discussion on a 'contextually appropriate conception of morality and an ethics of responsibility', we should also look at the relationship between humans and nature - we do have a responsibility towards our environment. The slaying of Humbaba is an ugly reminder of what it should not be. Maybe, just maybe, …Humbaba should be awakened?

 

Ishtar … a force to be reckoned with, and a death penalty

After Gilgamesh and Enkidu slayed Humbaba, the goddess Ishtar falls madly in love with Gilgamesh. Ishtar is the goddess of love and war (George 1999:223), known for her insatiable appetite for unbridled sex but also her violent temper if she doesn't get what she wants. Tablet VI begins with Gilgamesh returning from battle, washing his matted hair, cleaning his equipment. He shakes his locks down his back, casts away his dirty things and clothes himself in his kingly garments, and his crown (Tablet VI:1-5; George 2003:619). Ishtar cannot resist his beauty and proposes marriage to Gilgamesh, offering him sex, wealth and power - all that a man can wish for! But he spurns her, not because of moral principles, but because she has cursed all her previous lovers to some miserable fate, and he knows the same will happen to him. He reminds her of them (and others): Dumuzi to whom she allotted perpetual weeping, year after year; the lion for whom she had dug seven pits; the horse, once so proud in battle but to whom she allotted spurs and a lash; the shepherd who brought her bread and meat but whom she struck and turned him into a wolf, and whose own dogs now bite his thighs (Tablet VI:44-79; George 2003:622-623). Thanks, but no thanks, Ishtar, is Gilgamesh's response.

Livid with rage - for Ishtar is not used to rejection - she rushes up to the heavens and demands from her father, Anu, the father of the gods, to send the Bull of Heaven (the constellation of Taurus) to smite Gilgamesh in his palace. At first, he refuses because he knows the devastating consequences of a heavenly beast descending on earth, but Ishtar throws a temper tantrum, threatening to open the gates of the Netherworld and let out the dead to eat up the living if her father does not comply. Anu gives in, and as he knew, Bull creates havoc, causing deep pits every time he snorts, and every time hundreds of people fall into a pit. However, Gilgamesh and Enkidu come to the rescue, kill the Bull, and celebrate their victory with the rest of the citizens of Uruk. Of course, this enrages Ishtar even more. She laments the killing of the Bull on the walls of Uruk together with the courtesans, prostitutes and harlots, but Enkidu ridicules her (Comte 2008:165), by tearing a haunch off the Bull and throwing it before her and threatens to drape its guts on her arms (George 2003:629). The tablet ends where the two heroes celebrate their victories with the rest of the citizens of Uruk, but the very last lines mention that Enkidu had a most disturbing dream that he reveals to Gilgamesh in the next tablet.

 

The death of Enkidu

In Tablet VII the great gods hold counsel. The luck of the two heroes has run out. Slaying both Humbaba and the Bull of heaven, they've pushed it too far. The gods then reach the decision that one of them shall die, to leave the other for the rest of his life mourning for his friend. The death penalty falls upon Enkidu and he is sent to the death camp (Comte 2008:165). To make matters worse, he is not to die in honour, like one who has lost his life in battle, but in shame, in sickness and in pain.

So, it happens. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh is devastated. He becomes deeply depressed and develops an obsessive fear for death. When he and Enkidu embarked on their journey to the Cedar Forest to slay Humbaba, death was a reality but not really a concern. After all, they would establish an everlasting name as heroes who had died in combat. But things have changed. Would Gilgamesh die as Enkidu? Not in honour but in shame? And this scares him. This fear drives him to an obsession - the obsessive desire to live forever.

Gilgamesh knows of one human being who did succeed in obtaining life everlasting, and that is Utanapishtim who lives at the very end of the earth, at the Distant, beyond the lethal Waters of Death. Bereft, Gilgamesh leaves his palace in a sorry state, and clad only in the skin of a lion, he roams the earth in search of its ends, in search of Utanapishtim who lives forever. Gilgamesh must learn his secret, the secret of everlasting life.

His trip takes him to the end of the earth where the Twin Mountains stand, where the tunnel of the sun runs from the one end to the next. The tunnel of the sun is guarded by a Scorpion man and his wife; and in order to reach Utanapishtim, Gilgamesh has to pass through this tunnel before the sun does. After explaining his quest, the Scorpion people let him pass. Thereafter, he reaches the seashore of the Waters of Death and a garden with bejewelled plants and trees where Siduri, a mysterious ale wife lives. She directs him to Urashanabi, the boatsman of Utanapishtim who is eventually persuaded by Gilgamesh to ferry him over the lethal Waters of Death to meet the one on whom the gods bestowed life everlasting.

 

A visit to Utanapishtim, the Distant

Beyond the end of the earth, at the Distant, Gilgamesh meets Utanapishtim and begs him to disclose the secret of everlasting life - just how did he get it?

And Utanapishtim tells Gilgamesh the story of the Deluge.⁶ A very long time ago, the gods created humankind so that the humans could work, and the gods could rest. But in due course, the humans' building cities and digging canals made such a noise that the gods could bear it no longer. Enlil complained that all the racket hurt his ears and deprived him of his sleep. A permanent solution: wipe them all out.

All the gods seem to be in cahoots, but Ea secretly splits this secret to one who is sitting in his hut: Utanapishtim, also known as Atrahasis. Ea does this not because Utanapishtim is good or of high moral standards, but simply because Utanapishtim is Ea's favourite. And Ea does not speak to Utanapishtim directly, but whispers into a reed fence and a brick wall to repeat his words to Utanapishtim, to 'abandon riches and seek survival; spurn property and save life and put on board of the boat the seed of all living creatures' (XI:25-27; George 2003:705).

The monstrous nautical vessel is barely constructed when the storm breaks loose in all its rage. People fill the ocean like fish. All life on earth is destroyed mercilessly. Even the gods take fright about that which they have done. They abandon their earthly abodes and rush up to the heaven where they cower like dogs in fright (George 2003:711). 'What have we done?' they wail.

After six days and seven nights, the storm abates. Utanapishtim's boat crashes into a mountain, Mount Nebo. From there he sends out several birds to scout for dry land. First a dove, then a swallow, but both return, finding no perch available. The third bird, the raven flies off, and Utanapishtim knows, he is on terra firma now. He brings an offering to the gods, not because he is grateful, but because he knows they are starving, having been deprived of sacrifices for some time while the Deluge lasted, and their cults had been interrupted. As they catch scent of Utanapishtim's offering, they descend from heaven, and crowd around his jars filled with food and libations like hungry buzzing flies.

The mother goddess, Belet-ili vows to never let such a disaster happen again to her children. As promised, she lifts the beads of fly-shaped lapis-lazuli beads that Anu had made for her during their earlier courtship - this is of course the promise of the rainbow. Consequently, she accuses Enlil of causing the Deluge and forbids him to partake in Utanapishtim's offering. Yet he turns up, and is furious when he realises that some life had escaped the catastrophe. Ea, being known for his cunningness, is accused of splitting the secret, but he simply shrugs his shoulders and says that Atrahasis/Utanapishtim had a dream - to prevent someone from dreaming is of course impossible.

Enlil calms down and his anger changes into gratefulness - he fetches Utanapishtim and his wife from the boat and blesses them with life everlasting.

 

The end

Unfortunately, says Utanapishtim to Gilgamesh, there was only one Deluge for him, Utanapishtim, there is not going to be another for Gilgamesh. However, there is a slim chance: if he can defeat sleep (the younger cousin of Death) and stay awake for six days and seven nights, he may obtain life everlasting. Of course, Gilgamesh fails the test miserably.

By now Utanapishtim has had enough of Gilgamesh and instructs Urshanabi to ferry him back to Uruk. Gilgamesh is not to return, ever, and Urshanabi also seems to be fired from his job - he is not to return either. But Utanapishtim's wife feels sorry for the weary traveller who had come such a long way, and requests her husband to give Gilgamesh a parting gift at least. Utanapishtim discloses a last secret. At the bottom of the Apsû (Ea's domain) grows a thorny shrub that has rejuvenating capacities. It does not guarantee immortality, but those who eat from it, will not grow older.

Gilgamesh manages to retrieve the plant, but he does not trust Utanapishtim completely and decides to try it out on the senior citizens of the city before using it himself. As he and Urshanabi pitch camp for the night, he goes down to bathe in a pool of clear cool water. Rather carelessly he leaves the precious plant on the side of pool. He turns his back just for a moment, and in that time a snake is lured by the sweet odours of the plant. When Gilgamesh turns around, he is just in time to see the creature snatching the plant, casting off its old skin, and sailing away young and new. Gilgamesh breaks down and weeps bitterly.

The epic ends, echoing some lines of the opening prologue. Gilgamesh is back in Uruk, walking on the city-walls and speaking to Urshanabi. He does not seem deflated, in fact, he seems quite composed, even proud, boasting about his city, its walls, and its fertile soil. After seeing the Deep, he realises the quest for everlasting life is futile. The interest is in the living, in the present, in the here and now of life.

 

Remarks

Since the Ishtar-scenario (Tablet VI), the gods are not depicted in a respectful manner - on the contrary! Ishtar is portrayed as having no scruples when it comes to her sexual desires and as an immature brat who throws temper tantrums if she cannot get what she wants. Anu is a feeble father who gives in to his daughter's demands, even knowing the harm it will cause.

Enlil is mostly a negative character. He is the one that appointed the Evil Thing, Humbaba, to guard the Cedar Forest. Then there is the counsel of the gods, where a decision is to be made about the punishment for the hubris of Gilgamesh and Enkidu, for slaying Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. According to a Hittite fragment, missing from the Standard Babylonian Version, Enlil is the one who decides that Enkidu shall die (George 1999:54-55). In the Atrahasis Epic, the decision to wipe out humankind with the Deluge, is mainly that of Enlil. And when he finds out that there was a survivor, he is infuriated.

With regards to the Deluge itself, when the gods realise that the storm has annihilated all life on earth, they take fright and flee to heaven, cowering like dogs, tails between their legs. And when the storm abates, they are famished, for six days and seven nights they have had no sacrifices from the humans on earth - whom they assume they have just wiped out. Then the aromatic odours of Utanapishtim's offerings reach their noses - they descend from heaven and crowd over his jars like buzzing flies. Certainly, the image of gods portrayed like cowering dogs and buzzing flies is not flattering.

Ea, despite being the source of all wisdom, does not play a strong role in the Epic, and where he does - in the account of the Deluge - he is more cunning than wise. He splits the secret of the gods, and when confronted, he lies cleverly.

The only god worthy of some respect is Shamash, the Sun god. He answers Ninsun's prayers; he does protect Gilgamesh and Enkidu on their journey to the Cedar Forest and assists them in their battle against Humbaba. Also, in the Hittite fragment mentioned above, at the counsel of the gods, he intercedes for Enkidu, saying that he is innocent and should not die - which made Enlil become very angry. I didn't mention it in the article, but as Enkidu lay dying, cursing many people and even objects in his pain, Shamash tried to console and comfort him. Yet, the righteousness of Shamash is missing in the account of the Deluge.

 

Conclusion

In this article, I addressed the topic of 'The Conceptualisation of Morality in Ancient Religions' at the hand of the Gilgamesh Epic. I also cautioned that ancient languages do not have words for either religion or morality. However, in the Epic of Gilgamesh it became evident that ancient societies did have an idea of what may be conceived as morality - namely that rulers should not oppress and abuse power, that an orderly and just society should be established, and that care for the less fortunate in that society should be provided. But religion hardly played any role. I completely agree with Douglas Matus that '[T]he belief system that informs the [Gilgamesh] epic's morality has more affinities with Greek and Egyptian religions than the dualistic Judeo-Christian tradition'.⁷ Like in the myths of ancient Greece and Egypt, also the deities in the Gilgamesh Epic do not set examples of moral conduct. They are too much like the humans they created!

Yet, the epic proposes that it will disclose some secret knowledge that Gilgamesh had acquired on his journey that left him 'weary but granted him rest' (George 2003:537), but it never explicitly states its nature or content. What did Gilgamesh learn? I conclude with the observations of some scholars. Beaulieu (2007) states:

The moral teachings of the epic center on the rejection of hubris, the acceptance of human mortality and ultimately on the submission to the fate and order created by the gods. (p. 7)

Van Leeuwen (2007) explains:

Nagbu refers not only to the deep waters in which Gilgamesh plumbs, but also to the wisdom he achieves through his quest. At the end (as in the beginning of the epic) the only monument to Gilgamesh's wisdom will be what he builds - the mighty walls of Uruk, whose foundations were laid by the seven sages. (p. 73)

Schmidt (2019) suggests:

We first encounter him as young (not yet a good king), though when we leave him at the poem's end, he has become the mature player promised to us in the opening lines: 'wise in all matters'. (p. 38)

The Gilgamesh Epic seems to convey a conceptualisation of morality (wisdom) wished by the gods but which they themselves are uncapable to uphold. Humans, through the hard lessons of life, learn what is right and what is wrong, and live their lives accordingly. Besides the futile quest for everlasting life, the Gilgamesh Epic also questions the meaning of life, and finds the answer in the building of the mighty walls of Uruk, the date palms and clay pits within the city: life here and now. Morality/wisdom is to be executed by humans in the life that they live, regardless of gods or religion.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

G.d.V. is the sole author of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

References

Beaulieu, P.-A., 2007, 'The social and intellectual setting of Babylonian wisdom literature', in R.J. Clifford (ed)., Wisdom literature in Mesopotamia and Israel, pp. 3-9, Brill, Leiden.         [ Links ]

Chravát, P., 2002, Mesopotamia before history, Routledge, London.         [ Links ]

Comte, F., 2008, Mythen der Welt, WBG (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft), Darmstadt.         [ Links ]

De Villiers, G.G., 2000, 'Gilgamesh sien die Diepte: van Skande tot Eer', Unpublished thesis, Universiteit van Pretoria.         [ Links ]

George, A., 1999, The Epic of Gilgamesh. A new translation, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

George, A.R., 2003, The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic. Introduction, critical edition and cuneiform texts, vol. I, Oxford University Press, Oxford.         [ Links ]

Jamme, C. & Matuschek, S., 2014, Handbuch der Mythologie, WBG (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft), Darmstadt.         [ Links ]

Mark, J.J., 2021, Code of Ur-Nammu, World History Encyclopedia, viewed 30 July 2022, from https://www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Ur-Nammu.         [ Links ]

Matus, D., n.d., What are the Good & Evil forces in 'The Epic of Gilgamesh'?, viewed 06 August 2022, from https://education.seattlepi.com/good-evil-forces-the-epic-gilgamesh-5376.html.         [ Links ]

Salles, C., 2009, Chronik der Alten Kulturen, Konrad Theiss Verlag GmbH, Stuttgart.         [ Links ]

Schmidt, M., 2019, The life of a poem. Gilgamesh, Princeton University Press, Princeton.         [ Links ]

Schneider, T.J., 2011, An introduction to ancient Mesopotamian religion, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Sonnabend, H., 2014, Götterwelten. Die Religionene der Antike, WBG (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft), Darmstadt.         [ Links ]

Van der Toorn, K., 2007, 'Why wisdom became a secret. On wisdom as a written genre', in R.J. Clifford (ed)., Wisdom literature in Mesopotamia and Israel, pp. 21-29, Brill, Leiden.         [ Links ]

Van Leeuwen, R.C., 2007, 'Cosmos, temple, house: Building and wisdom in Mesopotamia', in R.J. Clifford (ed)., Wisdom literature in Mesopotamia and Israel, pp. 67-90, Brill, Leiden.         [ Links ]

Internet sources, no author, no date, no pages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi.

 

 

Correspondence:
Gerda de Villiers
gerdadev04@gmail.com

Received: 01 Sept. 2023
Accepted: 31 Oct. 2023
Published: 05 Apr. 2024

 

 

1. See Mark.
2. It is not a poem or a hymn - an epic is a long narrative poem that tells a story.
3. All translations are from George (2003). I have translated many parts of the Epic myself, but that is in Afrikaans. See my unpublished MA thesis: Gezina G. de Villiers, Gilgamesh sien die Diepte: van Skande tot Eer, Universiteit van Pretoria, 2000.
4. Chravát (2002:239) sees a link between Gilgamesh's tyranny and oppression and particular historical and political events in Mesopotamia c.a. the 26th century BCE, namely the demise of the Sumerian city state Šurruppak because of forced labour obligation. However, this may be questioned if the Gilgamesh Epic is regarded as a wisdom text with pedagogical intentions.
5. See Matus n.d.
6. The account of the Deluge is an older myth, the Atrahasis Epic, or the Babylonian Flood Narrative, inserted into the Gilgamesh Epic. In the Epic the reason for the Deluge is not mentioned, but for the discussion on morality and the role of religion in ancient times, it is important to take note why the gods decided to wipe out humankind with a Flood. After the creation of humankind, Enlil became annoyed with the noise they made - digging channels, building houses, temples, and palaces, and therefore he decided to wipe them out with a Deluge. Although the gods took oath never to let the plan of the Deluge leak out, Ea thwarted their schemes (Jamme & Matuschek 2014:231).
7. See https://education.seattlepi.com/good-evil-forces-the-epic-gilgamesh-5376.html.

^rND^sBeaulieu^nP.-A.^rND^sVan der Toorn^nK.^rND^sVan Leeuwen^nR.C.^rND^1A01^nSifiso^sKhuzwayo^rND^1A01^nSifiso^sKhuzwayo^rND^1A01^nSifiso^sKhuzwayo

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

An exploration of ubungoma through the calling and God's indwelling in the Prophet Jeremiah

 

 

Sifiso Khuzwayo

Department of Research Institute in Theology and Religion, School of Humanities, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article employs interpretive phenomenological analysis to explore the African practice of ubungoma [divination] through the Prophet Jeremiah's calling and God's indwelling on him in relation to the growing number of professing Christians experiencing an ancestral calling within Southern Africa. The aim is to highlight previously unnoticed features on the work of the Spirit in two religious traditions illuminating our understanding of God's presence beyond religions. Three areas of focus will be the calling of both isangoma and prophets, various mediums and their functions, and the indwelling or inscription of God or Spirit in either isangoma or a prophet. The findings of this analysis have shown that whether one uses inculturation, enculturation or decolonisation as a tool, each one of them has a framework that can aid in understanding this phenomenon. This will aid discern calls to the ministry and Christian vocation while informing current discourses on Christian polity and practice.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article explores the intersection of African Traditional Religions with Christianity and encourages the re-reading of scriptures to empower African interpretations

Keywords: ubungom; divination; ancestral veneration; Amadlozi, amathongo; ancestral calling; prophecy; Jeremiah.

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Introduction

Mbiti (1969), over five decades ago, lamented that 'with a few exceptions, African systems of divination have not been carefully studied, though diviners and divination are found in almost every community' (Mbiti 1969:177). It is unfortunate that scholars across a variety of disciplines continue to rely on the works of foreign anthropologists, medical and social sciences to understand the phenomenon of ubungoma. Not only is this research not carried out by people embedded within African cultures, but it also continues to, and they continue to perpetuate a heavy bias towards Western Christianity in dealing with matters of African spiritualities. I contend, however, that the current generation stands at the perfect cross-roads for the documentation of African spiritualities and cultural phenomena to move beyond our predecessors who were too consumed with political and ideological liberation struggles that have gifted us the basic tenets of freedom. Now the work of surfacing and describing African cultural realities and experiences has become urgent. This article will define ubungoma and explore the possibilities for a person to simultaneously experience a calling to ubungoma and to Christian ministry and ministerial vocation.

I¹ write from a perspective of umZulu and therefore my engagements with the issue of divination will be strongly biased towards isiZulu culture; however, many of the concepts are similar with other peoples of Southern Africa. I approach the study as an interpretive phenomenological analysis because it provides the methodological apparatus to examine constructs without theoretical presuppositions or assumptions as to their causes or consequences (Beck 2021). Criticism is often laid out that many theologians approach African spiritualities with the aim of just proofing their own dominant Western Christian ends. Key to phenomenological analysis is a quest to understand people's lived experiences and how they make sense of it in the context of their personal and social worlds (Alase 2017). Paul Tillich as cited by John Pobee and Donald F. Dreisbach provides an adequate description for me:

The test of a phenomenological description is that the picture given by it is convincing, that it can be seen by anyone who is willing to look in the same direction, that the description illuminates other related ideas, and that it makes the reality which these ideas are supposed to reflect understandable. Phenomenology is a way of pointing to phenomena as they 'give themselves', without interference of negative or positive prejudices and explanations. (Dreisbach 1980:524; Pobee 1987:33)

I will qualify the need for a study of ubungoma to be juxtaposed with the biblical narratives - not as an apologist but as a base from that which people know and move to a space of recognition of the independence of the one. The use of Jeremiah is to outline the disingenuous 'truth claims' made and unquestioned in scripture of a God who speaks audibly and the effect such claims have on the hearers as opposed to the claims made in other religions.

The interpretative exploration hopes to unravel notions of God's - The Supreme Being - calling and vocation embedded in both African people's experiences of Christianity and cultural rituals. Ultimately, the analysis is aimed to help individuals and churches to authentically engage with the phenomenon of ubungoma in a manner that frees it from historical biases. The article also provides some practical tools for an open discussion that may inform theology and church polity.

 

Variations of ubungoma

There are many types of ubungoma and forms of spirits that are commonly used. In this article, I will use ubungoma as an umbrella term for divining and ukubhula for divination. Zuesse is helpful in classifying divination as a phenomenon and uses two major groupings: 'Possession' and 'Wisdom'. He defines the possession group as characterised by 'the use of mediums, the reading of omens, and the movements of sacred animals or objects' (Zuesse 1975:159).

Wisdom divination is defined as (Zuesse 1975):

[T]he spirits, the gods, and human personality as well are all subordinated to a profounder cosmic order. One seeks a dispassionate distance from all things, a spiritual objectivity, which transcends the whole in reducing all perceptual reality to impersonal elemental components. (p. 160)

Other forms of divination exist beyond the ones Zuesse mentions and he acknowledges them as part or a mixture of the phenomenon he has outlined. According to Zuesse (1975) insight or intuitive divination is considered as:

[T]he specialists claim the ability to determine intuitively, and without explicit 'possession' or the application of esoteric sciences, the identity and problems of the clients who come to them, and in the same heightened, spiritually alert state, to discover the cause of the troubles. (p. 162)

There is a subgrouping of possession divination which I believe is important for our engagement here: a possession 'directly by the Supreme Being, whose instructions are directly comprehensible and are not further mediated by sage-priests' (Zuesse 1975:161). This form of divination seems to be no different from the possession that occurred with Near-Eastern prophets, including Jewish prophets. We will return to this concept when I discuss Jeremiah as a possible arch-type of this possession.

Of interest to us in Southern Africa, Zuesse notes that 'it appears likely that a Jewish and/or Muslim influence is evident here, in some cases at least. An ancient Jewish presence in the area has been suggested by many scholars to explain the unusual culture of the Lemba or Remba people of Rhodesia and South Africa'. It is sad that for some anthropologists the study of primitive cultures could not exist outside of the belief that all people were descendants of the biblical ancestors and therefore many primitive religions of Africa had to be defined using that ancestry.

In his book, Savage Systems, Chidester (1996:142) tackles how Christianity produced itself as Western hegemony in three movements around the definition of the African spiritualities insightfully deals with this perception. He categorises these movements as the (1) absence or denial of religion, (2) genealogical developments and (3) morphological developments. As a case in point, in morphological developments, there is 'discovered' similarity in forms and patterns between native religions and ancient primordial religious types, that is, finding similar forms to Semitic religions.

So, these African people were either degenerate Jews or linked to some form of Islam (the enemy of the West) and this enabled the many horrors that Western colonisers performed on Africans. Interestingly - for these anthropologists - 'superstition' was linked to Catholicism; Catholics were, for the reformed, superstitious in their worship of Mary and the idols they called icons. Among the people guilty of this atrocious classification of amaZulu is the Rev Callaway (1884) whose works also defined divination among amaZulu as 'due to possession by ancestral spirits'. Chidester puts a lot of blame on the works and interpretation of Callaway's encounters with amaZulu not only on gullibility but on the intentional perpetuation of the Western annexation of the lands.

However, one looks at this, there is a strong belief among amaZulu that diviners, while they function through a calling from their ancestors, their main aim is to transmit messages from the Supreme Being, uMvelinqangi to the living. Zuesse (1975) affirms this by saying:

[B]ut the life that then fills the bones is integrated into a universal classification, one that embraces the entire cosmos, and which some diviners speak of as the 'Word' of God. (p. 165)

In the accompanying note, Zuesse (1975) says:

But the Bula, the Word, is not generally looked on as being the utterances of the ancestor gods. The bones are, in a certain sense, superior to the gods whose intentions they disclose. The Bula is the revelation of an impersonal power, independent of the gods. The diviners appeal directly to Tilo, the 'impersonal' High God. (p. 165)

In his conclusion, Zuesse (1975) emphasises this point:

In many cases, divination in African cultures amounts to a direct cult to the Supreme Being which has been ignored by the Western researchers. One hopes that this neglect will not continue. (p. 179)

Possession in isiZulu is by the spirit of the ancestor who narrates the messages from the Supreme Being for the wellbeing of the living. There are different types of spirits that exist and influence humanity. Amathongo are the ancestral spirits that everybody has. They are called amathongo because they appear to the person ebuthongweni (in sleep) through dreams and visions. Amadlozi are the possession spirits which overcome a person and guide them in a particular way. These are called amadlozi because 'bakubamba ngesidlozana' (they forcefully take a hold of you). The general confusion here is that this word amadlozi is now used as though every person has amadlozi whereas in reality every person has amathongo. A person who dances and ends up dancing uncontrollably which is a trance state is often said uvukwe amadlingosi. Amadlingosi means those who eat through smoke; when there is a celebration in the homestead, a portion of the food is placed in the main hut which functions as a sanctuary, as an offering for the ancestors. The ancestors no longer can eat physically so they eat through smell. When meat is braaied, the smoke (usi) goes up and they are said to eat through that, hence amadlingosi. So, when a person dances and gets into a trance, the belief is that it is no longer just the individual dancing, but the ancestors get excited by the dance, and they start dancing through the individual who is then said usevukwe amadlingosi! Other more technical terms for ancestral spirits include umndawo, which is the female ancestor spirits, umndiki the male ancestor spirits, amanono are those who died very young or very old and considered clean and purest and isithunywa which is the spirit of those who died as amakholwa [believers], mainly Christian.

These movements and variants in understanding and dealing with spirits are not unique to amaZulu but are also found in other areas of Africa. Agyarko (2005) defines them in Ghanaian spirituality in this way:

The Akan has two terms for divination, namely abisa and nsamankom. The former is an act of formal consultation from a priest or priestess or - medicine man for knowledge of the past or present or the future. The latter is the spontaneous utterances from, usually, the ordinary person, who claims to be possessed by the - spirit of the dead, who has a message to be given to the living human beings. The difference between the two is that, whereas the abisa is a formal request made to a professional religious person, nsamankom is usually unsolicited spontaneous utterances from a person - possessed by the - spirit of a dead person. Strictly speaking, nsamankom is not an act of necromancy but is more akin to it by its context than the abisa which fits divination as well. (p. 78)

Clearly underlying the whole divination enterprise is the belief in the existence and role played by ancestors. John O'Donoghue (2010) in his book, Divine Beauty: The Invisible Embrace, says:

The dead are not distant or absent. They are alongside us. When we lose someone to death, we lose their physical image and presence, they slip out of visible form into invisible presence. This alteration of form is the reason we cannot see the dead. But because we cannot see them does not mean that they are not there. Transfigured into eternal form, the dead cannot reverse the journey and even for one second re-enter their old form to linger with us a while. Though they cannot reappear, they continue to be near us and part of the healing of grief is the refinement of our hearts whereby we come to sense their loving nearness. When we ourselves enter the eternal world and come to see our lives on earth in full view, we may be surprised at the immense assistance and support with which our departed loved ones have accompanied every moment of our lives. In their new, transfigured presence their compassion, understanding and love take on a divine depth, enabling them to become secret angels guiding and sheltering the unfolding of our destiny. (p. 223)

Another element of ancestors that often has people confused is to think that ancestors are only those who have lived well. This is a notion that one encounters in the works of African Theologians such as Pobee (1979):

Not all the dead are ancestors. To qualify to be an ancestor one must have lived to a ripe old age and in an exemplary manner and done much to enhance the standing and prestige of the family, clan or tribe. By virtue of being the part of the clan gone ahead to the house of God, they are believed to be powerful in the sense that they maintain the course of life here and now and influence it for good or ill. They give children to the living; they give good harvest, they provide the sanctions for the moral life of the nation and accordingly punish, exonerate or reward the living as the case may be. (p. 46)

It is also important to note that Pobee also says: 'ancestors are members in the household of God and ancestors receive their authority from God' (Pobee 1979:46). This point will be important when we discuss the issue of mediums and mediation. Bediako (2000:30) affirms Pobee's claim that ancestors are those who have lived exemplary lives and from whom the community derived some benefit.

I disagree with Pobee and Bediako in their defining ancestors as those who have lived well. amaZulu believes that when a person passes away and has not lived an exemplary life or has left several issues unresolved, that person may not be allowed to enter the realm of ancestors. Also, as defined above, the amanono spirits are of those who have lived to a ripe age or those of innocent children even those who were unborn (miscarried). This argument by Pobee and Bediako, therefore, does not hold because there have been many stories of people who have experienced members of their family who died not ever owning even a chicken but suddenly appearing in dreams asking that rituals be performed on their behalf so that they can be allowed to enter the ancestry family.

When these rituals are not performed on the deceased's behalf, that person's spirit begins to wander, and they become a troublesome wandering spirit - a ghost. Generally, these wandering spirits can attach themselves to any living person as the idlozi spirit would, except here - this would be a non-familial spirit; this is referred to as an evil spirit and requires exorcism. There are people who have learnt the art of harnessing these spirits and often frequent graveyards in search of these spirits because such spirits can be manipulated to perform evil acts. The other forms of spirits are what is called izilwane (animal spirits). These are spirits of certain animals which are also manipulated to perform evil for their owners. Practices such as ukuthwala, which is performed by people who want to gain power over others for political gain or other influences, riches and even sex appeal use these spirits. These are what is deemed as witchcraft and unacceptable in the community.

With these genealogies and caveats on divination among the amaZulu people, we can now juxtapose the phenomenon with Jeremiah's calling.

 

Ubungoma and Jewish prophets through the calling of the Prophet Jeremiah

In this section, I would like to explore how a diviner (isangoma or prophet) is selected and their identity moulded by their calling. This will hopefully illustrate that family lineage, contact with the Supreme Being and nurturing are critical in the calling. The prophet Jeremiah's calling is recorded in Jeremiah 1:4-10 & 17-19, with very little information on the life of Jeremiah. There are excerpts of Jeremiah's imprisonment, false accusations and imprisonment, exile and other hardships. Jeremiah tried to reject this calling based on his age.

Jeremiah is from Anathoth, which is three miles north of Jerusalem, coming from a priestly family previously displaced by King Solomon for prophecies against his reign. Brueggemann (2007) outlines the importance of Jeremiah's family background:

The importance … is that this family of priests … had long been opposed to the ostentatious self-indulgence of the Davidic house in its trajectory of economic-military autonomy on which Solomon had set it. (p. 30)

God begins by coming to Jeremiah and has a message for him which will shape the person that Jeremiah is and the layout of the whole book. God's message to Jeremiah is central to our understanding of his call and vocation and the events that unfold across the prophetic era.

André looks at the callings of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Hezekial as examples, which emphasise that the manner in which the prophet's consciousness is aroused during the calling. Prophets are chosen and in their seeking to respond to the call they go through moments of ecstasy that André (1982:190) defines as 'an intensive experience which totally engages the individual, a psychical state characterised by the fact that the person is much less open to outward stimuli than in a normal state'. To explore the features of Jeremiah's call, I implore Guest's (1988) reflections and interweave them with concepts of identity facilitation and divination commonly shared among amaZulu.

'I formed you' (Jeremiah 1:5). In a world where science argues about when does life begin for a person; scripture long declared that there is not a person made of whom God did not already know. 'Before I formed you' has that ring of Psalm 139:14-15. The idea here is clear that there is not a person who is born accidentally or without the firm knowledge of God. This is no different from the African understanding that each life is sacred and began even before a person was born. amaZulu believes that 'Umuntu uzalwa efumbethe;' a child is born with clenched fists, which is understood as we hold our future and message in our being already. It then becomes an issue of communal nurture that people are then enabled to rise to the big vision that they arrived carrying.

'I knew you' (Jeremiah 1:5). The magic in this knowing from God is that God not only knows our journeys but becomes a part of the journey. Hear what God says to Jeremiah in verse 19: 'They will fight against you; but they shall not prevail against you, for I am with you, says the Lord, to deliver you'. This assurance is important enough for God to repeat it to Jeremiah in 1:19 and 15:20. This assurance says: 'Don't be afraid of the message you carry because God is with you always'. God gives Jeremiah this assurance in relation to the mission before him and not just for his own sake. Jeremiah's fear was that he was only a youth! Being youthful, both in scripture and in Africa is not frowned upon nor does it relegate the messenger to being a youth 'unionists', representing only the interests of young people. Youth representation is also to present a youthful mind in all aspects of life and a view that is often energetic, creative and unhindered by the nostalgia of history. The notion of ancestors being only the aged is therefore uncharacteristic for amaZulu.

'I consecrated you' (Jeremiah 1:5). Jeremiah was formed, known and then set apart for something sacred by God, even though he was a youth who could not speak. God 'touches' Jeremiah's mouth (cf. Is 6:7; Dn 10:16). This was no soft or comforting touch, the verb used can also mean 'strike' (e.g. Job 19:21) or harm (e.g. Ps 105:15). One gets a similar sense in Job 1:11 when God sends forth God's hand and strikes the house where Job's children were gathered and leaving all of them dead. One's imagination therefore goes back to the definition of the idlozi spirit which grabs a hold of its agent and takes possession of their way and wellbeing. If you have ever touched hot coal; you will know when Isaiah says an angel touched his lips with hot coal - it burnt.

'I appointed you a prophet to the nations' (Jeremiah 1:5). It becomes clear in the book's progression that the message is not only difficult but unwelcome. Although Jeremiah is promised God's presence and support, the message and what is to happen to Israel will also involve him.

Four (pluck up, pull down, destroy, overthrow) of the six verbs used in Jeremiah's mission have negative connotations. This emphasis on negative connotations shows that Jeremiah's message is indeed difficult but there is a flicker of hope.

As one traverses the book of Jeremiah it becomes clear that often God speaks through the Prophet and the struggle is also in the things that the Prophet would have chosen to not engage had he had the option. Even his state of mind becomes questionable at times.

The book of Jeremiah has the following passage (29:26f.):

YHWH has made you priest instead of Jehoiada the priest, to have charge in the house of YHWH over every madman who prophesies, to put him in the stocks and collar. Now why have you not rebuked Jeremiah of Anathoth who is prophesying to you?

Extracted from its context the passage seems to hint that Jeremiah was mad. But these verses are part of a letter, which a certain Shemaiah sent to a priest in Jerusalem. In its turn, the letter is part of an oracle, which Jeremiah was ordered to deliver to Shemaiah and the message is a curse on Shemaiah's apostasy. Thus, we can presume that Shemaiah bracketed all the prophets he disliked together under the same designation. (André 1982:194).

Having looked at Jeremiah as an archetype Prophet, I now turn my attention to the rest of the Bible for a more comprehensive look at how divination is portrayed.

 

Engaging biblical passages and tradition on forms of prophecy and divination

The Bible is a collection that should be approached with an understanding that it contains the ideologies of the people for whom the scriptures were initially intended; therefore, any use must be moderated by extensive exegesis and proper application to the new context. Mosala (1950 [1989]) cautions in this way:

The insistence on the Bible as the Word of God must be seen for what it is; an ideological manoeuvre whereby ruling-class interests evident in the Bible are converted into a faith that transcends social, political, racial, sexual and economic divisions. In this way the Bible becomes an ahistorical interclassist document. (p. 18)

We have outlined the various types of prophecies and divination methods, and we now turn to look at what some passages deal with. There are major and minor prophets in scripture whose methods came to be accepted as people who heard the voice of God speak to them. We understand that this was not because they saw or heard the actual audible voice of God but through forms of inspiration. There is therefore a similar pattern in how Near-Eastern and African prophets 'heard' the voice that gave them directions. Najman in looking at the second temple period speaks to these traditions that believe in the mediation of God's message. 'Comparison with exilic and pre-exilic traditions suggests that the prophet's communication with God was increasingly likely to be conceived, not as direct, but as angelically mediated' (Najman 2000:315).

The Bible mentions several practices that it is opposed to and of which God disapproves. Exodus 22:18; Leviticus 19:32, 20:6, 27; Deuteronomy 18:10-11; 1 Samuel 28:3; Jeremiah 27:9-10 clearly forbid diviners, sorcerers and contacting the dead. These were practices common to Near-Eastern religions, and we shall see that Israel opted for just the casting of lots.

Hurowitz's (1997) review of Frederick Cryer's 'Divination in Ancient Israel and its near Eastern Environment' says:

[H]e [Cryer] claims that divination was far more prevalent and influential in ancient Israel than a superficial perusal of the Bible or scholarly literature would indicate. Divination was performed at major national occasions such as when going out to war, allocating land, and choosing a king. It outlived prophecy and was practised in the Second Temple period and even later, despite the clear biblical ban on it. (p. 416)

This view is in keeping with the argument in this article that sufficient attention has not been paid to the biblical text and assessment of some activities using an African epistemological lens. Western theology has sought to present scriptural analysis as being only adequate if viewed from the hegemonic Western lens. I seek to argue that a lot more can be learnt by stepping away from that hegemony and allow other context to be influenced and influence directly what the biblical text purports to articulate.

So how are we to define these prohibitions and bans that the Bible has of these divination exercise? The sense one gets is that they were meant to deter people from believing that there was any other source of power except for the one true God. If this be the context, then, the dialogue on the issue of ubungoma needs to wrestle with the issue of spiritual power used by diviners, where does it derive from?

I wish to confine myself to two concepts that scripture alludes to and are useful for our discussion: those that deal with the relevance of ancestors as mediums and necromancy. There are passages that speak to how those who have died no longer have relations with the living. Psalm 115:17 speaks of how the dead do not praise the Lord for they have gone down into silence. Psalm 146:3-4 warns against putting one's trust in another person because those people's plans perish when they die. Ecclesiastes 9:5-6 speaks of the dead no longer having any reward on earth and no share in what is done under the sun. These passages are among those that are used by people who often interpret African ancestral veneration as ancestral worship. The claim is that those who have died no longer live in any way that can allow them to interact with those who are still living. This criticism is often never weighed against the understanding that if a person dies, is that the end of their lives or life continues thus death is just a rite of passage into another sphere of life. If that be the case, a move into another sphere, what proof have we got that there is no relation between these life experiences? How does one also balance scriptures like the Transfiguration - the appearance of Moses and Elijah to Jesus? If there is no interaction, what significance does this hold? The issue of ancestor veneration requires its own focus, and the scope of this article is limited but it must be noted I strongly believe it is hypocritical for the critics who call it ancestor worship because they have never given themselves time to study it beyond a Westernised lens. The very Western lens whose adherents' graves are strewn with fresh flowers and have shrines at sites where their departed died and have special services dedicated to saints and other memorials for the dead. Why have all these for those who no longer have a share among the living?

The other set of scriptures then deal with practices of mediums. A medium can be defined as (Lindblom 1973):

[A] person who, because he is conscious of having been specially chosen and called, feels forced to perform actions and proclaim ideas which, in a mental state of intense inspiration or real ecstasy, have been indicated to him in the form of divine revelation. (p. 46)

This is the understanding that defines ubungoma: a person gets filled with the spirit and the spirit takes over their life and controls their behaviour and actions. Isangoma goes through a period of training and preparation for the work that is set before them. This process is not easy or fun but a big struggle in the life of the initiate. The spirit seizes them, and they start speaking in the voice of the person; a man may speak like a woman or with a voice of an older man. A woman may speak in a voice of an older woman or a man. These types of episodes are often confused and defined as some psychological disorder.

An argument is made that a similar process is experienced by the Prophet Jeremiah as alluded to above. The same thing happens in the work of Jeremiah. Many scholars present Jeremiah as an embodiment of God - in other words - God indwells in Jeremiah and works through him directly.

There are times when Jeremiah speaks that the reader is left uncertain of who is speaking; is it Jeremiah or is it the Word of God? Jeremiah 8 is a famous passage that often confuses people; is it God or Jeremiah that is speaking; Jeremiah 8:22:

Is there no balm in Gilead? Is there no physician there? Why then has the health of my poor people not been restored?

Holt quotes, Terence Fretheim who interpreted Jeremiah 8:18-23 (NRSV 8:18-9:1) as the prophet mirroring the mourning of God: 'The people not only hear the prophet as spokesman of God but they also see the lamentation of God embodied in the person of the prophet' (Holt 2017:193).

An overview of calling cannot be complete without dealing with who God is and by which spirit is all this power ordered. Our image of who God is, is made even more complex by the fact that we need to ask which God is God? Is it the God of the Jewish Bible, the God of the Western Theologians who brought the Christian faith to African shores or is it the God of our African ancestors called Modimo, uMvelinqangi or Qamata? Is there a difference in who God is and does it matter? My thesis is that the God of Africa and the God of the Bible are similar in many ways that I am unable to deal with in this article but I simply to state that God is different from the God of the Westerners who brought Christian faith to Africa.

Idowu, Mbiti (1969:74) and Kato agree that God in African thought, like Oludumare in Yoruba culture and Onyame in Akan culture, is the same as the Christian God. Idowu and Mbiti also contend that in African Traditional Religion, the people not only know but also worship a Supreme Being (Agyarko 2005:53).

In terms of how God communicates, the Old Testament mentions the use of lots to determine the will of God; there are several passages that speak of the use of an ephod which contains the Urim and Thummim

The Urim and Thummim can be defined as (Houtman 1990):

An object by which God's purpose with men was made visible or audible to the priest, either by revealing future events in the form of one or more pictures or by announcing it by means of a heavenly messenger, who manifests himself in it? (p. 230)

Houtman (1990) goes on to say:

'How can the UT function as a medium of divine revelation?' The answer is as follows: by bearing the oracular means before the Lord. So, it is brought by the high priest within the range of action of the Holy One. So it is 'charged' afresh again and again with divine power. (p. 231)

These instruments and the instance of the disciples searching for a replacement of Judas, the Iscariot recorded in Acts show that the will of God was often sought through means of lots or objects through which God communicated.

In pursuit of the relation between the biblical understanding of prophecy and ubungoma, we need to also wrestle with the source of the power that comes from the spirit. The understanding of the role of the Spirit within Christianity has been a subject of much discussion from the Spirit being present to ultimately being understood as the third person of the Trinity. One element that interests us here though is how the great schism of 1054 between the Catholic and Orthodox church revolved around the process of the Spirit. Long before then, the Filioque controversy had been developing in the life of the Church. The Church in her articulation of the Faith through the Creeds, had to contend with an argument of whether the Spirit who is by now considered divine proceeded from the Father or from both the Father and the Son. Luke Timothy Johnson (2007) says the testimony of the Scriptures speaks to 'double procession' of the Spirit:

The testimony of the New Testament to the Spirit is richly ambiguous, and a considerable amount of evidence can be amassed in favour of the position that the Son as much as the Father is the origin of the Spirit. (p. 229)

The Filioque clause therefore became one of the things that split the church notably (Johnson 2007):

From that time forward, the filioque has been a chief complaint of the Orthodox against the Catholics, not only because they think it wrong, but because it shows the insensitivity and arrogance of the West. (p. 230)

The Filioque clause becomes interesting in our study because in it lies the very argument of which spirit guides those with ancestral callings. This is twofold, those who hold the more cultural view believe the spirit of ancestors derives directly from the Supreme Being through the ancestors to the called individual. Those who have an isithunywa spirit believe that the spirit works through Christ and Christianity because the called individual is overcome by the spirit of a Christian believer. It must be noted in African Traditional Religion, the divinity of the spirit is not expressed as it had to be within Christianity. The benevolence or malevolence nature of the spirit is seen in the acts that the possessed person performs, and this is where one is said to have a healthy spirit or a witch.

The other aspect that we learn of the Filioque controversy is what I believe the Western church continues to practice; the insensitive arrogance that the Orthodox church accused them. The Western Missionary enterprise has not been honest in her endeavour to spread the gospel. There has been a superiority complex which was never part of the Christian journey. The West has sought to proclaim Christianity as a complete system of religion that required the convert to leave everything of their past behind and convert to this religion which was coupled with Western civilisation and failed to note the development of the faith through the centuries. It was Paul in preaching in Athens as proclaimed in Acts 17:22-31, who encountered an altar with the inscription 'To an unknown God' and went on to define that 'unknown god' in terms of the Christian God. It was the Church in clarifying her identity that defined Christ as Divine through the Nicea Council and the Arian Controversy and after that, the Holy Spirit as Divine hence the formation of the Trinity God. It was the Church which received and assimilated the celebration of the god of fertility Esteri and the god of light and baptised them into the celebrations of Easter and Christmas. It is hypocritical that when it comes to Africa, the gospel is proclaimed as having nothing to glean from Africa but just for Africa to receive it as a complete system.

On arguing the above point, Methodist theologian Wainwright (1980) puts it this way:

Although an Ancestor-Christology would have its dangers for the Christian faith, and although also it would entail some modification of the different African conceptions of the ancestors, yet the reason should not be sufficient to prevent African theologians, qualified by psychology and culture to sense exactly what an ancestor is for Africans, from exploring its possibilities. It is well known that the christological titles used in the New Testament (Christ, Lord, Saviour, Son of God, Son of Man) came from previous multiple backgrounds charged with associations not entirely appropriate to Jesus without transformation; and no one would pretend the Greek concepts of ousia, hypostasis and physis were immediately and unambiguously suited to Christian doctrine. Both in the New Testament and in the Church of the Fathers, old terms and concepts had to be impregnated with Christian content; and this was done only through decades, and indeed centuries, of exploration and controversy. Without abandoning either the New Testament or the great doctrinal achievements of the patristic Church, may not something like that be allowed to happen in Africa? (p. 384)

 

The role of mediums in African spirituality and Christianity

In this section I will deal with hierarchy in communication lines, how the Supreme Being uses mediums in many religious traditions and spend some time on angels and saints as mediums as well. A young man wanting to marry would communicate this to his older brothers or his mother who will then communicate with the father as the head of the household. Being the head of the household, the father also acts as the 'priest' of the household. He would then communicate this wish to the ancestors in the great hut of the family and then the process of the young man's request may begin. In the same way, communication with the Supreme Being is never direct; the head of the household, clan or tribe communicate through the respective ancestors. Kabasele (1991) puts it this way:

The African universe, especially the Bantu, as we have repeatedly observed, is a hierarchized universe: all beings share in the life of the Supreme Being on different levels according to their nature …The Supreme Being, the world of Spirits, and the world of human beings are distinct, while compenetrating. And it is their distinction that requires a mediation for contact among the three degrees. (p. 123)

The role of mediums is not unique to African spiritualities. I will highlight a biblical example, tools used in the Bible for such consultations, the Church's adoption of the Pharisaic belief in the existence of angels and how that has over the years influenced the Church's acknowledgement of a realm of the Communion of Saints as proclaimed in the Creeds and in the Te Deum.

King Saul consulted a medium, and this is a passage often used to speak against such a practice, but Argyako (2005) portrays an alternative interpretation of Saul's encounter:

Whereas some theologians (O'Donovan 1992:231) see it as an act of necromancy, Dickson (1984:70) flatly differs from such understanding. Rather, he sees it as more like the ancestral cult of the Old Testament. The classic example usually cited is Saul's encounter with the witch of Endor whom he asked to call up the prophet Samuel from death. This example is used to contend that Deuteronomy chapter 18 categorically condemns necromancy. Moreover, it is explained that it is not the efficacy of the necromancy that is being dismissed. Rather, it is the morality of it according to the moral standards of Christianity. (p. 79)

The argument here is that it is precisely because Saul had fallen out of favour with the Lord that the Lord would not speak to him nor respond to his approaches. Enquiring after the Lord's will is not only confined to Saul though, how did other prophets do it?

In reading the Bible beginning with the Old Testament, one encounters the angels as mediums between God and humanity and this role takes different forms and arguably within Judaism sects was accorded different recognition. Najman (2000) defines angels as 'of beings who are creatures, like us, but who are closer to the divine than we, bringing the heavenly into our earthly lives' (p. 313). Najman (2000) seeks to show that:

Previous studies have established that some early Christian traditions emphasize that angels acted as mediators in the revelation of the Torah, while some rabbinic traditions emphasize the immediacy of the Sinai event, and evidence has been adduced of a polemical debate between Christians and Jews on this matter. (p. 313)

The other element about angels in Hebrew literature is that their being and what they did developed through the ages and with influences of the religions with which the Hebrews came into contact. Barton (1912) says:

In the earlier time the various angels and demons in which the Hebrews believed were not sufficiently personal to bear individual names … A great change is traceable in the literature of the second century B.C. and the centuries which followed. (p. 156)

Interestingly where one would always read the New Testament and believe one of the differences between the Pharisees and the Sadducees is that the Sadducees do not believe in the resurrection and the angels. We base this on Acts 23:8 'for the Sadducees say there is no resurrection, nor angels, nor spirit; but the Pharisees acknowledge them all'. Viviano and Taylor (1992) in their brief article on the matter pose a different translation and argue that the Sadducees did in fact believe in the resurrection and angels. Their translation is:

[T]he Sadducees say that there is no resurrection either as an angel (i.e. in the form of an angel) or as a spirit (i.e. in the form of a spirit) but the Pharisees acknowledge them both. (p. 498)

Viviano and Taylor (1992) then assert:

Not only does this not force the text; it gives it a much easier meaning, and one which is consistent with our knowledge of ideas about what follows death that were current in Palestine in the first century of our era. (p. 498)

This then illustrates that there has indeed been a shift caused by Hellenistic and other influences.

The other element within Christianity that speaks to mediums is Saints. Wainwright (1980) says:

The saints are those who, by the gift of the Spirit at work in their lives, have reached such an outstanding degree of conformity to Jesus Christi that the divine kingdom is considered to have come conspicuously close in their persons, and they themselves are considered to be already particularly near to God in anticipation of final salvation. (p. 109)

Wainwright (1980) continues, 'and by over-reaction the Protestant churches have allowed their awareness of the saints to wither'. I particularly like his assessment of the aspects of Protestantism which have lost elements that the African Church would revere and hold dear.

Wainwright then mentions four areas that the church would need to contend with in her understanding of the issue of saints and these are important for our own wrestling with the issue of mediums within the Christian faith. These are: Firstly, the veneration of the saints. Secondly, the prayers of the saints - where they are directly asked to mediate. Thirdly, the liturgies that propose the saints to us as examples of holy living. Finally, the communion with saints which is confessed in liturgies and hymns of the church (Wainwright 1980:109-111).

So, there have been Angels, Saints and then how does the person of Jesus Christ, feature in all this? Chief among these passages becomes John 14:6 'I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me'. This text is often supported with the likes of 1 Timothy 2:5 'and there is one mediator between God and mankind, the man Christ Jesus'. The letter to Hebrews then introduces another confusing element, Christ as the high priest. Does this mean the mediation done by Christ as priest ceased with him and all priests after him can no longer perform this function? If this be the case what then do we do of the Church's understanding of the Persona Christi definition of priesthood? The fact that priests continued to exist in the church after Christ means there is an element of mediation that priests continue to play in the lives of the believers. The Church's practice clearly has been mixed and this begs the further question, why cannot it continue within Africa?

 

A necessity of spiritual dialogue

I will highlight areas that necessitate future exploration and dialogue. Many words and phrases have been coined to illustrate how important a dialogue between African and Christian spiritualities, be it inculturation, enculturation or decolonisation, whichever concept one uses, it comes with a particular framework as a guide.

The importance of this dialogue between Christianity and the African spiritualities cannot be over-emphasised. In fact, that it has not been happening in earnest is an indictment on the churches that have perpetuated the Westernised mentality of the missionaries. Bahemuka (1989) cites Pope Paul VI's Eccleasiam Suam saying:

We must establish a dialogue with African cultures - after all, it was God Himself who opened the dialogue with mankind … for God loved the world so much as to give His only begotten Son … nothing but fervent and unselfish love, can motivate our dialogue. (p. 7)

Abimbola (2006) also noticed the imbalances found in the discussions between these self-imposed 'people of God' in Africa and the indigenous peoples of the land and he argues as follows:

The dialogues that the Christian missions have staged so far have been half-hearted and insincere. To start with, the dialogues have been held only with Islam and Judaism for the most part. Sometimes, these dialogues have included the Buddhists and the Hindu religions and some other religions of the Far East. When they included African indigenous religion at all, Christian evangelists often represent them by masquerading as scholars or practitioners of so-called African Traditional Religion (ATR). (p. 17)

The discussion on inculturation must therefore be honest and unpatrionising as Waliggo (1986) argues:

The permanence of Christianity will stand or fall on the question whether it has become truly African: Whether Africans have made Christian ideas part of their own thinking, whether Africans feel that the Christian vision of life fulfils their own needs, whether the Christian worldview has become part of truly African aspirations. (p. 12)

It is at this point that one sees that the West has often been patronising to Africa in that for centuries when Christianity made its way around the world, it was always ready to adapt. Christianity baptised the pagan celebration of the sun god into its celebration of the birth of Christ through Christmas, the pagan rituals of the god of fertility Esteri into the celebration of Easter. How is it possible that when it comes to Africa it must now be received as a complete religious system that requires no adaptation save for some clanging drums and whistles as part of African worship - the hypocrisy is astounding to say the least.

I strongly believe in what John Wesley noted in his articles of beliefs about adaptability of rituals and ceremonies. Essential to Methodist Articles of Religion, Wesley advocates that rites and ceremonies of churches should not be repugnant to the Word of God, that is where dialogue becomes important (Bratcher 2018):

It is not necessary that rites and ceremonies should in all places be the same, or exactly alike; for they have been always different and may be changed according to the diversity of countries, times, and men's manners, so that nothing be ordained against God's Word. Whosoever, through his private judgment, willingly and purposely doth openly break the rites and ceremonies of the church to which he belongs, which are not repugnant to the Word of God, and are ordained and approved by common authority, ought to be rebuked openly, that others may fear to do the like, as one that offendeth against the common order of the church, and woundeth the consciences of weak brethren. Every particular church may ordain, change or abolish rites and ceremonies, so that all things may be done to edification. (n.p.)

The calls for such an engagement go deeper than what I think Wesley could have imagined by his rites and ceremonies because those rites and ceremonies speak to the very heart of being an African Christian. In addressing this, the Southern Cross (2010) highlights that need for:

Identifying key components of the local culture and religion, and comparing them to Gospel values, where there is a clear correspondence between them, and where necessary, making the appropriate change. There may be a change of both (faith and culture), producing a new way of expressing Christianity, one which better resonates with the African experience. "African Ancestors Beliefs and the Catholic Communion of Saints". (n.p.)

There have been many projects that have sought to give credence to this exercise and for there to make progress, the Church will need to be gracious in receiving criticism and humble in acknowledging its hubris character. African Religion will also have to be humble and acknowledge that not all that is African is sacred and there are elements that need to be cleansed or discarded clearly but all this can only happen if practitioners of all these systems are willing to engage.

 

Conclusion

Ubungoma and the prophetic calling of Israel share a number of common characteristics such as the calling is spiritual and often rooted in the work of the Supreme Being. There are elements of possession where the spirit indwells and guides the called person with the task that the Supreme Being sets before them. There are a variety of gifts that the Spirit bestows upon those who are called and equips them to do various activities for the wellbeing of the community. There are also spirits that can be manipulated for greed and selfish desires of the person who controls them, and these are not for the benefit of the community. The chosen person bears gifts that come from within their lineage either the family of priests as was the case with Jeremiah or the ancestors as the case within the Traditional Religion. These gifts are then nurtured and developed as per guidance from God and it is never for the individual but for the wellbeing of the community. The Bible contains passages that are opposed to certain practices that in some instances can be confused with what happens within the traditional practices; it is these practices that the engagements will need to happen through honest Bible study and realignment of our practices. The historical development of the Church's dogma and praxis reveals that the Church has often learnt and transformed the cultures it encountered and a similar exercise needs to happen within Africa and that will encourage the gospel to be an authentic and transformative force in Africa.

 

Acknowledgements

This article was first presented to the Methodist Church of Southern Africa Central District 32nd Local Preachers Association Convention 2021 at Jabavu, South Africa under the theme "Re-imagining God in Prophetic Preaching". The author is grateful for the invitation from Mr. N. Lawu (Secretary) and the Rev. Tsosane (President) to present this article as a tool for the ongoing conversations for those experiencing a call to serve God in various ministries.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

S.K. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

References

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Correspondence:
Sifiso Khuzwayo
khuzwsh@unisa.ac.za

Received: 19 July 2023
Accepted: 06 Nov. 2023
Published: 23 Apr. 2024

 

 

1. I write the article as an observer and an engaged participant. As such, the use of the first person is a desire to contextualise and invoke my personal and corporate experiences of the phenomenon under discussion. I am a Zulu speaking person, who is also an ordained Methodist minister. Some of the insights and perspectives I share have been shaped by cultural experiences and insights on Southern African cultures.

^rND^sAbimbola^nW.^rND^sAlase^nA.^rND^sAndré^nG.^rND^sBahemuka^nJ.M.^rND^sBarton^nG.A.^rND^sDreisbach^nD.F.^rND^sHolt^nE.K.^rND^sHoutman^nC.^rND^sHurowitz^nV.A.^rND^sKabasele^nL.F.^rND^sNajman^nH.^rND^sPobee^nJ.^rND^sViviano^nB.T.^rND^sTaylor^nJ.^rND^sZuesse^nE.M^rND^1A01^nMnyalaza T.^sMasuku^rND^1A01^nMnyalaza T.^sMasuku^rND^1A01^nMnyalaza T^sMasuku

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The tone of Black Theology debates towards democratic dispensation in South Africa: 1985-1994

 

 

Mnyalaza T. Masuku

Research Institute for Theology and Religion, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The tone of the Black Theology debates took different forms depending on the relevant political processes and dispensations in which they were debated. This situation played itself out in South Africa over the years, from the introduction of Black Theology in the late 1960s to the introduction of the democratic order in 1994. The changing socio-political context in South Africa over the years determined the shape or tone of these debates. This article examines the history of Black Theology debates in South Africa, covering the almost 10-year period between 1985 and 1994. The nature of the debate took a different turn during this period than before and after. The author will therefore highlight the political climate in South Africa that shaped the debates, examine the genesis of Black Theology and historically examine the debate about it over the period under review. Ultimately, a path forward should be developed. The study draws on existing literature through a qualitative review method for carrying out this project.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article examines the tone of Black Theology debates between 1985 and 1994 towards the transition to democracy in South Africa. Although it is located in the field of missiology, it also has interdisciplinary implications for disciplines such as history, sociology and practical theology

Keywords: Black Theology; African; debates; black consciousness; black theologians; South Africa.

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Introduction

[C]hanging contexts call for shifting approaches to understanding and engaging contexts and, therefore, how theology is done. The theologies of liberation have undergone significant change as the social contexts they wished to address have changed. The same could be said for theologies focusing on cultural identity … So changing contexts will always call forth new efforts in contextual theology. (Irvin, Phan & Bevans 2018:71)

South Africa (SA) became the setting for Black Theology, and over the years, the debates around this theology evolved. This development was dictated by changing political climates. One could divide this into three eras: the mid-1960s to mid-1970s, the mid-1970s to mid-1980s and the third, which this article will focus on, being the mid-1980s to mid-1990s. This phase is described by Maimela (Molobi 2010:8) as the most decisive in the struggle for liberation and theology in SA. From the mid-1980s, there was a rise in resistance, dominated by African National Congress (ANC) politics, ending in the mid-1990s with a democratic government and subsequent declarations in some quarters, for instance, as observed by (Molobi 2000:16) that Black Theology was dead.

The dynamic political climate in SA, which also developed over the years, determined the nature of the debates around this theology. This theology paralleled and was influenced by the changing political scenarios. Following this paradigm, this study will examine the history of the debate surrounding Black Theology in the above-mentioned period. As part of this project, the author will outline the political dynamics of this period, the emergence of this theology and examine the nature of the debate that took place around it. Finally, the author will develop suggestions for a way forward. As far as methodology is concerned, literature study will be foregrounded. This will include books and journals focusing on Black Theology debates during the period under review.

 

The political climate in South Africa during the mid-1980s and mid-1990s

The mid-eighties of the previous century in SA marked the high point of the struggle against apartheid in SA. It was the time when everything was conceived in terms of the 'total onslaught' of the liberation movement against the illegitimate state, and the 'total strategy' of the state to overcome the'terrorist' onslaught. (Saayman 2009:12)

Saayman has correctly grasped the political climate of the era. Interrogating this political phase is important to understand the dynamics of the debate that followed. The political temperatures of that decade influenced the tone of the debate.

During this period, state repression intensified, as evidenced by two states of emergency. The first was introduced in parts of the Transvaal and Eastern Cape in 1985. According to Dubow (2000:90), there was a massive crackdown by the security forces. The second state of emergency was declared in 1986. The powers given to the security forces came with the wrath of unspeakable torture. For instance, 'Torture became widespread as over 24 000 people were detained in the second half of 1986' (Ellis & Sechaba 1992:163).

Victims of oppression also reacted accordingly as exemplified by an international arms embargo in the mid-1980s (Maquire 1991:27). Townships became battlefields as was seen from the fact that apart from Soweto, Ellis and Sechaba (1992:143) indicated that 'in September 1984, the Vaal townships exploded into unrest. Crowds went out into the streets demonstrating and throwing stones and were met by the police with their usual brutality'. There was exodus to other countries as confirmed by Dubow (2000:82) who stated that, '… as many as four to five thousand students, hardened by urban warfare and inspired by revolutionary enthusiasm, fled South Africa'.

This political activism led the government to relax some repressive rules in the late 1980s and early 1990s. For example, the law on mixed marriages and the so-called immorality law were repealed. On 05 January 1985, Mr Botha announced the government's intention to give black people more rights. Consequently, those who lived outside their 'homeland' received property rights. Reforms, release of political prisoners, return of political exiles and negotiations continued into the 1990s.

These reform programmes 'frustrated' the protagonists of Black Theology as they were unexpected. This could be seen from Balcomb (2005:482) who acknowledged that in February 1990 after the announcement of the release of political prisoners, the churches asked: 'What do we do now?'. The frustration suffered by Black Theology was also felt by African Christianity. Maluleke (1998b:333) reflected on the role of African Christianity after democracy in 1994 and noted that the changing role of African Christianity was not clear given the new political order in SA.

 

The genesis of Black Theology in South Africa

Lamola (1989:2) locates the emergence of Black Theology in SA between 1968 and 1971. The term Black Theology first appeared in SA in an essay by Dr Basil Moore entitled 'Towards a Black Theology' read during a University Christian Movement (UCM) formation at Thaba Nchu in March 1970. Black Theology of the USA was applied to the South African context. This paper led to the creation of a Black Theology project in late 1970 (Kritzinger 1988:58). Before the 1970s, there was no significant political mobilisation among churches in SA. However, black protest existed long before the 1970s although the term Black Theology was not yet in the picture. The African Initiated Churches (AICs) are an example of this (p. 57). From 1976 through the 1980s, action by churches, particularly among black Christians and clergy, was noticeable as they joined liberation movements in large numbers. This was made possible by pastors trained in the early 1970s at seminaries such as the Lutheran Theological College in Umphumulo, the Federal Theological Seminary in Alice and the St. Peters Seminary in Hammanskraal, which were influenced by black consciousness (Denis 2010:162ff).

Reddie (2014:1) attempts to clarify the location of the terms 'Black Theology' and 'black liberation theology'. He argued that using the terms 'liberation' and 'black' together was a tautology because both express liberation. He argues that Black Theology represents the theme of liberation. He projects Black Theology as prophetic, liberation-oriented, angry, polemical and passionate (p. 1). Cone and West (2018) argue that the focus of Black Theology:

[M]ust take seriously the reality of black people - their life of suffering and humiliation. This must be the point of departure of all God-talk that seeks to be black-talk. When that man is black and lives in a society permeated with white racist power, he can speak of God only from the perspective of the socio-economic and political conditions unique to black people. (p. 78)

 

The shape of the Black Theology debate: Mid-1980s to mid-1990s

By the end of the 1980s, nearly all of these countries had returned to some form of democratic rule…Apartheid ended in South Africa in 1994. While poverty and forms of social oppression still remained, the loss of such concrete objects of resistance made maintaining the struggle in its original form more difficult. In the grassroots communities that in many countries had been powerful sources of resistance, people turned their attention from political struggle to other ways of bettering their lot. (Irvin et al. 2018:69)

The changing socio-political context in SA shaped the trajectory of Black Theology praxis and debates. Balcomb (2005) correctly captured this process:

The 'magna carta' of prophetic theology in the early eighties was the Kairos document. Its analysis was simple. There was a left, a right and a centre in theological alignment.'Prophetic' theology was on the left, 'state' theology on the right and 'church' theology in the middle. The signs of the times were clear: To be prophetic, you needed to be aligned with the forces of the revolution on the left. To occupy any other position was to 'sell out' to the regime. Twenty years later, regime change has meant that the same architects of Kairos have found themselves in the centre, by their own definition 'sold out', through the processes of history, to a new, albeit vastly changed, status quo. (p. 485)

The mid-1980s marked the zenith of apartheid. Referring to it, Maimela (1987:64) lamented, 'Black people continue to suffer oppression and various forms of deprivation, which stretch from the first encounter between Whites and Blacks to the present time'. He further pointed out that racial domination has been perfected and become more effective over the years. Apartheid responded by declaring a state of emergency on 20 July 1985. Mofokeng (1987:21) commenting about it echoed: there is no doubt any more that there is a great measure of intransigence and desperation on the part of the white state. Large scale indiscriminate detentions of black leaders and activists of all ages, the tear-gassing of people in churches and at funeral services and the brutal shootings of unarmed school children provide irrefutable concrete evidence of this intransigence and desperation. This shaped the context of Black Theology during this period. It was during this period that the Kairos document was conceived and birthed as a Black Theology response.

At the start of this period, Mosala (1987:34) located the focus of Black Theology being 'an economically, politically, culturally and morally dispossessed people'. God is seen as the God of the oppressed siding with the poor (Walker 2004:38). For Motlhabi (2005:9), the focus 'was liberation - not only spiritual liberation in the form of traditional, otherworldly "salvation" often preached by the church, but also liberation from physical, psychological, socio-political, economic and cultural oppression'.

The contextual praxis of Black Theology before, during and after this period changed. The highly explosive political situation at the beginning of this period ended with a democratic government in the mid-1990s. For example, a state of emergency was declared in 1985, followed by the creation of the Kairos Document. In 1986, the Belhar confession was accepted. This changing context was captured by Mofokeng (1987:31): 'the racist oppression and capitalist dispossession of blacks in South Africa has always undergone a historical development and manifested it differently during different historical periods'.

The debate during this period questioned the impact of Black Theology in the light of harsh state attacks through states of emergency and the associated brutality. Mofokeng (1987) was among the first to act when he stated:

It is not certain anymore that old theological language and communal activity will continue to be the best ways of expressing the presence of God among the oppressed in the most effective manner in and beyond the present state of emergency. (p. 21)

The ethics of a suitable hermeneutic also formed part of the debate. For instance, Mosala (Mofokeng 1987) called for:

[A] new way of going about with the biblical text, away that will enable the hidden and silenced but struggling oppressed people in biblical communities to become visible, and to break their silence and speak up clearly and loud enough to be heard by the equally silenced black people today as they stand up to demand God's justice and liberation. (p. 27)

He saw this as an epistemological moment that should enable black theologians to build effective theological praxis for the black working masses. Maluleke (1996:11) highlighted how black theologians like Mosala were concerned about why Black Theology was not a theoretical weapon of the oppressed in SA, identifying the problem in the equation of the Bible with the Word of God. This makes the Bible both a historical and a harmonious book with a message that fits all situations in which he argued that it was wrong because it was pro-humanist but anti-working class. This view of the Bible has been used as a means to question the validity of both African Christianity and African theology. He noted that there is no adequate reaction on this. He, however, also appreciated the fact that black theologians are slowly reading the scriptures in the light of the black working people as what he calls their 'organic intellectuals' (p. 27). He also acknowledges that at least what he referred to as, 'dynamite that lies hidden in the bowels of the scriptural text' will ultimately bear fruits.

The issues of gender were also discussed as among others could be seen from Mofokeng (1987) who lamented their neglect and advocated for a redefinition of the black community's identity in which women's oppression and struggles are recognised. He argued:

All attention had up to that point focussed entirely on national issues in which black people as a group stand over and against white people, white economy and the white state, many black women especially at a time when they too were in the forefront of the battle facing the wrath of the army and the police and suffering equally if not more, demanded the issue of their subservient position during times of relative peace to be addressed. (p. 25)

Motlhabi (2005:13) also acknowledged that Black Theology's initial focus was on racism, but at this time it also included gender, which needed to be tackled on equal proportion with racism.

The debate also included what they called black culture. Mofokeng (1987:29) argued that while there was agreement from the onset that all the oppressed in SA were the black people, who were Africans, Coloureds and Indians, there was no homogeneity of their culture. He lamented the fact that what he called black culture, black history and African traditional religion were not included as formative factors in Black Theology. Mofokeng (1987:29) showed that 'Buthelezi explicitly and emphatically talked about the culture of blacks having been totally destroyed'.

The AICs also came into focus. Although the AICs were initially considered silent on issues of sociopolitical justice, black theologians during this period recognised some value. For instance, Mofokeng (1987) stated:

Notwithstanding persistent criticism of these churches' intolerable neutrality which is tantamount to support of the racist state, there is an increasing understanding among a significant number of black theologians of these churches and appreciation of their positive role in enabling the lowest in the black community to at least absorb the sting of oppression and survive. (p. 30)

The importance of the AICs in social change began to be appreciated. This could be seen, among others, from Masuku (1996) who entitled his article, African Initiated Churches: Christian partners or antagonists? in which he demonstrated the importance of the AICs. Molobi and Saayman (2006:328) also observed their positive aspects when they stated: 'the AICs acted on an undeniable liberatory impulse, formed part of an early expression of religious as well as political protest against the imposition of white rule'. Vellem's positive view towards the AICs emanated from this period when he considered them (Masuku 2021):

[A]s those who can play an important role in reconstructing, promoting and securing the 'free dispensation of moral and ethical thought that shaped the lives of the black African people' from the terror and destruction of the Western empire. (p. 1)

The question of how to implement African theology in questions of social justice was also examined. The main pillars of difference with Black Theology were African culture, history and traditional religions to the exclusion of social justice issues. Black theologians therefore agreed with Cone that African theology is impoverished by neglecting sociopolitical issues (Mofokeng 1987:30). They affirmed African culture, history and traditional religions as defining factors of African theology. In order to eliminate the negative elements and generate positivity, Mofokeng (1987:30) claims that some black theologians have begun to consistently apply class analysis. This development occurs despite the understanding of the weakness of Marxism in questions of culture and religion. Mosala advised that Black Theology should 'identify the distinctive forms of working class culture and use them as a basis for developing theological strategies of liberation' (Mofokeng 1987:30). Mofokeng (1987) called for the investigation of cultural history of the struggling classes and learn from it:

[W]e should follow our own path and critically appropriate only those elements which appeal to and sustain the black poor and most powerless in their struggle for survival. These we should consider incorporating in black theology. (p. 31)

Motlhabi (2005:10) also acknowledged that there are no longer any glaring differences between them and that they have room for interaction and cooperation. He appreciated the fruits of this process as the creation of an African liberation theology that began to emerge from around 1993.

The matter of Pan-Africanism in theology was also foregrounded. Initially, areas of division among them were threefold: culture, history and traditional religion, which all lacked social justice. During this period, division was appreciated as, 'Pan African dialogue, co-operation and unification of black people in the world' (Mofokeng 1987:30). Pan-Africanism in theology was enhanced by the combination of African culture and the injection of what Mofokeng (p. 30) coined, 'politico-economic commitment on the African continent', which can trigger some prospects for improvement towards Pan-Africanism in theology. Through Archbishop Desmond Tutu, who embodied the combination of African culture and politico-economic commitment, Pan-Africanism in theology made some positive tractions (p. 30).

The apartheid reform programme also sparked debate. This could be seen in the ranks of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM), which gave birth to Black Theology. The relationship of BCM to Black Theology and its influence on it were clear from these three arguments. Firstly, according to Mofokeng (1987:22), it was seen as a theological articulation of Black Consciousness in the field of religion; secondly, Biko challenged and invited the Church, particularly the black Church, to '… construct a Black theology of liberation' and thirdly, Mtshiselwa (2016) also agreed that 'black liberation theology is inseparable from the philosophy of black consciousness'. Black Consciousness Movement rejected the negotiation initiatives with the apartheid regime. Moodley (1990) pointed out that the unity of the oppressed should be a prerequisite for the dismantling of the apartheid regime. He thus echoed:

[W]e must work towards a position where we seek the transference of power. De Klerk and his regime must resign. White people must accept that they are individuals who cannot retain special favours. They can no longer operate as a group with power in their hands. (p. 19)

The debate also included the meaning of suffering and exodus, which Volf (2006:111) called the memory of exodus and passion. Mofokeng (1987:33) lamented the fact that the cross continued to hang heavily over the oppressed since 1976. He thus underlined callous rapes, shootings, heinous forms of torture and genocidal murders as black experiences and linked them to the sufferings and death of Jesus, whom he called a black messiah. The alignment of Jesus with these sufferings carries a message of hope. This comparison of Jesus' suffering to the oppressed was also made by Maluleke (2000) in his article entitled: The Crucified Reflected in Africa's Cross Bearers, highlighting the '…emphasis on affinity between Jesus and ordinary Africans' (p. 85). The relationship between the Cross and Exodus and the future is important as a comfort to the oppressed in light of the promise enacted. Regarding Exodus, Volf (2006:112) argues that God, who delivered Israel of the past, will also deliver Israel of the future. He also holds that what happened to Christ happened to all of humanity. Thus, part of the future promised world has already entered this sinful world. Küng (1981:59-70) referred to this as 'a futuristic-presentist eschatology'. He touches on the future eschaton breaking into the present world.

The difference between Black Theology and European theologies was also highlighted. They found that Western theologians are being manipulative. However, they accepted some of the blame for not emphasising the difference between their theology and other theologies and for continuing to use dominant theological categories. Mofokeng (1987) identified the core problem when he referred to:

[W]hite theologians who wrongly attempted to link Black Theology with some European theologies in order to acquire the right of placing it on their agenda in the arena of their struggle for orthodoxy. (p. 22)

At the beginning of the 1990s, there was a completely unexpected turn in the political wheel. Balcomb (2005:482) noted how they were shaken by Mr de Klerk's announcement of the unexpected release of Nelson Mandela in February 1990. He saw this as marking the beginning of a crisis in prophetic theology, hence:

The announcement was greeted with a stunned silence. Someone broke the silence with the words 'What do we do now?' It was as though we had already, in that brief moment, seen the writing on the wall for prophetic theology, and we did not like what we saw. Like Jonah, we had preached to Nineveh - never believing it would repent, and we did not like it when we were proven wrong. (p. 482)

While the above quote indicates the frustration with regards to the future of Black Theology, Maluleke (2008a) advised:

[W]e now need similar but new tools to analyse the role of religion in the post-colony called South Africa, often misnamed a young democracy. A post-colony is still a colony. We find ourselves in a situation in which the colony continues even after the colonial period. (p. 124)

Motlhabi (2005) added:

The false impression given by this trend is that we have now arrived at freedom square; we can now relax and concentrate on other things. Nothing, indeed, can be farther from the truth. (p. 18)

Moore (2018:94) presented good guidelines regarding the role of Black Theology in politically changing SA. He advised that the focus of the struggle in SA today has changed from liberation from systematic structured racist oppression to social justice in pursuit of an equal society. The focus needs to be on the victims of poverty and engaging with them in their struggle for liberation and listening to their needs.

This period also provided an opportunity to interrogate Black Theology's influence on the activism of black theologians. Two camps were identified. Firstly, those whose level of fighting has not decreased over the years. Chikane (Moore 2018:92), who was interviewed by Moore in 1992 to reflect on the impact of Black Theology on his ministry, revealed important points that may point to other black theologians. Still, he confirmed that he was a black theologian at heart. He further acknowledged that this theology has always provided him with the tools through which to reflect and direct his practical struggles. He understood that these struggles were always connected to other black people for liberation. He judged this to be the most fundamental feature of this theology. At this time, he still understood this theology as the fight of black people against oppression and for freedom. Through this testimony, the objective of Black Theology, which was to '… enable black clergy and black Christians to engage in the political struggle for liberation as Christians', still reverberates during this period of changing political climate in SA (p. 93). Motlhabi (2005) is therefore correct to conclude:

One can state categorically that earlier generations of black theologians - those theologians who were exposed to black theology in the first two decades of its appearance - benefited immensely from its teaching and method. (p. 18)

Secondly, those whom Motlhabi describes as the younger generation of religious leaders and on whom he doubts that Black Theology has had any influence. The fact that there were rumours that Black Theology was dead as early as the mid-1980s says a lot. So, he shouted: 'Will the true remaining black theologians in this country please stand - and show their fruits!?'

The theology of reconstruction also emerged. The tone of the language changed. Maluleke (1994:245) stated that terms such as, struggle, revolution and liberation were challenged by new ideas of reconstruction, development and democracy that formed an integral part of the language of South African politics. He argued that these were triggered by Mr De Klerk's reform initiatives in 1990. He thus argues:

In the eyes of many South Africans, it seems that between late 1989 and early 1990 one political epoch came to an end and another was born. In reality, the shift has been less abrupt and less 'accidental' than it has sometimes been made out to be. It is, however, the recent ANC election victory, resulting in a truly elected black-dominated government that has seemingly placed the language of reconstruction firmly on centre stage. Both before and after the elections, the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) has been the ANC's rallying call. In fact, it seems that it was within the circles of the ANC's labour alliances that the term reconstruction was popularised during the period of transition. (p. 245)

In this context, Maluleke laments the fact that the term 'reconstruction' is misunderstood, even though it is becoming increasingly sacred in ecclesiastical circles. He points out how it is being hijacked by the liberal church tradition, which he says is powerful and dominant in ecumenical and theological circles in South Africa. Maluleke (1994:247) warns, 'the present proposal for a shift from "resistance" to "reconstruction" must be understood within the context of a sustained rejection of black and African theologies of liberation by liberal theologians'.

The debate also reflected the euphoria of the rainbow nation. Boesak (2020:60) spoke strongly and reiterated that South Africans 'were seduced by the rainbow nation mentality'. He accused Mr De Klerk and some black theologians of allowing this to happen. He refers to the SABC interview in February in which he claimed Mr De Klerk was merely reaffirming his beliefs since 1994. He stated that apartheid was not morally wrong and refused to apologise for it (Boesak 2020:59). He also accused Mr De Klerk of encouraging the white South African to go his way. Boesak therefore accused black theologians of making Mr De Klerk think the way he did. Boesak (2020) accused black people of offering white people forgiveness they did not ask for:

So, it's not just white arrogance and unrepented racism that are to blame. We must take responsibility for the De Klerk's of this world. We invited him to parliament. We gave him honour and respect, even when we already heard him say these things. We know better. We cannot plead innocence. (p. 60)

The theology of restitution also emerged as influenced by the democratic project in SA. The need for this theology has been identified by Maluleke (2008b:683), 'because of their resonance with post-colonial and post-independence political economies'. Maluleke also identified areas where the theology of restitution should be applied. Among them, he directed that it should be activated between people and land, people and history, people and their institutions and people and their knowledge, men and women, men and men, women and women, black people and white people, black people and black people as well as white people and white people. He further argued that conversations about reparations in SA are usually avoided in favour of reconciliation and the latter is expected to be carried from the powerless to the powerful.

The theology of land also gained great importance in the early 1990s. The following anecdote on land became popular (Maluleka 1998a):

When White people came to our country they had the Bible and we (Blacks) had the land. They said 'let us pray' and we closed our eyes to pray. At the end of the prayer, they (Whites) had the land and we had the Bible. (p. 60)

Mofokeng (1987:24) argued that black people were dispossessed of their land, which was the basic source of production, livelihood and power. They have been turned into dispossessed workers whose only possession is their labour. By identifying black people as workers, these theologians elevated our struggle beyond civil rights to human rights, from an exclusive fight against racism to a social and national revolution. Mosala (1987:27) sees the soil as one of the forces of the mode of production: by the mode of production, he means an articulated combination of forces and relations of production. Productive forces refer to the means of production, for example, B. Land, livestock, trees, rivers, tools, machines, etc. plus human labour. Boesak (2020:59) refers to Mr. De Klerk in the CNN interview and says he speaks as if the problem was 'white people wanting too much land' and didn't think about it at all, which is at the core of the meaning of colonialism and what constitutes apartheid viz: expropriation, land theft, disenfranchisement, brutal oppression and genocide.

The theology of reconciliation was also discussed. Maluleke (2000:87-88) highlighted the ambiguity, contradiction and tension seen in Jesus' role in reconciliation, where he is at the centre between victims and perpetrators. He was based on Miroslav Volf in his construction of reconciliation theology after the Cold War. The suffering of Christ cannot be borne exclusively by the poor. There were tensions that were highlighted, for example, in relation to Christ, who stands on the side of the poor and also forgives evildoers. While God favours the poor, he also has a preferential option for all of humanity and all of creation. Boesak (2020:57), drawing on the story of Zacchaeus in the Gospel of Luke, argued that reconciliation is hypocritical unless it is radical, real and revolutionary. Cone and West (2018) support this view. They hold that:

[T]he black community has experienced the crushing white thing too long. Therefore, Black Theology believes that in order for reconciliation to be meaningful and productive, black people must have room to do their thing. The black community itself must lay down the rules of the game. (p. 92)

Reddie (2014:46) agrees that effective reconciliation between the oppressed and the oppressor is possible, as in the example of Zacchaeus, where there is reparation in the form of the return of what was wrongfully taken away.

During this time, the existence and meaning of Black Theology was also questioned. Maluleke argued that in the second half of the 1980s, several points were pushed onto the Black Theology agenda from both within and without. The first, which came mainly from outside, was the statement that Black Theology was either dead, redundant or overtaken by events. Two reasons were put forward, namely the popularly perceived shift of Black Consciousness as a political strategy towards non-racism and the demise of apartheid. A possible third reason is the sheer difficulty of having race conversations in a political situation in which race is no longer the primary issue (1998a). For this reason, Maluleke (1996:8) also emphasises the importance of detaching Christianity from colonialism, thereby making room for the construction of a more positive theology in contrast to the currently embittered black and other African theologies. He points out that these theologians are:

[T]ired of doing theology in a fighting mode. War is tiresome. Also, some Black and African theologians are looking for alternative histories for Africans - other than those of oppression, imperialism and dispossession. (p. 8)

Molobi (2010:9), in his interview of Maimela, revealed that Black Theology activities became silent since 1993 after the International Conference on Black Theology organised by both Black Theology project and Institute for Contextual Theology sponsored by the Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians (EATWOT). Motlhabi (2005) was correct to locate the problem:

One reason for this lapse of activity is that many veteran black theologians have left academic work and gone into administrative positions. This trend is not conducive to continuing with any serious and enduring academic pursuits. The few who remain in the academy seem, like the whole theological climate now existing in the country, to have been thrown into confusion about what their next step or plan of action should be and to be paralysed by the new circumstances with their new sets of problems. (p. 15)

Molobi (2000:16) considers the cause of the death of the Black Theology from the perspective of its disconnection from the struggle of the people and that black theologians are no longer practising pastors and seminary teachers. He also pointed out that Black Theology no longer attracts the oppressed because of changing and multiplying political strategies and expanding opportunities.

 

Conclusion and way forward

This study historically traces the debate over Black Theology from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s. It illustrated the heavy hand of apartheid and the corresponding activism of the oppressed. The end of this period was positive as it ended with the formation of the democratic government. The question was the political climate in the reporting period that shaped Black Theology praxis. It became apparent that the political dynamics of this period shaped the practice of black theologians.

The debate touched on various topics that showed contextual expressions of theology in response to the dynamics of political oppression. Topics discussed included setting the original agenda of Black Theology, ethics of hermeneutics, gender, question of black culture, AICs, African theology, Pan-Africanism in theology, the confusion caused by apartheid's reform programme and the memory of suffering and exodus, difference between Black Theology and European theology, the future of Black Theology, suggested themes for future contextual expressions, the theology of restitution, reconstruction, land, the euphoria of the rainbow nation, among others.

This investigation found that Black Theology activities declined during this period and that its death was confirmed as early as the mid-1980s. The democratic process in 1994 marked the final nail in the death of Black Theology, leaving few left. Motlhabi (2005) is therefore correct to conclude that:

[T]here have been no major seminars or conferences on black theology in South Africa since 1996. Nor have there been any significant or ground breaking publications since then. This is regrettable in view of the changes that have taken place in the country since the fall of apartheid and the 1994 democratic elections. (p. 18)

It was observed that other topics were not addressed during the period under review. Despite this, the topics discussed influenced future debates in other phases. This requires the view that other theologies need to be constructed based on the debates of the time. The topics of Ubuntu, forgiveness and others fall into this category. It is also necessary that future contextual trends be identified in advance in order to prepare relevant contextual theologies. For example, the church was surprised by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Reading the trends should create a kind of theology of pandemics.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

M.T.M. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Mnyalaza Masuku
masukumt@penta-net.co.za

Received: 19 Oct. 2023
Accepted: 07 Feb. 2024
Published: 24 Apr. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The pragmatic nature of focalisation in John 4:1-42: Reading John as a performative text

 

 

Risimati S. Hobyane

Department of Ancient Languages and Text Studies, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article suggests that the process of crafting a narrative reflects the author's intentional introduction of bias to guide the reader towards taking specific actions based on their reading. The reader is intentionally steered towards a particular cognitive and pragmatic engagement with the text through the author's selection, organisation and presentation of narrative materials. This claim forms the impetus for the current exploration. The article explores the pragmatic nature and/or power of the author's selection of narrative material in John 4:1-42 on the reader. It seeks to demonstrate that the selection and presentation of narrative material are not neutral in their pragmatic intent. While acknowledging a few insightful contributions to this topic, this article contends that certain pragmatic dynamics related to narrative material selection have not been extensively explored by scholars, particularly in the context of utilising focalisation as an analytical tool.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY: The distinctive contribution of the article lies in its demonstration that focalisation, when employed as an analytical tool, particularly in the context of John 4:1-42, exerts pragmatic effects on the implied reader of the text

Keywords: Fourth Gospel; performative; narrative analysis; focalisation; literary artistry; John 4:1-42.

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Introduction and problem statement

According to John 20:30-31, the Fourth Gospel can be viewed as a purposeful literary artistry involving the selection of narrative material and information by the author. The aim is to encourage the implied reader to act on what is presented or made available to them (Van der Watt 2007:10). The author of the current article explored this phenomenon in his unpublished PhD thesis titled The performative nature of literary devices in the Fourth Gospel (Hobyane 2023) as well as in his article Focalisation and its performative nature in John 3:1-21 (Hobyane in press). In this latter work, emphasis is placed on the pragmatic power and nature of focalisation in Jesus's dialogue with Nicodemus in John 3:1-21.

Therefore, the task of the current article is to extend the examination of the pragmatic nature of focalisation by analysing another section of the Johannine literature, namely Chapter 4, verses 1-42 - the story of Jesus and the Samaritan woman. The selection of this narrative lacks predefined criteria, and it is based solely on the observation that it offers yet another distinctive perspective on how the narrator-focaliser focalises the story. Upon revisiting the text of the Fourth Gospel, this article anticipates different or unique findings compared to John 3:1-21. Hence, the task here is to demonstrate how focalisation heightens the implied reader's awareness and persuades them to respond to the Fourth Gospel's propositions about Jesus Christ. The article posits that the selection of narrative information in the Fourth Gospel is consistently applied to ensure that the purpose of the Gospel, as stated in 20:31, can be realised in the implied reader's life.

 

Methodological orientation

The article employs the narrative criticism technique known as focalisation as an analytical tool in its endeavour to explore the performative nature of John 4:1-42. The concept of 'focalisation' has garnered favourable attention from various scholars since its inception in the early 1980s (Hobyane 2023:230). In simple terms, focalisation, according to Genette (1988:34; cf. Tolmie 1991:276), is 'a selection of narrative information'. Therefore, this article represents a renewed effort to use this phenomenon to explore the performative nature of the text. The article does not aim to provide an exhaustive discussion of the entire focalisation framework. However, for the sake of clarity, the analysis will concentrate on key aspects of this methodology. Specifically, it will focus on determining the types of focalisation employed in this narrative (whether it is external or internal focalisation) and the discussion of the three facets of focalisation: the perceptual facet, psychological facet and ideological facet (see Hobyane 2022:2; Hobyane 2023:247; Lotman 1975:339-352; Rimmon-Kenan 1983:77-82; Tolmie 1991:272).

In addition to focalisation as an analytical tool, this article will also incorporate certain aspects of the speech act theory, specifically focusing on the performative nature of utterances in its discussion of the types and facets of focalisation in John 4:1-42.¹ The application of the speech act theory will be limited to the examination of utterances and their potential effect on the implied reader.²

 

Focalisation and its performative nature in John 4:1-42

Summary and commentary of the narrative

'[A]fter the profound encounter with Nicodemus (3:1-21)', as highlighted by Hobyane (2023:239), 'Jesus embarks on another significant meeting, this time with a Samaritan woman (4:1-42)'. In discussing the context and the narrative's significance, Wallace (2004) critically observes the following:

[W]hat took place between Jesus and the Samaritan woman contrast sharply with what we have just witnessed in the interview between Jesus and Nicodemus. The later, coming by night and wanting to be friendly, took the initiative and approached Jesus confidently. She on the other hand, coming to him in the blazing noon daylight, was at the beginning full of suspicion, even hostility. (p. 66; cf. Keener 2003: 584)

The implied reader cannot overlook the importance of this encounter and the identity of the individual with whom Jesus engages. Jesus crosses the boundaries of prejudice by engaging in conversation with both a woman and a Samaritan (cf. Barrett 1978:228; Brown 1975:175). When discussing the role of this character in the Fourth Gospel, Van der Watt (2007) describes her introduction as follows:

Then there is the problem woman. She is a nameless Samaritan woman who was married five times and is not married to the man she currently lives with. She is also at the well at the wrong time of the day, which implies that she did not come with the other women, for obvious reasons, not much of a letter of recommendation. (p. 14)

This summary, derived from the text itself, provides significant insights into the credentials of the Samaritan woman. Alongside her, the story introduces other characters, namely Jesus and his disciples. Notably, both temporal (ὥρα ἦν ὡς ἕκτη - it was about the sixth hour) and spatial aspects (in a Samaritan city, Sychar - at the well of Jacob) are explicitly mentioned in the story. The story is reported by the narrator (hereafter referred to as the narrator-focaliser, vv. 1, 3-6). It is observed that the narrator-focaliser employs asides (v. 2) to aid the implied reader and interpreter in understanding the dialogue between the characters (e.g. vv. 7-26ff.). Similar to the account of Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman, too, is in need of one thing: eternal life, and Jesus precisely offers her that. The narrative implies that Jesus shows no partiality; the life he brings is for everybody (Van der Watt 2007:14).

Types of focalisation in John 4:1-42

It appears that the type of focalisation exhibited in this narrative is both external and internal. Regarding external focalisation, the story is clearly a report by the narrator-focaliser to the implied reader, recounting Jesus' journey from Judaea to Galilee through Samaria (Bal 1977:37). As noted above, the central focus of the story is the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman. The narrator-focaliser maintains a minimal presence, affording the characters the opportunity to articulate more. Edminston (1989:749) highlights that in external focalisation, the narrator focaliser discloses less information than the character knows.

In terms of internal focalisation, the narrator-focaliser's view is not completely restricted. In contrast to the encounter between Jesus and Nicodemus, where no aside is issued, the narrator-focaliser demonstrates the ability to delve into the characters' internal worlds, accessing their thoughts and emotions, and subsequently conveying this insight to the implied reader. By doing so, the narrator-focaliser provides a more profound understanding of the characters' viewpoints and experiences. For example, in 4:1-6, the narrator-focaliser reports on Jesus' foreknowledge (Ὡς οὖν ἔγνω - when Jesus knew) of how the Pharisees perceive the growth of his ministry (Tasker 1999:74-75). This demonstrates the narrator-focaliser's proficiency in conveying what Jesus himself knew, providing insights into his awareness and understanding of the situation. As a result, the implied reader learns that this is the reason why Jesus left Judea and journeyed to Galilee through Samaria.

Furthermore, the study notes that there might be another occurrence of internal focalisation in verse 27 (regarding the feelings of the disciples) when they returned and found Jesus talking to a woman. The narrator-focaliser reports that 'ἐθαύμαζον' [they marvelled - yet none of them said anything]. This description is more of what they felt about the situation than just reporting the occurrence of the event. Yet another internal focalisation occurs in verse 41. The narrator-focaliser gives us a glimpse into the minds of the Samaritans, that is, the Samaritans believed because of the words of Jesus.

Nonetheless, it is observed that external focalisation predominantly shapes the narrative, particularly in the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman at the well (Barrett 1978:228). Jesus is focalised, initiating the dialogue in verse 4 by requesting water from the Samaritan woman. In verse 10, Jesus advances the conversation, signalling to the woman that:

εἰ ᾔδεις τὴν δωρεὰν τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τίς ἐστιν ὁ λέγων σοι·δός μοι πεῖν, σὺ ἂν ᾔτησας αὐτὸν καὶ ἔδωκεν ἄν σοι ὕδωρ ζῶν [If you knew the gift and who it is who says to you, 'Give me a drink' you would have asked him, and he would have given you living water].

The quoted verse above is an introductory utterance by Jesus to the woman. The ensuing dialogue revolves around the woman's need for salvation; a concept she currently does not grasp as her focus remains on the physical water in the well. As mentioned earlier, the nature of focalisation allows the characters to interact, providing the implied reader with new information directly from the characters as they are focalised. In this context, external focalisation enables the implied reader to be directly exposed to the direct speeches of the characters. This form of focalisation enhances the vividness and appeal of the story, making it inherently non-neutral in its performative power. For instance, in verses 13-14, the Protagonist further expounds on the significance of drinking or possessing living water in one's life. This address or invitation is also extended to the implied reader.

In summary, the narrative in John 4:1-42 unfolds through the perspective of an 'onlooker' providing external focalisation, reporting events from an observer's standpoint. Furthermore, this narrator has the ability to internally focalise the characters, granting the implied reader insights into their thoughts and emotions. Concerning the performative nature of internal focalisation, Tolmie (1991) exclaims:

[T]he question which should be asked is whether the change from external focalisation of the focalised to internal focalisation of the focalised serves any purpose. To my mind, this procedure is effective as it serves to convey an ideological orientation to the intended readers. By giving the intended readers a 'glimpse into' the protagonist's mind, information is passed on to them which would help them to come to the same ideological perspective on Jesus. In other words, the use of internal focalisation of the focalised in this case serves to communicate the ideological perspective to the intended readers. (p. 280)

Hence, the observed focalisation in this narrative is intentional and designed to impart specific effects to the implied reader.

Facets of focalisation and their performative nature in John 4:1-42

Perceptual facet

Tolmie (1991:281) provides invaluable insight on the overall perceptual facet of focalisation in the Fourth Gospel. He remarks that:

In the Gospel of John, the spatial facet of focalisation is located in the typical position of a narrator-focaliser, capable of yielding 'simultaneous' focalisation of events happening at different places. For example, in John 4:27-42 the focalisation alternates between events happening in the town and events between Jesus and his disciples. (cf. Culpepper 1983:26-28)

As astutely observed by Tolmie (1991:281), the perceptual facet of focalisation in this story allows the narrator-focaliser to simultaneously direct attention to the events occurring at the well (between Jesus and the Samaritan woman, 4:7-27) and the events unfolding in the town (4:28-30). Evidently, the narrator-focaliser operates without restrictions in this regard. This focalisation of the spatial dynamics of the story proves to be highly advantageous for the implied reader, as it creates an engaging and appealing narrative that captures their undivided attention. The text strategically places the implied reader in a viewing position, enabling them to follow the developments of the story both at the well and in the city, ensuring they are not excluded from any crucial scenes.

Without this engaged involvement of the implied reader, the Gospel might fail to fulfil its overarching purpose. Consequently, the deliberate choice of narrative material emphasising spatial dynamics takes on a performative nature. It ensures the sustained engagement of the implied reader, keeping them informed about the story's progression in all its scenes. This has the potential to guide them to the point where they can make decisions as they continue to navigate through the unfolding narrative.

Concerning the temporal facet, the narrator-focaliser appears to grasp all temporal dimensions of the story. The inclusion of the specific time reference, ὥρα ἦν ὡς ἕκτη [it was about the sixth hour], when the woman arrives at the well holds significance in this context. This temporal dimension is somewhat surprising to the implied reader who has some knowledge of Jewish cultural dynamics. Following Jesus' conversation with the woman about her marital life, the implied reader gains insight into why the woman is at the well during an unconventional time - the hottest hour of the day - distinct from the usual gathering of other women (cf. Schnackenburg 1968:424; Van der Watt 2007:14). It is worth noting that the narrator-focaliser's capacity to seamlessly shift from one event at the well to the event in the city (including their respective times) shows that their perceptual facet, in terms of time, is not restricted.

Hence, the contention is that the comprehensive perceptual facet of focalisation proves advantageous for the implied reader and, consequently, performative in nature. The story is skilfully focalised in a manner that allows the implied reader to textually witness the unfolding of the story with remarkable ease, both in terms of scenes and the times involved. As the implied reader reflects on the profound conversation between Jesus and the woman at the well, the narrator-focaliser delivers a positive report from the city. The genuine intrigue and eagerness of the people to witness the person identified as possibly the Christ, based on the woman's testimony, become apparent. This report, or type of focalisation, holds the potential to captivate the implied reader and draw them towards the message of Christ. The narrator-focaliser reports the following in 4:30:

Ἐξῆλθον ἐκ τῆς πόλεως καὶ ἤρχοντο πρὸς αὐτόν [Then they went out of the city and came to him].

As observed, this report of the people's movement towards Jesus serves as a persuasive element for the implied reader. It not only sparks the curiosity of the unbelieving reader but also prompts them to contemplate following suit and approaching Jesus. The narrator-focaliser additionally reports that many Samaritans in the city believed in Jesus, influenced by the compelling testimony of the woman, as detailed in John 4:39:

Ἐκ δὲ τῆς πόλεως ἐκείνης πολλοὶ ἐπίστευσαν εἰς αὐτὸν τῶν Σαμαριτῶν διὰ τὸν λόγον τῆς γυναικὸς μαρτυρούσης ὅτι εἶπέν μοι πάντα ἃ ἐποίησα [And many of the Samaritans of that city believed in him because of the word of the woman who testified, "He told me all that I ever did"].

The favourable interest of the people in seeing the man who could potentially be the Christ, coupled with their subsequent belief in Jesus, forms a positive and encouraging story for the implied reader. Through an unrestricted perceptual focalisation, the reader's interest is sensitised towards the person of Jesus. The reported response of the people serves as an invitation to the unbelieving reader and, simultaneously, as an uplifting story for the believer. Consequently, it can be asserted that the perceptual facet of focalisation holds the power to engage the implied reader to participate in the text, whether by rejecting Jesus or accepting him, akin to the Samaritan woman and her community members who chose to believe.

Psychological facet

As highlighted above, the psychological facet encompasses the cognitive and emotive components of focalisation. Concerning the cognitive facet, it becomes apparent that the narrator-focaliser has limited insight into the characters, especially the protagonist. Throughout the passage, with the exception of 4:1-4, there are no asides or notes suggesting that the narrator-focaliser is cognisant of the underlying reasons behind specific utterances and actions in the story. Moreover, in addition to the restricted knowledge, the understanding of the narrator-focaliser is constrained in comparison to that of the disciples. There is no indication of possessing superior knowledge beyond what the disciples themselves know about the unfolding events.

On the contrary, in certain narratives of the Fourth Gospel, his knowledge is not restricted. A prime example of this is found in 18:9. Here, the narrator-focaliser knows why Jesus responds to those who came to arrest him in the way he did (cf. 18:32). In this example, the narrator-focaliser takes the implied reader by hand, guiding them through the narrative and providing explanations for why statements are uttered in a specific manner. This differs from the narrative in John 4.

The narrator-focaliser only proved to have knowledge regarding the reason why Jesus moved from Judaea to Galilee (4:1) and the necessity of passing through Samaria (4:4). Furthermore, the narrator-focaliser is aware that Jesus did not baptise new converts but that his disciples did (4:2). Furthermore, he gives a cursory comment on why the woman is surprised at Jesus' request for water in 4:9. There he mentions that 'οὐ γὰρ συγχρῶνται Ἰουδαῖοι Σαμαρίταις' [for Jews have no dealings with Samaritans] (cf. Brown 1975:175; Wallace 2004:67). Importantly, this comment introduces tension and anticipation of impending drama for the implied reader.

The narrator-focaliser directs attention to the Protagonist as he assumes a leading role in the salvation discourse during the dialogue. Remarkably, the Protagonist exhibits an intimate knowledge of the woman's deep marital secrets (4:17-18). From a performative point of view, as will also be argued in the discussion of the ideological facet, Jesus' profound knowledge about salvation and his ability to discern hidden truths in people's lives challenges the implied reader's neutrality as they read the story. The implied reader is highly likely to identify with a character possessing such knowledge and demonstrating power over people's lives. This aligns with the intended purpose of the implied author - to guide the implied reader to encounter Christ and establish a relationship with him (20:30-31).

Regarding the emotional facet of focalisation, the Protagonist is revealed as calm (not angry or agitated) but joyfully taking his time to teach and explain everything to the woman. Perhaps the study, in this regard, should make an exception of 4:6 where it is reported that Jesus was tired (κεκοπιακὼς) because of the journey. Otherwise, Jesus is focalised as completely calm and in charge.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the psychological facet of focalisation is crafted in a manner that allows the implied reader to perceive and experience the Protagonist's dominance, particularly in terms of knowledge, in the story. This strategic presentation aims to persuade the implied reader to place trust in the Protagonist's teachings as they progress through the text. In contrast, concerning the other characters, especially the Samaritan woman, she lacks essential elements that could sway or persuade the implied reader towards her own ideological stance. In fact, the woman's knowledge of Jesus grows (Kanagaraj 2005:147). It can be pointed out that the identity of Jesus is accentuated in the narrative. From a performative point of view, the story is focalised in such a way that the implied reader is persuaded to remain close to the Protagonist. Thus, the role of the narrator-focaliser is commendable as they maintain focus on the Protagonist, encouraging the implied reader to place their faith in him.

Ideological facet

The ideological facet of focalisation concerns the manner in which the characters and events of the story are evaluated (Bal 2009:5; Marguerat & Bourquin 1999:7; Phelan 1996:8; Tolmie 1999:4). As suggested here, concerning the ideological orientation of the entire Fourth Gospel, the ideological facet of 4:1-42 conveys a single dominant perspective, that of the Protagonist. It is noted that the Samaritan woman attempted to bring two of her own ideologies into the dialogue, but they were not successful. Firstly, in verse 9, she is focalised as holding to the system of social segregation between the Jews and the Samaritans, when she says (John 4:9):

πῶς σὺ Ἰουδαῖος ὢν παρʼ ἐμοῦ πεῖν αἰτεῖς γυναικὸς Σαμαρίτιδος οὔσης; οὐ γὰρ συγχρῶνται Ἰουδαῖοι Σαμαρίταις [How is it that you, being a Jew, ask a drink from me a Samaritan woman, because Jews have no dealings with Samaritans?].

In response, Jesus highlights that the woman clings to this ideology because of her lack of awareness about the gift of God.³ The phrase 'εἰ ᾔδεις τὴν δωρεὰν τοῦ θεοῦ' [if you knew the gift of God] suggests that had the woman been acquainted with the gift of God, she would no longer adhere to this ideology. Through this response, the implied reader is effectively cautioned to steer clear of similar ideological positions.

Secondly, the woman asserts that she recognises no one, including Jesus, as greater than her venerated father Jacob, who provided the well (τὸ φρέαρ) for her and her people to drink from. Jesus persistently challenges and undermines her ideology by emphasising the limitations of what Jacob had provided. He clarifies that the water from Jacob's well can only offer temporary relief for thirst. In stark contrast, the waters he offers possess the capacity to permanently quench thirst. Here, it is essential for the implied reader to discern the contrast between Jesus' spiritual language and the woman's more earthly understanding. This invitation is also extended to the implied reader for consideration. Additionally, the woman's adherence to a system of worship, as highlighted by the Protagonist (Jesus), is portrayed as outdated and transient. Jesus suggests that the current system of worship is either losing its relevance or will soon fade away (4:20). On the contrary, the ideological facet of focalisation emphasises the dominance of Jesus' teachings. His identity and the essence of his teachings in this narrative align significantly with the gospel as a whole, as observed earlier. A few examples can be drawn from the passage:

• In his responsive speech act in 4:10, Jesus reveals himself as the gift of God. The revelation of the identity of Jesus begins to come out explicitly in the story. The phrase '…δωρεὰν τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τίς ἐστιν ὁ λέγων σοι' [the gift of God and who it is who says to you] clearly emphasises the identity of Jesus in the passage. He is the very gift that comes from God who is talking to the Samaritan woman and the implied reader (through reading the text).

• In 4:26, Jesus explicitly introduces himself to the Samaritan woman as the Messiah, when he says: 'ἐγώ εἰμι, ὁ λαλῶν σοι' [I who speak to you am he]. In the Fourth Gospel, the expression 'ἐγώ εἰμι' [I am] is consistently declarative, emphatic and holds a distinctive reference to the deity of Christ (cf. Barrett 1978:239).

• In 4:34, Jesus further identifies himself as 'the one who has been sent' (τοῦ πέμψαντός) to come and fulfil the work of the sender. Consequently, doing the will of the one who sent him is likened to his sustenance or nourishment (Barrett 1978:240; Schnackenburg 1968:444).⁴ Through this statement, Jesus unveils the transcendent nature of his origin (cf. 1:1-18), affirming that he was with God the Father from the very beginning (1:1).

• John 4:42 represents the most explicit and dominant ideological facet of Jesus in the passage. The Samaritans play a crucial role as evaluators of the Protagonist and his actions in the story. They express their belief by stating to the woman: 'οὐκέτι διὰ τὴν σὴν λαλιὰν πιστεύομεν, αὐτοὶ γὰρ ἀκηκόαμεν καὶ οἴδαμεν ὅτι οὗτός ἐστιν ἀληθῶς ὁ σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου' [Now we believe, not because of what you said, for we ourselves have heard him and we know that this is indeed the Christ, the Saviour of the world]. In this utterance, the implied reader comes to realise that the narrative is focalised in a manner that presents the Protagonist as a distinctive character, separate from what the woman knew, such as her revered Father Jacob (cf. Schnackenburg 1968:456-457).

From a performative point of view, it can be noted, based on the outlined ideological dimensions above, that this type of focalisation strongly encourages the implied reader to concentrate solely on the Protagonist and his ideology or teachings. This aligns fundamentally with the overarching goal of the entire Gospel in the life of the implied reader. The Gospel aims to acquaint the implied reader with Christ and extend an invitation to have faith in him, thereby securing eternal life (20:30-31).

 

Conclusion and summary of findings

The goal of the article was to investigate how the implied author chose and presented narrative material to the implied reader, particularly through focalisation, and to delve into the pragmatic power inherent in this phenomenon. The exploration suggested that the type of focalisation manifested in the story encompassed both external and internal perspectives. In terms of its external nature, the narrative unfolds through a report provided by the narrator (narrator-focaliser) to the implied reader. This type of focalisation is considered to have the potential to enhance the relationship between the narrator-focaliser and the implied reader, thus reflecting a performative intent.

Regarding the internal focalisation of the story, the narrator-focaliser internally directs attention to specific characters, including the Protagonist, the disciples and the Samaritans (e.g. 4:1-2). Through this internal focalisation, the narrator-focaliser guides the implied reader into the mind of the characters. This is perceived as having the potential to persuade the implied reader's decisions based on the information presented.

In the discussion of the three facets of focalisation, it was initially determined that the perceptual facet of focalisation in this story allows the narrator-focaliser to have a comprehensive perspective. The narrator is not confined to a single viewpoint but can simultaneously focus on events occurring both at the well (between Jesus and the woman, 4:7-27) and in the city (4:28-30). This type of focalisation provides the implied reader with a complete textual view of how people are responding to the call of the Protagonist to believe in him. Recognised as performative, it not only informs the implied reader but also encourages them to make a decision or respond to Jesus' call to believe in him or strengthen their relationship with him.

The temporal dimension of the narrative reveals that the narrator-focaliser is not restricted to describing only present and past events involving Jesus and his disciples but extends to future events as well. In relation to the past and present, the narrator-focaliser possesses knowledge about the complaint of the Jewish opponents regarding Jesus making and baptising more disciples than John, which is the reason for Jesus leaving Judaea (internal focalisation). The narrator-focaliser's awareness of past and present events involving Jesus and his disciples is performative in nature, serving as informative content for the implied reader. Background notes play a crucial role for the implied reader, providing a broader perspective and essential information about the characters. This information is significant as the implied reader cannot make any decision or choice without it.

The psychological facet revealed that the narrator-focaliser appears to have limited knowledge of the Protagonist. Throughout the narrative, except for 4:1-4, there are no asides or notes indicating that the narrator-focaliser possesses additional insights into the reasons behind certain utterances or their specific nuances. Furthermore, the narrator-focaliser's knowledge is not superior to that of the disciples, indicating a restriction in his understanding in this regard.

It was noted that this is not the case in some narratives of the Fourth Gospel, such as 18:9 and 18:32. In these instances, the narrator-focaliser includes notes to assist the implied reader in comprehending the reasons behind the productions of specific utterances. It was posited that whenever the narrator-focaliser's knowledge is restricted, the narrative transitions into dialogue mode between the Protagonist and other characters. The Protagonist is focalised as the producer and distributor of knowledge regarding his ideological position. Jesus possesses all knowledge about salvation. He extends invitations for people to believe in him and demonstrates the ability to unveil the personal secrets of the Samaritan woman. This portrayal is considered performative as it does not leave the implied reader in a neutral position. The implied reader is invited to make a decision - either to align themselves with the Protagonist or to reject him.

Regarding the emotional facet of focalisation, it was determined that Jesus is focalised as calm, with the exception of 4:6 where the text reports that Jesus was tired because of the journey. Throughout the rest of the story, the Protagonist remains calm, taking his time to teach and elaborate on matters of salvation to the Samaritan woman. Jesus is focalised as calm and in total control of the dialogue proceedings. The implied reader is invited to experience this calm approach by Jesus, potentially persuading them to make decisions as they participate in the dialogue by listening as they read the story.

From a performative point of view, the narrative is focalised in such a way that the implied reader is persuaded to associate themselves with the teachings of the Protagonist. The fact that he is calm and has everything under control is both encouraging and enticing to the implied reader.

The ideological facet of focalisation emphasises the dominance of the Protagonist's ideological position and teachings. The matter of Jesus' identity, for example, holds significant prominence in the dialogue, as he seeks to persuade the woman to believe in him.

The dominance of Jesus' ideological teachings proves that the story is focalised with the aim to invite the implied reader to focus only on the Protagonist and what he represents. The implied reader is coaxed to believe in the Protagonist. This manner of focalisation leaves the implied reader with little or no choice but to decide either to accept or reject him.

 

Acknowledgements

This article forms part of a series of contributions on the theme of focalisation by the researcher.

This article is partially based on R.S.H.'s thesis entitled 'The performative nature of literary devices in the fourth Gospel' towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Theology with New Testament, North-West University Potchefstroom on 10 October 2023, with supervisor Prof Jan G. van der Watt.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

R.S.H. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the North-West University Theology Research Ethics Committee. The ethics approval number is NWU-00889-23-A6.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and is the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Risimati Hobyane
risimati.hobyane@nwu.ac.za

Received: 04 Dec. 2023
Accepted: 26 Feb. 2024
Published: 24 Apr. 2024

 

 

1. The article acknowledges that the relationship between Perlocutionary act and ideological perspective of John is not obvious. Hence, the article will make effort, in its analysis, to demonstrate how the implied reader is persuaded to adopt or reject the ideological perspective of the Gospel as stated in 20:31.
2. For a detailed discussion of this methodology, see Tovey (1997:68); Briggs (2001:4); Botha (2009:486); Van der Watt (2010:144) and Hobyane (2022:147-150).
3. Bruce (1983:103; Schnackenburg 1968:426) helpfully points out that 'Jesus does not pursue the subject of the Jewish-Samaritan cleavage which she had introduced but lifts the topic of conversation to another plane'.
4. Bruce (1983:113-114; cf. Lindars 1972:194) says: 'Part of the work which the Father gave him to do was to communicate his blessing to the woman of Synchar and through her to the other inhabitants of the place; the satisfaction which he now experienced through doing the Father's will in this respect was greater than any satisfaction which bread could give'.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Megacostalism and the pandemic: Developing a megacostal theology of care beyond COVID-19

 

 

Mookgo S. Kgatle

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology, Faculty of Humanities, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Megacostalism is a concept developed here to refer to the growing trend of mega Pentecostal churches in Africa. The mega Pentecostal churches are popular in the United States of America with leading pastors such as T.D. Jakes, Creflo Dollar, Joel Osteen, and so forth. There is an interesting growing trend of this type of churches in Africa particularly in West Africa in countries such as Nigeria and Ghana. There has also been a development of mega Pentecostal churches in South Africa after 1994. This article assesses this phenomenon by paying attention to how such churches dealt with the challenges of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) as opposed to smaller churches. The study will use a case study method to assess the COVID-19 experiences in churches such as the Rhema Bible Church in Randburg, Christian Revival Church and Doxa Deo. This article will attempt to address these research questions through a conceptualisation of megacostalism. In addition, the study will look at how different mega Pentecostal churches dealt with COVID-19 to develop a proper megacostal theology of care beyond COVID-19.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article is interdisciplinary between theology and the health sciences among the mega Pentecostal churches in the context of Pentecostalism. The study makes an important contribution to both the study of theology and epidemiology in the understanding of challenges posed by pandemics such as COVID-19 and how to address such challenges through a theology of care

Keywords: megacostalism; pandemic; COVID-19; megacostal theology; Pentecostalism.

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Introduction

Pentecostalism is a movement that has always been able to draw crowds from different parts of the world (Anderson 2013:2). Since its inception at Azusa Street Revival, Los Angeles, United States of America (US), Pentecostalism is known for large gatherings whereby thousands of people can gather in one meeting. Equally, in South Africa, the Bree Street Revival at the beginning of the 20th century in Johannesburg attracted a lot of people coming from different parts of the country. This phenomenon is very popular in the US, particularly with churches belonging to the faith movement which became prominent in the last quarter of the 20th century. Pastors such as T.D. Jakes, Creflo Dollar of Christian World Changers, Joel Osteen of Lakewood Church and Joyous Meyer of Joyce Meyer Ministries have emerged to lead megachurches in the context of Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity (Bowler 2018:4). In Africa, western countries such as Nigeria and Ghana are also leading in terms of mega Pentecostal churches. Living Faith Church Worldwide of David Oyedepo and Redeemed Christian Church of God of Emmanuel Adeboye are among the mega Pentecostal churches in Nigeria (Adeboye 2020; Adedibu 2023; Ojewole & Ehioghae 2018; Ukah 2020). In South Africa, there are churches such as Christian Revival Church, Doxa Deo, Rhema Bible Church, and others that are also mega Pentecostal churches (Kgatle 2022a:1).

This article argues that during the pandemic, these mega Pentecostal churches faced enormous challenges as compared to smaller Pentecostal churches in South Africa. The article aims to develop a megacostal theology that will be able to address future pandemics in the context of megacostalism. This will be achieved by the conceptualisation of megacostalism in the context of Pentecostalism. The background to the challenge of the mega Pentecostal churches during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) will be outlined in detail. The article will use a few cases of mega Pentecostal churches in South Africa to demonstrate how these have faced various challenges during COVID-19. The article will develop a megacostal theology of pandemics in a way of wrapping. But first, we need to understand what is meant by megacostalism.

 

Megacostalism in an African context(s)

Megacostalism in this article is constructed by using two phrases and/or words 'mega churches' and 'Pentecostalism'. Therefore, 'megacostalism' becomes the study of the mega Pentecostal churches in the context of Pentecostalism. These remain Pentecostal churches but have grown to the level of becoming mega churches given the size of their membership and the carrying capacity of their church buildings (Young-Gi 2000:99). Mega Pentecostal churches in this article are also discussed in the context of the church building as opposed to church gatherings. For example, churches such as Enlightened Christian Gathering that used to operate in Pretoria showgrounds, South Africa, had large gatherings but did not have a church building (Kgatle 2021:22).

Some evangelists such as TA Ralekholela had a great following in their evangelism projects but this did not necessarily translate into the mega church level (Ralekholela 2016:1). Equally, some classical Pentecostal churches such as Apostolic Faith Mission have a super-mega membership but this spread across different church satellites or assemblies with few auditoriums in places in Boksburg, South Africa, and other areas (Clark 2016:17). The focus here is the mega Pentecostal churches which are restricted to the large church auditorium rather than the large church gatherings or large followers. But to a certain extent, the mega Pentecostal churches will include the church membership or attendance in the church auditoriums.

Mega Pentecostal churches are a growing trend in Africa (Asamoah-Gyadu 2015:43). Most Pentecostal pastors in Africa desire to build a mega Pentecostal church as a sign of growth and influence. This phenomenon is largely influenced by the growth of Pentecostalism in the Global South particularly in Africa (Parsitau & Mwaura 2010:3; cf. Kgatle 2022b:1). In other words, as the movement grows in numbers, there is a demand for the building of large church buildings which is the basis of mega Pentecostal churches. In addition, Pentecostals have always believed in the idea of gathering in a church building unlike, for example, African Initiated Churches (AICs) like the Zion Christian Church whose members do not mind fellowshipping in an open space. Hence, the greater the number of Pentecostal believers the greater the demand for a large church building. But on the other hand, we cannot rule out the reality that the fancier the building is especially those built with other lifestyle facilities and shops, the greater the crowds will be attracted to the same. Another factor contributing to megacostality is urbanisation as people in Africa move towards the cities in search of jobs and other economic activities, they too place a greater demand for the building of larger churches (Parsitau 2007:83).

Nigeria is Africa's home for mega Pentecostal churches. In Lagos, the church building such as Living Faith Church Worldwide also known as the 'winners' chapel' of David Oyedepo can seat about 50 000 people to full capacity which is one of the mega Pentecostal churches in Africa (Asamoah-Gyadu 2015:58, 2019:390). Winner's chapel was the largest until David Oyedepo's spiritual son, Paul Enenche built a 100 000 seater auditorium also known as the 'glory dome' under the Dunamis International Gospel Centre in Abuja, Nigeria (Ogunnubi, Folarin & Ogbonna 2022:167). The auditorium was dedicated on 24 November 2018, and is reported to be the largest church building not only in Africa but in the world (Ogunnubi et al. 2022:167). The author has observed other mega Pentecostal churches elsewhere in Africa, for example, Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa which was founded by the late Ezekiel Guti, the Bread of Life Church International in Lusaka, Zambia, led by Bishop Imakando, The Miracle Centre Cathedral in Kampala, Uganda, led by Robert Kayanja, Action Chapel International in Accra, Ghana led by Duncan Williams, also in Accra Ghana is the Lighthouse Chapel International led by Dag Heward-Mills, and so forth. This is not an exhaustive list as there are many other mega Pentecostal churches in Africa depending on what we mean by mega in terms of quantity. Some Pentecostal churches in Africa have a membership of 1000 or more which is small compared to say 'the Glory Dome'.

Therefore, what we call mega in South Africa is small compared to the Nigerian context. Of course, there are other contributing factors such as the population of the country or even a Christian or Pentecostal church's population. Currently, there are about 213.4 million people in Nigeria as compared to 59.39 million people in South Africa. This might explain why there is a larger church auditorium in Nigeria than in South Africa. Nonetheless, in the South African context, churches such as the Christian Revival Church of Pastor AT Boshoff with a membership of 20,000 would be classified as mega Pentecostal churches (Orogun & Pillay 2023:2). Another church of note is Doxa Deo with a membership of about 30 000 people which is also affiliated to the Apostolic Faith Mission discussed above (Botha 2006:3). The last church under discussion in this article is the Rhema Bible Church in Randburg, Johannesburg, which was founded by Pastor Ray McCauley, now led by Joshua McCauley (Jentile 2016:28). Rhema Bible Church has an auditorium with a carrying capacity of 7500 people per Sunday. These churches were selected by looking at the number of their members, the carrying capacity of church auditoriums, and their influence on society. The next section discusses the cases of mega Pentecostal churches and COVID-19 experiences in South Africa. These cases will later become valuable in the development of the megacostal theology of care beyond COVID-19.

 

The cases of mega Pentecostal churches and COVID-19 in South Africa

Given their size, the mega Pentecostal churches were severely affected during COVID-19. One area that affected these churches is the finances. These are churches that depend on their large following to make contributions to the church. When COVID-19 happened some of these church members lost their jobs and businesses and were therefore not able to make contributions. In addition, the members of these churches normally contribute when in church; therefore, when the gatherings were restricted, they could no longer contribute to the church. This in one way or another affected the income of the mega Pentecostal churches in South Africa.

If this was a challenge to smaller churches, then it was even a greater challenge with the bigger churches which have bigger loans, bigger buildings and more employees. Therefore, churches such as Rhema Bible Church, Doxa Deo, and the Christian Revival Church were affected financially by COVID-19 (Magezi 2022:8).

Another area of concern during COVID-19 was the fellowship of the saints (Kgatle 2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 lockdown restrictions particularly the social distancing rules affected churches in South Africa as much as they affected other businesses (Baron & Pali 2021:9). This was even severe in the early stages of the lockdown; however, even with small changes in the number of people who could gather, the mega Pentecostal churches were still affected. When they restricted the number of attendees in the church, particularly during hard lockdown, this affected the mega Pentecostal churches in South Africa in a big way as opposed to smaller churches. For example, when only 50 people could gather in a church building, a church with a membership of 100 was less affected than a church with a membership of 20 000 as is the case with the Christian Revival Church. When the pastor is used to the crowds of 20 000 people, it might not be easy to downgrade to the crowd of 50 people. Hence, churches such as Christian Revival Church went completely online during the hard lockdown of COVID-19 as the meeting of 50 people could not make financial sense to them. The advantage is that for the online service, they were now able to reach an even larger audience outside South Africa.

The last area of concern is how the mega Pentecostal churches were restricted from taking care of the needs of their congregants during COVID-19 (Ukah 2020:323). The mega Pentecostal churches normally service their followers on-site during church attendance as opposed to a smaller church where the pastor could manage to visit all congregants in their houses. For a mega Pentecostal church of 20 000 people, this is not possible. Therefore, the point of contact becomes the church building and with the lockdown restrictions, this was interrupted in a big way. This became a challenge when the church members in these mega Pentecostal churches were faced with grief because of the loss of their loved ones (Kgatle & Segalo 2021). When there was no fellowship of the saints, this meant that the members of these churches were practically on their own. In the next section, the article explores the theology of care as the theoretical framework relevant to the development of the megacostal theology of care beyond COVID-19.

 

The theology of care: Theoretical framework

The theology of care is centred on the nature of God as a caring God. His is not only human care but also nature and environmental care. He demonstrated this when he sent his son to the world to sacrifice his life for the world. John 3:16 states, 'For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life'. Thus, in loving the whole world, God has demonstrated that he cares for the world. Therefore, the theology of care is seen in the relationship between God and human beings. It is from this relationship according to Johnston (2014:113) that God demonstrates his caring spirit towards the poor, the sick, the weak, the marginalised, and so forth. Therefore, God must not be perceived as the one who stays in heaven but as a transcendent God who comes down to the world through his son to show human beings and nature that he is a caring God. In loving God, humanity should take after him in caring for others as this in itself is the very centre of the theology of care. It is also expected of the clergy to take up the nature of the caring God in taking care of the flock of God, in this context the church in the 21st century.

The theology of God is also centred on human beings becoming interdependent with one another rather than living in isolation. In this way, the theology of care is not only seen in the relationship between God and human beings but also between human beings and other fellow human beings. The theology of care is much connected to the African philosophy of ubuntu which in essence is a philosophy of being together rather than being in isolation. Therefore, the theology of care encourages the community of believers as opposed to living in isolation. In this way, the theology of God becomes an instrument that human beings can use in caring for one another in emulating the nature of God. When an individual is aware of the caring nature of God in their own lives, they can transfer it to fellow human beings. In the words of Ramsey (2012:123), the theology of care can make a transition from a church as an audience of sermons to becoming a caring community that cares for one another. This is the theology that can sustain the church even during trials and tribulations as they would be grounded in a caring and loving foundation. In the end, the believers who fellowship in a caring church will have a sense of belonging even if they are found amid the crowds.

The theology of care is not abstract but can also be put into action through caregiving (Moschella 2016:120). To help an individual who is in need or pain, it is not enough to speak about care but to demonstrate that one cares about them. The theology of care will not make an impact until there is a sign that those who care can become part of the people in pain (Federschmidt & Louw 2015:44). In other words, the carer in the theology of care puts on the shoes of an individual in pain and shows them that they care for them. This is one way how people can know that their lives matter when there is a demonstration of someone cares about them. Religious experiences happening in a church setting should not be an excuse for the actions of caregiving. The theology of care is not only about doing church in the form of songs and sermons but also about being able to step in and help the people of God. Therefore, taking a step towards helping an individual is more impactful than a sermon on the podium as this demonstrates that the clergy cares for the people of God. The audience in the church is not only the objects of sermons but will want to experience care in actions not just in words alone.

The theology of care is also demonstrated in sharing in fulfilling the saying 'Caring is sharing'. Sharing itself is an expression that an individual cares for the one who is lacking. The world would be a wonderful place even with challenges if those who have can be able to share with those that do not have. This is an important aspect of the theology of care particularly during pandemics because there will always be needy people in a challenging time. Therefore, the church should be defined beyond evangelism, preaching, and singing into tangible works of sharing in demonstrating love and care for each other. Equally, praying and worshipping in church should not become ways of escaping the importance of sharing with another in the fulfilment of the theology of sharing (Swartley 2012:13). This is what Christ did on Golgotha, he did not only pray and heal the people but he also shared his life with humanity by dying on the cross. Therefore, the life, death, resurrection and ascension of Christ demonstrate the sharing of Christ's life with the rest of humanity. This is important if the church has to implement the theology of caring, it should be able to encourage the sharing of resources with one another. This is important in dealing with the challenges of pandemics such as COVID-19.

In summary, the theology of care is known as a theology of caring for one another, the theology of community, the theology of sharing, and the theology of caregiving in support of those who are in grief. This kind of theology is in contrast to selfishness, individualism, and so forth. These aspects of the theology of care are discussed below in the development of the megacostal theology of care beyond COVID-19.

 

The megacostal theology of care beyond COVID-19

As discussed in the preceding sections, pandemics such as COVID-19 came with the challenge of social distancing which produced social isolation. The mega Pentecostal churches in the development of the theology of care are expected to encourage the fellowship of the saints. This calls for alternative ways of fellowship within the mega Pentecostal churches. Some of the mega Pentecostal churches such as Christian Revival Church were engaged with their followers through online meetings. Online platforms such as Teams, Zoom meetings, and others became alternative ways where the mega Pentecostal churches insisted on fellowship of the saints during pandemics. This means that the fellowship of the saints does not only take place at the church auditorium but can also take place on an online platform. In future pandemics, the church needs to be ready to continue fellowship even when this is not possible in a church building. This is pivotal for mega Pentecostal churches as, discussed previously, they were mostly affected by COVID-19 as opposed to the smaller churches. Therefore, the theology of care is important in encouraging believers to gather even when circumstances dictate lack of fellowship.

The theology of care is a theology of community rather than being too individualistic. Here, mega Pentecostal churches do not only have to learn from theology but also from the African philosophy of ubuntu. This is a philosophy that encourages the coming together of the saints. It says, 'motho ke motho ka batho ba bangwe' loosely interpreted as 'human beings exist because of others'. In the context of the church, this means that 'a pastor exists because of the congregants'. This philosophy teaches us that the mega Pentecostal church is not about the pastor alone but the people of God. However, in most of these churches, the pastor becomes more of a celebrity and does not care about the people following them. The mega Pentecostal churches have produced the one man syndrome where the individual pastor is magnified than the rest of the community in these churches. In reversing this, a megacostal theology of caring is expected to uplift the community rather than the individual. This also means that during pandemics such as COVID-19, the concern should be the community rather than the individual which is the person of the pastor.

Theology of care is a theology of communal sharing. In the books of Acts 2:42-47, we learn that the early church was not only concerned with prayer and fellowship but was also concerned with the livelihood of other believers. Acts 2:43-44 states that 'All the believers were together and had everything in common. They sold property and possessions to give to anyone who had need'. Mega Pentecostal churches have produced super-rich pastors who live lavishly in mansions and drive expensive sports cars while their congregants live in abject poverty. Some of the super-rich pastors in mega Pentecostal churches own private jets with high maintenance and running costs while most of their followers live in poverty. This calls for a theology of communal sharing in caring for those who are in need during pandemics. This is a call beyond charity but a move towards the empowerment of those who desperately need help during pandemics. Coronavirus disease 2019 is a perfect example in demonstrating that it does not help for the clergy to continue to live lavishly while their followers are in pain and grief.

The theology of care is a theology of caregiving. One of the challenges of COVID-19 was caregiving to an individual who was in pain such as those who were hospitalised and those who were mourning the death of their loved ones. In a small church of 100 people, the pastor can manage to identify those who are in pain and grief. However, in a mega Pentecostal church of about 20 000 members such as a Christian Revival Church, it is not easy to identify believers in pain and grief. This calls for an alternative way of giving care to people in grief and pain. Pandemics such as COVID-19 call for mega Pentecostal churches to come out of their comfort zone of preaching in the crowds in the auditorium to give care, particularly to those who are in grief and pain. Coronavirus disease 2019 and other pandemics have a propensity to reproduce pain and grief. This calls for a theology beyond preaching but a theology of caring. This means that as part of the staff, mega Pentecostal churches require full-time caregivers who will be able to assist congregants during pandemics such as COVID-19. Future, pandemics might challenge the mega Pentecostal churches to think outside the box in being considerate of those in pain and grief.

This means that a mega Pentecostal church is required to decentralise its administration to be able to reach everyone on the ground. It is easier to preach to the crowds than to take care of everyone in the crowds. This calls for the decentralisation of the mega Pentecostal churches into small groups that can be manageable during pandemics such as COVID-19. Strategies such as family church, cell group meetings, and so forth are helpful in mega Pentecostal churches to be able to reach the people on the ground when pandemics emerge in the future. This means that a mega Pentecostal church relies not only on the senior pastor but also on other pastors ministering in small groups to be able to reach those in pain in hospitals or even those mourning the loss of their loved ones. Many of the mega Pentecostal churches such as Christian Revival Church, Rhema Bible Church and Doxa Deo will be required to revisit their theology of care to adequately deal with pandemics that might emerge in the future.

 

Conclusion

This article looked at the concept of megacostalism as a phenomenon referring to the growing trend of mega Pentecostal churches in Africa. These churches are starting to become popular in Africa, particularly in countries such as Nigeria and Ghana. These churches also contribute to the popularity of mega Pentecostal pastors such as David Oyedepo, Chris Oyakilome, and others. In South Africa, a few mega Pentecostal churches have emerged including the Christian Revival Church of Pastor AT Boshoff, Rhema Bible Church of Ray MacCauley and Doxa Deo, Pretoria. This article was interested in the intersectionality of megacostalism and the pandemic such as COVID-19. The mega Pentecostal churches experienced major challenges during the pandemic as compared to the smaller Pentecostal churches. This has an impact on how churches like these will deal with future pandemics drawing from the lessons of COVID-19. Therefore, it is pivotal to develop a megacostal theology of care that will deal with the challenges of future pandemics. This article firstly suggests that a theology of care should be able to encourage followership outside the megachurch building. Secondly, a theology of care builds some level of interconnection between the believers in the mega Pentecostal church where for example the gap between the rich and the poor is bridged. Thirdly, this theology of care does not encourage the big man or big woman individualistic syndrome produced by mega Pentecostal churches. Rather, it encourages the community of believers whereby the pastor of the mega Pentecostal church is one with the believers. Fourthly, the theology of care encourages the sharing of resources with others. Lastly, the megacostal theology should be able to deal with the issue of how clergy can support the multitude of their members during grief.

 

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology for the support provided in conducting this research.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

M.S.K. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the the University of South Africa, College of Human Sciences Research Ethics Review Committee and ethics consent was received on 26 June 2023. The ethics approval number is Rec-240816-052.

Funding information

This study was financially supported by the University of South Africa.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

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Ukah, A., 2020, 'Sacred Surplus and Pentecostal too-muchness: The Salvation Economy of African megachurches', in S. Hunt (ed.), Handbook of megachurches, pp. 323-344, Brill, Leiden.         [ Links ]

Young-Gi, H., 2000, 'The backgrounds and characteristics of the charismatic mega-churches in Korea', Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 3(1), 99-118.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Mookgo Kgatle
kgatls@unisa.ac.za

Received: 06 Oct. 2023
Accepted: 19 Jan. 2024
Published: 30 Apr. 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Warning through song and legislation? An intertextual study of Hebrews 10:26-31 and Deuteronomy

 

 

Albert J. Coetsee

Unit for Reformational Theology and the Development of the South African Society, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Just as in the rest of Hebrews, the warning passage in Hebrews 10:26-31 contains numerous references to the Old Testament. The passage has, among others, two explicit quotations from the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32 (Dt 32:35a in Heb 10:30a; Dt 32:36a in Heb 10:30b), and one clear allusion to the legislation in Deuteronomy 17 (Dt 17:6 in Heb 10:28). The current article argued that Deuteronomy plays an even bigger role in the passage than has previously been noted. Moving from the clear to the less clear by discussing quotations from, allusions to, echoes and applications of, and conceptual and intertextual parallels with Deuteronomy, the intertextual study found that there are possible traces of Deuteronomy in every verse of Hebrews 10:26-31, and strikingly, that all these traces come from Deuteronomy 17 and 32. The article concluded by reflecting on the correlation between Deuteronomy 17 and 32, and how the author of Hebrews employs words and reminiscences from these chapters in order to warn his addressees against apostasy.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article contributed to the investigation of the Old Testament in the Book of Hebrews, and more specifically, the investigation of the occurrence and use of the Book of Deuteronomy in Hebrews

Keywords: Hebrews 10:26-31; Deuteronomy 17:6; Deuteronomy 17:12; Deuteronomy 32:22; Deuteronomy 32:35; Deuteronomy 32:36; Deuteronomy 32:39-41; intertextual study.

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Introduction

In Hebrews 10:26-31, the author warns his addressees in vivid language against 'the nature and consequences of apostasy' (Ellingworth 1993:530). The passage has various parallels with the warning in Hebrews 6:4-6, but differs in the sense that it makes use of cultic categories (Lane 1991:291), and follows after the lengthy exposition of Christ's high priesthood in Hebrews 7:1-10:18, calling the addressees to the proper response to the 'now-explained salvation' (Cockerill 2012:482).¹

To substantiate his argument, the author uses numerous references to the Old Testament. The passage has, among others, two explicit quotations from the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32 (Dt 32:35a in Heb 10:30a; Dt 32:36a in Heb 10:30b), and one clear allusion to the legislation in Deuteronomy 17 (Dt 17:6 in Heb 10:28). This much is noted by most scholars. But closer investigation suggests that Deuteronomy plays an even bigger role in the passage than has previously been noted. The concluding Hebrews 10:31 seems to echo subsequent verses from the Song of Moses (Dt 32:39-41), while the allusion to Isaiah 26:11 in Hebrews 10:27 has strong conceptual parallels with several verses from Deuteronomy, including Deuteronomy 32. This leads to the question: Without denying the occurrence and use of other Old Testament passages in Hebrews 10:26-31 or the creativity of the author, is it possible that the author in some way makes use of Deuteronomy throughout these verses?

With the aim to answer this question, the article investigates the possible occurrence and use of Deuteronomy in the words employed in Hebrews 10:26-31. The intertextual study moves from the clear to the less clear, discussing in descending order possible quotations from, allusions to, echoes and applications of, and conceptual and intertextual parallels with Deuteronomy. Each category is explained in more detail as the article unfolds. While this approach entails that the verses of Hebrews 10:26-31 are not discussed in sequential order, it strengthens cumulative reflection on the possible occurrence and use of Deuteronomy in the passage. The article concludes by drawing the lines together and by reflecting on how Deuteronomy influences the interpretation of Hebrews 10:26-31. By doing this, the article contributes to the growing number of investigations of the occurrence and use of Deuteronomy in Hebrews (cf. Allen 2008; Coetsee 2019; 2020; 2023b; Katz 1958; Steyn 2007).

 

Quotations from Deuteronomy: Hebrews 10:30

A quotation can be defined as a number of consecutive words in the New Testament with a high degree of conformity with a specific Old Testament verse or verses, accompanied by an introductory formula (cf. Beale 2012:26; Guthrie 2003:273; Moyise 2008:15).

Based on this definition, most scholars agree that Hebrews 10:30 contains two quotations from the Old Testament. The text reads as follows:

οἴδαμεν γὰρ τὸν εἰπόντα·

ἐμοὶ ἐκδίκησις, ἐγὼ ἀνταποδώσω.

καὶ πάλιν·

κρινεῖ κύριος τὸν λαὸν αὐτοῦ.

For we know the one who said, 'Vengeance is mine, I will repay.' And again, 'The Lord will judge his people.'²

The use of the conjunction 'for' (γάρ) in Hebrews 10:30 indicates that the author provides scriptural proof for what he has said in Hebrews 10:29. Similar to most introductory formulae in Hebrews, the introductory formula in Hebrews 10:30 contains a verb of saying and has God as subject (note the use of κύριος in the final clause; cf. Coetsee & Jordaan 2015). The use of the verb οἴδαμεν (from οἶδα) in the introductory formula is unique in Hebrews. The use of the first-person plural invites the addressees to reflect on the words from Scripture that follows, and to agree that Scripture indeed teaches what follows about God.

The words of the first quotation stress that 'vengeance' (ἐκδίκησις) belongs to the Lord, and that he will 'exact retribution' (from ἀνταποδίδωμι). Emphasis is placed on the Lord as the agent of vengeance and payback by means of the personal pronouns ἐμοὶ and ἐγὼ.

Most scholars agree that the words are taken from a version of Deuteronomy 32:35a. The quotation in the same form is also found in Romans 12:19c, but the context differs.³ Paul adds the phrase 'says the Lord' (λέγει κύριος) after the quotation, and this probably accounts for its addition to Hebrews 10:30a in some manuscripts (e.g., א^c A D^c; cf. Moffatt 1924:152). The author's introductory formula, which already contains a verb of saying, makes this reading unlikely (Steyn 2011:305).

The text quoted in Hebrews 10:30a and Romans 12:19c differs from Deuteronomy 32:35a in both the LXX and MT, as can be seen in Table 1.

 

 

Based on this comparison, the quotation in Hebrews 10:30a and Romans 12:19c is closer to the MT than the LXX (Steyn 2000:269). The fact that both the author of Hebrews and Paul quotes the words in the same form, suggests that they 'are citing a familiar and popular form of the saying' (Hughes 1977:425 n. 22), possibly deriving the quotation from 'a collection of testimonia' (Bruce 1990:260-261 n. 130; cf. Guthrie 2007:980-981).⁴

The second quotation is linked to the first with the connecting phrase 'and again' (καὶ πάλιν; cf. Heb 1:5; 2:13^2x). The fact that the two quotations could have followed one after the other without the use of the connecting phrase slows down the pace of the passage, and emphasises the dire words of the second quotation. The second quotation is more ominous than the first, expressly stating that the Lord will 'judge' (from κρίνω) his people.

The source of the second quotation is easier to determine than that of the first: it either comes from Deuteronomy 32:36a LXX or Psalm 135:14 (134:14 LXX), as can be seen in Table 2. The fact that a version of Deuteronomy 32:35a is presumably quoted in Hebrews 10:30a strengthens the probability that the author quotes Deuteronomy 32:36a in Hebrews 10:30b (Allen 2008:60).

 

 

Hebrews 10:30b follows the text of Deuteronomy 32:36a exactly, except for dropping the causal conjunction 'for' (ὅτι). The omittance changes the quoted words to a declaration asserting a fact (Guthrie 2007:980-981).

Literally, Deuteronomy 32:36a in the MT states that the Lord will 'judge' (from דִּין) his people, but the rest of the verse (especially the reference to his 'compassion on his servants') suggests that the verb should be taken in the sense of 'judge in favour of' (Tigay 1996:312), that is, 'vindicate'; the Lord will vindicate his people against their enemies. The verb κρίνω in the LXX can have either a positive meaning of 'vindicate' or a negative meaning of 'judge'. While the remainder of the verse in the LXX can suggest that the verb is used with a negative connotation, namely that God will 'be comforted over his slaves' (the NETS translation of ἐπὶ τοῖς δούλοις αὐτοῦ παρακληθήσεται), namely his people who rebel against him, it is more likely that the verse has a positive connotation: God 'will be swayed by his servants' (Mohrmann 2023:173); he will establish just order for them against their enemies.⁵ The author of Hebrews, however, uses Deuteronomy 32:36 LXX with a negative connotation (contra Swetnam 1994:388-394; Proctor 2004:65-80). This is confirmed by the parallelism between Hebrews 10:30a and 10:30b.

In sum, Hebrews 10:30 contains two explicit quotations from two consecutive verses from the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32.

 

An allusion to Deuteronomy: Hebrews 10:28

An allusion can be defined as a number of consecutive words in the New Testament with a high degree of conformity with a specific Old Testament verse or verses without being accompanied by an introductory formula, or 'an overt weaving of at least a phrase from the antecedent text into the author's own language' (Guthrie 2003:273; cf. Beale 2012:26-27; Porter 2008:30). Based on this definition, the final phrase of Hebrews 10:28 falls within this category (Allen 2008:75; cf. Kibbe 2016:129). The verse states:

ἀθετήσας τις νόμον Μωϋσέως χωρὶς οἰκτιρμῶν ἐπὶ δυσὶν ἢ τρισὶν μάρτυσιν ἀποθνῄσκει·

Anyone who has violated the law of Moses dies without mercy 'on the testimony of two or three witnesses.'

Hebrews 10:28-29 contains an a fortiori (qal wahomer) argument (cf. Heb 2:2-3; 9:13-14; 12:25), with verse 28 providing the lesser situation. The author's argument is that the penalty for 'rejecting' or 'nullifying' (from ἀθετέω; Bauer et al. 2000:24) the law of Moses under the old covenant was severe (Heb 10:28); more severe, however, will be the judgement of those who apostatise under the new covenant (Heb 10:29).

The severity of the judgement under the old covenant is stressed by the use of the verb 'die' (ἀποθνῄσκω) in combination with the prepositional clause 'without pity' (χωρὶς οἰκτιρμῶν), and the confirmation that this judgement takes place upon the 'evidence of two or three witnesses'. While other possible Vorlagen have been suggested, including Deuteronomy 19:15 and Numbers 35:30, the wording of Deuteronomy 17:6 forms the closest parallel with Hebrews 10:28 (as can be seen in Table 3), and consequently, various scholars view the latter as an allusion to the former (cf. Allen 2008:75-76; Steyn 2007:159).

 

 

The author of Hebrews adjusts the words of Deuteronomy 17:6 to avoid repetition and to make it syntactically more alluring (cf. Attridge 1989:294 n. 32): he drops the first reference to μάρτυσιν and the second occurrence of ἐπί, and conflates the Hebraic ἀποθανεῖται ὁ ἀποθνῄσκω to the simple present indicative ἀποθνῄσκει. The present tense emphasises 'the contemporary application of the Scriptural principle' (Allen 2008:76).

Deuteronomy 17:2-7 pronounces that a man or woman serving other gods must be stoned to death on the evidence of two or three witnesses. Two matters from the original context should be noted in the author's allusion to Deuteronomy 17:6 in Hebrews 10:28: (1) the author of Hebrews seems to equate apostasy with idolatry; and (2) unlike the author of Deuteronomy 17:6, the author of Hebrews is not interested in the danger of a miscarriage of justice based on the evidence of a single witness, he solely stresses the end result of such transgression: death (Ellingworth 1993:537).

Attempts have been made to find the Vorlage of the author's reference to 'without pity' (χωρὶς οἰκτιρμῶν). The exact phrase is not found in the Pentateuch, although the 'notion of pitiless punishment' (Attridge 1989:294 n. 30), expressed in the metaphor of 'your eye shall not spare' (οὐ φείσεται ὁ ὀφθαλμός σου), is found in a number of passages in Deuteronomy, including Deuteronomy 13:9 (LXX), 19:13, 19:21 and 25:12. Of these, based on similar legislation concerning idolatry, Deuteronomy 13:9 forms the closest parallel. Consequently, some scholars view Hebrews 10:28b as a conflated allusion to Deuteronomy 13:9 and 17:6 (Cockerill 2012:487; Guthrie 2007:979; Lane 1991:293; cf. Thompson 2008:209).

An echo of Deuteronomy: Hebrews 10:31

An echo, which is closely related to an allusion (Porter 2008:36), can be defined as a recollection or resonance of an Old Testament passage or verse without any obvious reference to that passage or verse (cf. Guthrie 2003:273; Hays 1989:21-33). This is often done 'by means of thematically related language of some more general notion or concept' (Porter 2008:39).

Only a handful of scholars mention the possibility that Hebrews 10:31 contains an echo of Deuteronomy 32:39-41 (e.g., Cockerill 2012:494; DeSilva 2000:352; Ellingworth 1993:543; Kleinig 2017:517; Koester 2001:454). None of them, however, provide detailed support for their argument.

Hebrews 10:31 is the author's grave concluding words of the passage. It forms a climactic summary of the entire argument (Lane 1991:295) by stating:

φοβερὸν τὸ ἐμπεσεῖν εἰς χεῖρας θεοῦ ζῶντος.

It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God.

In the Old Testament, 'hand' (יָד || χείρ) is frequently used in a figurative sense to refer to someone's 'power' or 'strength' (Coetsee 2021:125). References to God's 'hand' in Scripture are used anthropomorphically to refer to his 'power' or 'might', either in a positive or negative sense. The positive use of the noun refers to God's acts in creation, his providence, and salvation, while the negative use refers to his judgement. 'Falling' into someone's hands expresses the idea of involuntarily being subjected to someone's power (cf. Bauer et al. 2000:324). Despite a couple of positive occurrences of the phrase in the Old Testament (cf. 2 Sm 24:14; 1 Chr 21:13; Gleason 2002:119), the description in Hebrews 10:31 is anything but positive, as the use of the adjective 'fearful' (from φοβερός) makes clear.⁶ Apostasy leads to 'falling into the hands of the living God', that is, being subjected to his power, specifically his (eschatological) judgement.

This dire warning is made even more frightening by the description of God as 'the living God' (cf. Heb 3:12; 9:14; 12:22). In contrast to lifeless idols of wood or stone, who can do nothing, the Old Testament depicts God as the 'living' God, namely the only God able to act and accomplish things (Coetsee 2019:118; cf. Brennan 2022:134-135). Within the context of Hebrews 10:26-31, the specific acts of God referred to are his judgement and retribution (cf. Moffatt 1924:152). 'Paradoxically, "the living God" poses a threat of destruction' (Koester 2001:454).

Isaiah 33:14 and Deuteronomy 10:17 have been suggested as the possible background of the author's argument in Hebrews 10:31. The former in the MT periphrastically refers to God as a 'consuming fire' (אֵשׁ אוֹכֵלָה) in a context of judgement,⁷ while the latter describes God as mighty and 'awesome' (Ditto: וְהַנּוֹרָא || ὁ φοβερός). Both suggestions, however, are not very convincing. Much more convincing is the suggestion that Hebrews 10:31 echoes Deuteronomy 32:39-41.

Deuteronomy 32:39-41 forms part of the ending of the Song of Moses. These verses underscore in the first person that the Lord alone is God, that he is sovereign, and that he will judge and repay his enemies. Of special importance are the resonances of Deuteronomy 32:39-41 in Hebrews 10:31 by means of references to the 'hand' or 'hands' (χείρ/χεῖρες) of God, and God as 'living' or able to make 'alive' (from ζάω). This can be seen in Table 4.

 

 

Two references in the ending of the Song of Moses link God to the verb 'live' (ζάω): God declares that he has the sovereign ability to 'make alive' (Dt 32:39), and in the words of a typical oath formula, God swears that he 'lives' forever (Dt 32:40). References to God's 'hands' are found in verses 39, 40, and 41,⁸ referring in turn to his sovereignty (Dt 32:39), a hand gesture accompanying oaths (Dt 32:40) and his judgement (Dt 32:41) (Coetsee 2019:119, 127).

These resonances suggest that the author echoes Deuteronomy 32:39-41 in Hebrews 10:31. The quotations from Deuteronomy 32:35a and 32:36a in Hebrews 10:30 strengthen this possibility. Although somewhat removed, the author's quotation of a version of Deuteronomy 32:43 in Hebrews 1:6 confirms his fondness of the Song of Moses,⁹ as well as his knowledge of its ending.

 

An application of Deuteronomy: Hebrews 10:29

Hebrews 10:29 does not seem to contain a quotation from, allusion to, or echo of any specific Old Testament passage. What is clear, however, is that the passage forms the 'greater' part of the author's a fortiori argument in Hebrews 10:28-29. Hebrews 10:29 states:

πόσῳ δοκεῖτε χείρονος ἀξιωθήσεται τιμωρίας ὁ τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ θεοῦ καταπατήσας καὶ τὸ αἷμα τῆς διαθήκης κοινὸν ἡγησάμενος, ἐν ᾧ ἡγιάσθη, καὶ τὸ πνεῦμα τῆς χάριτος ἐνυβρίσας;

How much worse punishment do you think will be deserved by those who have spurned the Son of God, profaned the blood of the covenant by which they were sanctified, and outraged the Spirit of grace?

The author's argument is that if nullifying the law of Moses under the old covenant led to death (Heb 10:28), the one who is guilty of brazen 'contempt of the most flagrant kind' (Moffatt 1924:151) under the new covenant will receive a much worse 'punishment' (τιμωρία; Heb 10:29). The verse is in the form of a rhetorical question, directly addressed to the addressees with the use of the second-person plural verb δοκεῖτε [you think], inviting them to reach the evident conclusion (cf. Koester 2001:457). The verb ἀξιωθήσεται (from ἀξιόω) is a divine passive, suggesting that the worse punishment 'deserved' will be administered by God.

The detail of this brazen contempt is spelled out with the use of three aorist participles. The three participles do not seem to indicate three specific transgressions, but are used cumulatively for rejection of the new covenant (Attridge 1989:294).

The first aorist clause refers to 'trampling' (from καταπατέω) the Son of God. The verb is used in a figurative sense for the action of treating with disdain or showing contempt (Bauer et al. 2000:523). Some scholars suggest that the clause echoes Zechariah 12:3 based on its twofold use of the same verb, but the use of καταπατέω is hardly enough evidence to point to a convincing echo (Bruce 1990:262 n. 136). Moreover, in Zechariah 12:3 the verb refers to the trampling of Jerusalem by the nations.

The second aorist clause refers to considering the 'blood of the covenant' (τὸ αἷμα τῆς διαθήκης) 'profane' or 'common' (from κοινός; cf. the use of κοινόω in Heb 9:13). While Zechariah 9:11 employs the phrase 'by the blood of the covenant' (ἐν αἵματι διαθήκης), the much closer parallel is Exodus 24:8, which refers to Moses sprinkling the people with blood and calling it 'the blood of the covenant' (τὸ αἷμα τῆς διαθήκης). A version of Exodus 24:8 is also quoted in Hebrews 9:20, which supports the possibility that the author is alluding to this verse.

The third aorist clause refers to 'insulting' or 'outraging' (from ἐνυβρίζω) 'the Spirit of grace' (τὸ πνεῦμα τῆς χάριτος). The author creates a paradox by juxtaposing the Spirit of grace with the one who outrages him. The verb is a hapax legomenon in the New Testament, and is not found in the LXX. The exact words are not found in any Old Testament passage. The closest parallel is Zechariah 12:10 (LXX), which refers to God pouring out 'a spirit of grace and compassion' (πνεῦμα χάριτος καὶ οἰκτιρμοῦ) on the house of David. There are, however, two major differences between Zechariah 12:10 and Hebrews 10:29: (1) The phrase 'a spirit of grace and compassion' in Zechariah 12:10 is used in a context of salvation, while 'the Spirit of grace' in Hebrews 10:29 is used in a context of judgement; (2) in Hebrews 10:29 'Spirit' is used to refer to the Spirit of God; in Zechariah 12:10, 'spirit' refers to the disposition of the people.

Overall, the most convincing parallel to Hebrews 10:29 is Hebrews 6:4-6. The latter is a similar warning against apostasy, which refers to the convert as sharing in 'the Holy Spirit' (πνεύματος ἁγίου), and the apostate as crucifying again 'the Son of God' (τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ θεοῦ).

Consequently, the discussion above seems to rule out any reference to Deuteronomy in Hebrews 10:29. There is, however, one possibility. A few scholars view the three aorist participle clauses in Hebrews 10:29 as an expansion of the three witnesses referred to in Hebrews 10:28 (more recently Steyn 2007:160). According to this view, Hebrews 10:29 provides the testimony of three witnesses who condemn the person who rejects the new covenant not only to death, but to God's terrible judgement. The three witnesses are the Son, the blood, and the Spirit. If this is correct, Hebrews 10:29 is an indirect continuation of the allusion to Deuteronomy 17:6 in Hebrews 10:28; it contains a Christological application of Deuteronomy 17:6.

This interpretation is not shared by many scholars. Ellingworth (1993:538) states that '[s]uch a way of arguing would not be foreign to Hebrews, but it is not made explicit'. Kibbe (2016:129 n. 77) errs on the side of caution by stating that 'this may be pushing the parallelism too far'. Nonetheless, the suggestion of Steyn and others is intriguing, and reading Hebrews 10:28-29 in this manner is not unnatural.

 

A conceptual parallel with Deuteronomy: Hebrews 10:26

Hebrews 10:26, the first verse of the passage, states:

Ἑκουσίως γὰρ ἁμαρτανόντων ἡμῶν μετὰ τὸ λαβεῖν τὴν ἐπίγνωσιν τῆς ἀληθείας, οὐκέτι περὶ ἁμαρτιῶν ἀπολείπεται θυσία,

For if we willfully persist in sin after having received the knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins,

The opening clause contains a genitive absolute (ἁμαρτανόντων ἡμῶν), which, in light of the rest of the sentence, is best viewed as having the nuance of a condition: 'if we continue sinning' (cf. Wallace 1996:654-655). The keyword in the clause is the adverb ἑκουσίως, placed in the emphatic first position. It can be translated as 'willingly', 'deliberately', or 'intentionally' (Bauer et al. 2000:307; Louw & Nida 1996:295-296 [§25.65]). Its use indicates that the author is not concerned with sin in general, but deliberate or intentional sin. What makes deliberate sin unthinkable in the author's view, is that the addressees have received 'the knowledge of the truth' (ἡ ἐπίγνωσις τῆς ἀληθείας).¹⁰ This stock phrase for the Christian message (Koester 2001:451) follows after the lengthy exposition of Christ's high-priestly ministry in Hebrews 7:1-10:18. The author's argument is that the addressees should now know, based on their fuller understanding of Christ's ministry and sacrifice, that apart from Christ's sacrifice there is no 'sacrifice' (θυσία) for sins. The author emphasises this by formulating Hebrews 10:26 in such a way that it forms a parallel with Hebrews 10:18:

οὐκέτι προσφορὰ περὶ ἁμαρτίας (Heb 10:18)

οὐκέτι περὶ ἁμαρτιῶν ἀπολείπεται θυσία (Heb 10:26)¹¹

Hebrews 10:18 argues that Christ's sacrifice for sin is perfect; no other sacrifice is required (cf. Heb 10:14). Hebrews 10:26 argues that no other sacrifice for sin than Christ's perfect sacrifice is possible. The addressees are consequently warned not to scorn Christ's sacrifice by sinning deliberately.

Most scholars view the background of the author's reference to deliberate sin as Numbers 15:22-31 (cf. Bediako 2018:29-40; Bloor 2023:53; DeSilva 2000:344; Lane 1991:292; Lee 2021:199-200; Tanner 2006:64-66), especially verses 30-31. Numbers 15 distinguishes between unintentional (Nm 15:22-29) and intentional sins (Nm 15:30-31), and provides legislation for atonement for the former by means of specific sacrifices. Numbers 15:30 in the MT literally refers to someone who acts 'with a high hand' (בְּיָד רָמָה), which is a figurative expression for arrogance or defiance (Smith & Hamilton 1997:1079). The LXX keeps the reference to 'hand', but captures the gist of the expression by translating 'high' with 'arrogance' (ὑπερηφανία; Bauer et al. 2000:1033). According to Numbers 15:30-31, a person who acts in this manner 'provokes' (from παροξύνω) God and 'despises' (from φαυλίζω) his word, and shall be 'completely destroyed' (from ἐξολεθρεύω) from the people and 'wiped out with a wiping' (ἐκτρίψει ἐκτριβήσεται).

Based on these parallels, Numbers 15 does seem to be a good fit as the possible background of Hebrews 10:26.¹² Cockerill (2012:483-484), however, warns that an uncritical adoption of Numbers 15 as the background of the verse is an oversimplification; Hebrews contains the thought, but not the terminology of Numbers 15. Following his cue, other possible backgrounds of Hebrews 10:26 should be explored.

The adverb ἑκουσίως is found five times in the LXX (Ex 36:2; 2 Macc 14:3; 4 Macc 5:23; 8:23; Ps 53:8), of which the closest parallel to Hebrews 10:26 is Psalm 53:8 (54:8 MT). In the MT, the poet declares that he will sacrifice a 'freewill offering' (נְדָבָה) to God, which is rendered as 'freely I shall sacrifice to you' (ἑκουσίως θύσω σοι) in the LXX.¹³ The parallel with Hebrews 10:26 is created by the use of the adverb ἑκουσίως and the verb θύω (Hebrews has the noun θυσία). This gives rise to the interesting question: Could the author of Hebrews be making a subtle contrast between the 'freewill' or 'voluntary' offering of the Old Testament and the sin which he warns his addressees not to commit? Put differently, could the author subtly be saying that instead of a 'freewill' sacrifice which they should present to God because of their deliverance (the context of Ps 54; cf. Heb 13:15-16), they are committing 'freewill' sin? Though the thought is intriguing, there are no further indications that the author refers to Psalm 53 in Hebrews 10:26.

One of the few occurrences of the noun ὑπερηφανία in the Pentateuch (Ex 18:21; Lv 26:19; Nm 15:30; Dt 17:12) is found in Deuteronomy 17:12. Deuteronomy 17:8-13 instructs Israel to carry out exactly the judicial decisions of the Levitical priests and the judge in office. A person who acts 'in arrogance' (ἐν ὑπερηφανίᾳ) by not obeying the priest or the judge, 'acts impiously' (from ἀσεβέω; Dt 17:13), and shall die. This description forms a conceptual parallel with Hebrews 10:26's reference to someone sinning 'deliberately' or 'intentionally'. Since Numbers 15:30 is viewed as the conceptual background of Hebrews 10:26 based on its use of the noun ὑπερηφανία, is it not equally possible that the conceptual background can be Deuteronomy 17:12 based on its use of the same noun?

What counts in favour of this possibility is the fact that Deuteronomy 17:6 is explicitly alluded to in Hebrews 10:28. In a sense, this makes Deuteronomy 17:12 a more likely fit than Numbers 15:30. If the author indeed has Deuteronomy 17:12 in the back of his mind, Hebrews 10:26 may have the additional message that those who sin deliberately are not obeying Christ, 'the priest in attendance' (τοῦ ἱερέως τοῦ παρεστηκότος; cf. Heb 10:21) who 'ministers in the name of the Lord your God' (λειτουργεῖν ἐπὶ τῷ ὀνόματι κυρίου τοῦ θεοῦ σου). Moreover, there might be a subtle reference to Christ ministering in 'the place' (τόπος) that God has chosen (Dt 17:8, 10), namely the heavenly sanctuary (cf. Heb 9:11-12, 24), which the addressees are called to enter with 'confidence' (παρρησία; Heb 10:19). Deliberate sin makes such an approach unthinkable.

The greatest objection to this interpretation is that Deuteronomy 17:8-13 refers to difficult judicial decisions related, among others, to 'bloodshed' (αἷμα), 'assault' (ἁφή), and 'dispute' (ἀντιλογία), which may involve sin, but it does not explicitly refer to sin like Hebrews 10:26 and Numbers 15:22-31 (note the use of ἁμαρτία in Nm 15:31). This tips the scale in favour of Numbers 15:22-31 as the conceptual background of Hebrews 10:26. Nonetheless, for the sake of the current investigation, the conceptual parallel between Deuteronomy 17:12 and Hebrews 10:26 is noteworthy.

 

An intertextual parallel with Deuteronomy: Hebrews 10:27

Hebrews 10:27, which is a continuation of the author's argument in Hebrews 10:26, depicts the grim expectation of those who deliberately persist in sin. For them, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins,

φοβερὰ δέ τις ἐκδοχὴ κρίσεως καὶ πυρὸς ζῆλος ἐσθίειν μέλλοντος τοὺς ὑπεναντίους.

but a fearful prospect of judgment, and a fury of fire that will consume the adversaries.

The combination of words in Hebrews 10:27 expresses the seriousness of the eschatological judgement and wrath of God (Hughes 1977:420). Of special interest is the phrase πυρὸς ζῆλος, which literally means 'a zeal' or 'ardour of fire'. Both the NRSV and ESV translate the phrase as 'a fury of fire'. Ellingworth (1993:535) suggests that the genitive 'of fire' may be a genitive of apposition, and that the καί linking φοβερὰ δέ τις ἐκδοχὴ κρίσεως and πυρὸς ζῆλος is epexegetic. This leads to a translation of 'only a fearful expectation of judgement, namely a zeal that is a fire' (my own translation).

Various passages from the Old Testament have been suggested as the possible background for the words and imagery of Hebrews 10:27. An overview of the more convincing Vorlagen can be seen in Table 5.

Of all these passages, the similarity between Hebrews 10:27 and Isaiah 26:11 is the strongest in terms of both keywords and thought. Regarding the former, both passages make use of the nouns πῦρ and ζῆλος, the substantive adjective οἱ ὑπεναντίοι and the verb ἐσθίω. Regarding the latter, both Isaiah 26:11 and Hebrews 10:27 refer to God's judgement of enemies in imagery of fire. Consequently, several scholars view Hebrews 10:27 as an allusion to Isaiah 26:11 (cf. DeSilva 2000:346; Dyer 2017:98-99; Gleason 2002:114-115; Tanner 2006:68-73). Additional support for this view is the fact that the phrase 'in a very little while' (μικρὸν ὅσον ὅσον) from Isaiah 26:20 is explicitly quoted in the dual quotation of Hebrews 10:37 (alongside Hab 2:3-4).

The difference in terms of context, however, is telling, as it indicates how the author of Hebrews applies the perceived allusion: in Isaiah 26:11, God's judgement is directed towards the enemies of Judah; in Hebrews 10:27, those who apostatise are warned that they will be considered enemies of God, and should expect his judgement.

In light of the above, it does not seem as if Hebrews 10:27 contains a reference to any specific passage from Deuteronomy. There is, however, the chance of an indirect reference to Deuteronomy in Hebrews 10:27 by means of the possibility that Isaiah 26:11 was influenced conceptually by the Book of Deuteronomy, especially the Song of Moses.

The Song of Moses is possibly one of the oldest literary pieces in the Old Testament.¹⁴ Whatever its age, the Song was familiar among the Jews in the biblical and post-biblical era: the Canticum Mosis is included among the Odes in Codex Alexandrinus of the LXX (Steyn 2007:154), and the Song's occurrence in the Qumran manuscript 4QDeuteronomy^j bears witness to its liturgical use in the Second Temple period (Lundbom 2013:980). All of this confirms the popularity of the Song, which suggests that it could easily have influenced later biblical literature, including the Book of Isaiah.

The Song of Moses also expresses the judgement of God in images of fire. Deuteronomy 32:22 LXX states:

ὅτι πῦρ ἐκκέκαυται ἐκ τοῦ θυμοῦ μου, καυθήσεται ἕως ᾅδου κάτω, καταφάγεται γῆν καὶ τὰ γενήματα αὐτῆς, φλέξει θεμέλια ὀρέων.

For a fire has lit up from my anger and will burn as far as Hades below; it will devour earth and its produce and will light up foundations of mountains.

Deuteronomy 32:22 contains four verbs expressing the notion of 'burn' (ἐκκαίω, καίω, κατεσθίω, φλέγω) alongside the noun 'fire' (πῦρ) to express God's anger towards Israel for their idolatry and unfaithfulness (cf. Mohrmann 2023:469). Although Isaiah 26:11 does not contain any of these verbs of burning, it does contain the semantically similar verb 'consume' (ἐσθίω). The difference is that in Deuteronomy 32:22, God's fiery anger is directed towards Israel; in Isaiah 26:11, it is directed towards the enemies of Judah. This agrees, however, with the way the author of Hebrews employs the warning in Hebrews 10:27. A few verses on in the Song, in Deuteronomy 32:27, explicit mention is made of 'the adversaries' (οἱ ὑπεναντίοι) of Israel, the same noun that is used in Isaiah 26:11. Although the context is different (it refers to the collaboration of Israel's enemies, especially in boasting that they and not the Lord defeated Israel), it is striking that the noun, which is found only once in the Book of Deuteronomy,¹⁵ is found in the Song, and in close proximity to Deuteronomy 32:22.

There are other possible traces of Deuteronomy in Hebrews 10:27. Ellingworth (1993:535), for example, argues that the closest parallel to Hebrews 10:27 is Hebrews 12:29, which contains an allusion to Deuteronomy 4:24 ('God is a consuming fire'). The only other reference to images of fire for God's judgement in Hebrews is Hebrews 6:7-8, which contains reminiscences of Deuteronomy's blessing and cursing imagery (cf. Dt 11:26-28; 28:14-66; Allen 2008:140) by warning the addressees in an agricultural image that the end of ground that produces thorns and thistles is 'to be burned over' (εἰς καῦσιν). Finally, like Hebrews 10:27, Deuteronomy 29:19 LXX warns that God's anger and 'zeal' (ζῆλος) towards the sinner who silently disowns the covenant will 'blaze out' (ἐκκαυθήσεται from ἐκκαίω) against him.

In conclusion, it seems best to follow other scholars in viewing Hebrews 10:27 as an allusion to Isaiah 26:11, which forms an intertextual parallel with Deuteronomy 32:22 LXX. Whether or not Isaiah 26:11 was influenced conceptually by Deuteronomy 32:22 LXX, is beyond the bounds of the current investigation. The hypothesis, however, is intriguing.

 

Conclusion

The article set out to investigate the possible occurrence and use of Deuteronomy in the words employed in Hebrews 10:26-31. Without denying the occurrence and use of other Old Testament passages in Hebrews 10:26-31 or the creativity of the author, the intertextual study discovered that possible traces of Deuteronomy can be found in all six verses of Hebrews 10:26-31. An overview of the findings can be seen in Table 6.

 

 

As argued above, not all these traces of Deuteronomy are equally convincing. The author's quotations of Deuteronomy 32:35a and 32:36a in Hebrews 10:30, allusion to Deuteronomy 17:6 in Hebrews 10:28 and echo of Deuteronomy 32:39-41 in Hebrews 10:31 are explicit references to the Book of Deuteronomy. Less likely, but still a possibility, is the author's application of Deuteronomy 17:6 in Hebrews 10:29. While the conceptual parallel between Numbers 15:30-31 and Deuteronomy 17:12 in Hebrews 10:26 and the intertextual parallel between Isaiah 26:11 and Deuteronomy 32:22 in Hebrews 10:27 can be confirmed, it is difficult to prove that the author deliberately (albeit indirectly) referred to these passages from Deuteronomy for the sake of his argument.

It is significant, however, that all these traces of Deuteronomy in Hebrews 10:26-31 come from two chapters in the Book of Deuteronomy, namely Deuteronomy 17 and 32. This leads to the questions: Is Hebrews 10:26-31 a warning by means of reminiscences of the Song of Moses and the legislation of Deuteronomy 17? And is there some kind of connection between the two chapters that link them together? The fact that Deuteronomy 17 consists of three distinct pericopes, namely Deuteronomy 16:21-17:7 (forbidden forms of worship), Deuteronomy 17:8-13 (legal decisions by priests and judges), and Deuteronomy 17:14-20 (laws concerning Israel's king), makes it difficult to identify a single theme linking Deuteronomy 17 and 32. The greatest common denominator is that both Deuteronomy 17 and 32 address idolatry: Deuteronomy 17:2-7 legislates that a person who is found committing idolatry must be put to death; Deuteronomy 32:16-21 and 32:37-38 bemoans Israel's idolatry, and indicates how it provoked God to judgement.

If the author of Hebrews warns the addressees against the nature and dire consequences of apostasy in Hebrews 10:26-31 in words and reminiscences of Deuteronomy 17 and 32, the interpretation of the passage boils down to the following: the addressees are viewed as disobedient to Christ, the priest in attendance in the place chosen by God (Heb 10:26; Dt 17:12). In addition, they are viewed as covenant breakers against whom God's fiery wrath burns (Heb 10:27; Dt 32:22). Their sin of apostasy is as good as idolatry (Heb 10:28; Dt 17:6), and their brazen contempt witnesses against them, confirming that they are deserving of death (Heb 10:29; Dt 17:6). Consequently, God's judgement is not directed towards the enemies of his people, but the apostatising addressees themselves (Heb 10:30; Dt 32:35a, 36a). This is nothing short of terrible, as God is the only living, sovereign God, from whom there is no escape, and who will repay his enemies (Heb 10:31; Dt 32:39-41).

The purpose of Hebrews 10:26-31, just like that of Deuteronomy 17 and 32, is not to condemn the addressees. Rather, Deuteronomy 17 and 32 are used in Hebrews 10:26-31 to call the addressees to repentance, since there is still hope, as the subsequent passage in Hebrews indicates (Heb 10:32-39).

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

A.J.C. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Albert Coetsee
albert.coetsee@nwu.ac.za

Received: 05 Dec. 2023
Accepted: 04 Apr. 2024
Published: 30 Apr. 2024

 

 

1. Gleason (2002:97-120) differs from the traditional interpretation of Hebrews 10:26-31 by viewing it as a warning against the physical judgement that will come upon Israel with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple during the first Jewish revolt (66-70 AD).
2. All quotations from the Greek New Testament are from the NA, while quotations from the Hebrew Bible are from the Biblical Hebraica Quinta (cf. McCarthy [2007] for quotations from Deuteronomy MT). The critical text of the Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum auctoritate Academiae Scientiarum Gottingensis editum is used for quotations from the LXX (cf. Rahlfs [1979]; Ziegler [1967, 1983]; Wevers [2006]). All English translations from the Old and New Testament are from the NRSV, while English translations from the LXX are from the New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS). Translations in tables are my own.
3. Paul uses the quotation to motivate his addressees to leave vengeance in the hands of God.
4. A number of excellent studies have been conducted on the possible Vorlage of the quotation in Hebrew 10:30a. Various scholars indicate that the Hebrew לְיוֹם נָקָם ['in the day of vengeance'] could easily have been corrupted to לִי נָקָם ['vengeance is mine'] (e.g., Katz 1958:220). Ellingworth (1993:542) is correct in arguing that the closer similarities between Deuteronomy 32:35a MT and the quotation in Hebrew 10:30a is 'no sufficient reason for believing that the author of Hebrews, contrary to his normal practice, followed the MT against the LXX'. The reading found in Hebrew 10:30a and Roman 12:19c is similar to that found in Targum Onqelos, Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (Cockerill 2012:492 n. 45). Steyn (2011:310), in his careful analysis of Deuteronomy 32:25a, indicates that two traditions can be traced in the text critical investigation of the text: 'the Samaritan Pentateuch, Philo (Leg. 3,105) and Luke 21:22 are closer to the LXX', while 'Roman 12:19, Hebrew 10:30, the Targum Onkelos and the Peshitta are closer to the MT'.
5. In his commentary on the verse, Mohrmann (2023:474) states that '[d]ark imagery … begins to give way to light when Moses speaks in v. 36'.
6. The use of a form of φοβερός as the opening word in both Hebrews 10:27 and 10:31 stresses the unity of the passage, as well as the overall tone of the author's argument. It is difficult to agree with Swetnam (2006:390-392) that φοβερός in Hebrews 10:31 is used in a positive sense.
7. Isaiah 33:14 in the LXX is different, eliminating the possibility of viewing 'consuming fire' as a periphrasis for God.
8. These are also the only references to the hands of God in the Song of Moses.
9. Kibbe (2016:135) argues that Deuteronomy 32 is the author of 'Hebrews' favourite portion of the book'. The popularity of the Song is also evidenced in the Pauline literature: Cf. Romans 10:19 (Dt 32:21); 15:10 (Dt 32:43); 1 Cr 10:20, 22 (Dt 32:17, 21); Philippians 2:15 (Dt 32:5). To this might be added Romans 3:5, 9:14 and Hebrews 6:10, which may contain a subtle echo of Deuteronomy 32:4 (cf. Coetsee 2023b).
10. Some scholars argue that ἐπίγνωσις in Hebrews 10:26 refers to 'full and authentic knowledge' (Hughes 1977:421). Others, however, view it as a stylistic variant of 'knowledge'.
11. This parallel probably serves as the reason why some manuscripts contain περὶ ἁμαρτίας instead of περὶ ἁμαρτιῶν in Hebrews 10:26 (cf. Bruce 1990:260 n. 124).
12. Cf. Hebrews 9:7, which refers to the high priest who during Yom Kippur sacrifices for the sins 'unintentionally' (from ἀγνόημα) committed by the people.
13. For occurrences of ἑκούσιος in connection to sacrifices and gifts in the Pentateuch, see Leviticus 7:16; 23:38; Numbers 15:3; 29:39; and Deuteronomy 12:6.
14. See Coetsee (2023a:206-207 n. 4-6) for references.
15. The noun is found nine times in the Pentateuch: Genesis 22:17; 24:6; Exodus 1:10; 15:7; 23:27; 32:25; Leviticus 26:16; Numbers 10:9; and Deuteronomy 32:27.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

From altar to action: Customising the pneumatological imagination to sustainable development

 

 

Mookgo S. Kgatle; Joshua Chigorimbo

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology, Faculty of Humanities, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Pentecostal ecotheology has been explored as the theology that can go beyond the anthropocentric focus of salvation towards the salvation of the non-human. This aspect of Pentecostal ecotheology has been explored by previous studies; however, the research gap exists in applying the same to sustainable development goals (SDGs). This article uses the pneumatological imagination as a theoretical framework to apply Pentecostal ecotheology to SDGs. The article argues that a pneumatological imagination is relevant in addressing the SDGs on hunger and agriculture (SDG2), water resources (SDG6), energy (SDG7), climate change (SDG13), conservation and sustainable management of marine resources (SDG14) and sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems (SDG15). The research findings are as follows: the pneumatological imagination can broaden the eschatological message to encompass social justice, political change and ecological repentance, beyond conventional evangelism. The pneumatological imagination envisions practical ways to engage in and contribute to the triune God's redemptive renewal of the world. The pneumatological imagination elevates individuals whose voices have been historically and traditionally marginalised because of gender, power dynamics or socioeconomic class. The pneumatological imagination aspires to provide a universal panorama and an inclusive capacity that envisions the salvation of everyone. The article is a literature review and data were analysed using the different themes of the United Nations' SDGs.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article explores the relationship between theology and development studies by proposing a pneumatic Pentecostal ecotheology in the fulfilment of the SDGs of the United Nations

Keywords: Pentecostal ecotheology; sustainable development; pneumatological imagination; Pentecostalism; normative theology.

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Introduction

The altar call - where seekers and believers can encounter the Holy Spirit through salvation, empowerment, healing, deliverance and so forth - constitutes a vital part of the Pentecostal experiential liturgy (Vondey 2023:8). Of course, right from the onset of the Christian church, the goal of the Pentecostal experience has never been purely inward-looking, individualistic or self-serving. Rather, the church's mandate has always been outward-looking, communal and centrifugal. How then can the risk of preoccupation with the altar at the expense of the practical action desperately needed in the light of the global ecological crises bedevilling our world and the urgency of sustainable development be averted? This article contends that the Pentecostal motif of the pneumatological imagination is 'just what the doctor ordered', as it were. Therefore, this article explores how the pneumatological imagination (as a theoretical framework) can be applied to sustainable development goals (SDGs) in the 21st century. The exploration entails performing an overview of Pentecostal ecotheology as the overall paradigm that situates the pneumatological imagination, followed by a consideration of the pneumatological imagination itself, an overview of the 2030 Agenda with special reference to ecological matters, an engagement of the pneumatological imagination and SDGs, and proposing a pneumatic ecotheology of sustainable development.

 

An overview of contemporary Pentecostal ecotheology

Christian ecotheology in general, and Pentecostal ecotheology in particular, have come a long way over the last few decades. That now there is such a thing as Pentecostal ecotheology, beyond the superficial ecological wisdom approaches of yesteryear, is remarkable, if not breath-taking (cf. Lamp 2021:72). This article's space constraints cannot possibly permit us to canvass the full spectrum of the contemporary Pentecostal ecotheological models in vogue today. However, an overview of Pentecostal ecotheology from the perspective of the Pentecostal full gospel serves as a sufficient representation. That overview ensues hereunder.

According to Swoboda (2011:145), Pentecostalism's full gospel theology has enormous ecotheological potential. Three related advantages of a Pentecostal full gospel ecotheology can be highlighted (Swoboda 2011:146). Firstly, it transcends an individualistic focus. That means such a gospel encompasses the broader community, thus serving as a corrective to the selfish, egocentric spirituality, typical of late modern Christianity. Moreover, Pentecostal theology emphasises a pneumatology of the Spirit that enables all believers to serve as ambassadors of the Kingdom of God in the power of the eschatological Spirit (Swoboda 2011:269). Thus, the church is understood as a charismatic and prophetic community - that is, a Spirit-endowed and Spirit-inspired community - that invites the world to repent and be saved (Swoboda 2011:269-270). As John puts it in his depiction of Jesus' final discourse before the Passion of Christ, only a mutually loving community of disciples (as opposed to a disjointed aggregate of self-seeking believers) would succeed in convincing the world of their authenticity (Jn 13:34-35). No wonder Paul also points out the Spirit's role of pouring the love of God into the hearts of all believers (Rm 5:5). Thus, a holistic Pentecostal ecotheology envisages the church as a loving, collaborative, charismatic and prophetic community serving Christ's mission in the whole world.

Secondly, a holistic Pentecostal ecotheology transcends an anthropocentric focus. That means such a gospel encompasses non-human creation. Swoboda (2011:297) proposes the expansion of the charismatic community's theology to include the interconnection of human environmental stewardship with the Spirit who is present in all creation. Among other things, this would involve the recognition of the 'holistic pneumatology of the church and creation' where the walls that separate human and non-human creation are minimised through the Spirit who fills both the church and the earth (Swoboda 2011:297). Consequently, a complete pneumatological ecumenical universal fellowship between the charismatic community (church) and non-human creation becomes possible (Swoboda 2011:297). In the same vein, a Pentecostal ecotheological soteriology holds that God's plan of salvation includes all creation (human and non-human). For instance, Paul asserts that not only do humans eagerly await the consummation of their salvation but also all creation eagerly anticipates the manifestation of the sons of God as well as creation's liberation from bondage to decay and admission into the glorious freedom of God's children (Rm 8:18-25).

Thirdly, a holistic Pentecostal ecotheology surpasses an otherworldly preoccupation (Swoboda 2011:146). That means such a faith is not concerned with heavenly matters at the expense of earthly matters. It does not devalue our temporal existence in anticipation of the eternal life to come. Swoboda (2011:146) argues that such an incomplete 'full gospel' is not only myopic but also responsible for contemporary Pentecostals' ecological negligence.

All the five motifs of the Pentecostal full gospel - that Jesus saves, Jesus baptises in the Spirit, Jesus heals, Jesus sanctifies and Jesus is the coming King - have tremendous ecological implications. It should be observed that these five motifs can be understood as the movement's narrative convictions or doxological testimonies that provide cohesion and a hermeneutical filter moulding the pneumatological community (Archer 2007:312). In the same vein, Vondey in Davis (2022:113) contends that the fivefold gospel provides an embracive theological framework constituting a distinctive Pentecostal theology that enables theological conversations within Pentecostalism and without. The full gospel proffers 'a comprehensive blueprint for expressing the core historical dimensions, convictions, spirituality and metaphors of the movement based on the Christological motifs' mentioned above (Davis 2022:113).

Furthermore, Vondey (in Davis 2022:114) explains that Pentecostals can be viewed as people engaged in a drama where the 'game' is Pentecost, whose logic (or rulebook) is the full gospel and the theatre (or field) is the altar. In addition, comprising the core values of Pentecostalism, the full gospel functions as the movement's theological narrative providing a Pentecost-informed distinctive perspective (Davis 2022:114). By employing the full gospel's fivefold design, one can interpret various subjects to 'dynamically infuse these areas with the imagination and praxis of Pentecost' (Davis 2022:114).

For instance, while most Pentecostals are generally familiar with the motif of Spirit baptism concerning born-again believers, many are oblivious to the revolutionary Pentecostal ecotheological notion of a Spirit-baptised creation. Yong (2005:280) explains that creation's groanings mentioned in Romans 8:22-23 reflect the Hebrew Bible's depiction of 'creation as the theatre of the Spirit's presence and activity'. Furthermore, that the Ruach of God sweeps over the primordial waters and breathes life into Adam attests to the interconnectedness of the Spirit and all forms of creation (Yong 2005:281). Thus, contrary to modernity's notions about the Spirit's antipathy to nature, 'the Spirit infuses the world' (Yong 2005:281). Thus, the enlivening breath of God sustains the existential conditions not just for the interconnectedness of the spiritual and material aspects of reality but also for the relationality of individuals as male and female, as well as their connections with the natural world, communal relationships and the divine (Yong 2005:281).

By comparing Paul's depiction of Christ's cosmic soteriological role in Ephesians 4:7-11 with Psalm 68 and Acts 2, Swoboda (2015:282-284) concludes that on the day of Pentecost Christ filled (baptised) the church with the Spirit and charismata and simultaneously filled 'all things'. Thus, Paul is keen to portray the church's Spirit baptism as connected to the Spirit's filling of the entire cosmos with his presence and authority (Swoboda 2011:284). This suggests that the baptism of creation by the Spirit reflects the sacredness of all creation and invites Spirit-baptised believers to participate in ecological care (Swoboda 2011:286).

To sum up this brief overview of the motif of Spirit baptism in the context of a holistic Pentecostal ecotheology, it must be understood that in this paradigm Spirit baptism is not confined to the church, but it also encompasses all creation. In turn, such an awareness motivates Spirit-filled ecologists to appreciate equally Spirit-filled creation better and to care more. That good old song, 'All over the world the Spirit is moving' (and the like) then assumes a complexion beyond beautiful poetry targeting an exclusively human audience.

Concerning the motif of healing, according to Vondey (2023:19), healing is a central feature of Pentecostal spirituality, soteriology and mission. Moreover, within a Pentecostal theology of healing, emphasis is placed on Christ's continuous healing manifested through the presence and anointing of the Holy Spirit; this encompasses not only physical redemption and personal transformation but also extends to healing for the entire creation, surpassing a narrowly individualistic and anthropocentric concept of salvation (Vondey 2023:19-20). Likewise, Swoboda (2011:298) views the Spirit-baptised church as a pneumatological preview of the kingdom of God, where a peaceful and harmonious soteriology that embraces the healing of all creation, akin to Isaiah's depiction in Isaiah 11:6-9, prevails. Similarly, Yong (2005:79-80) points out that in the holistic soteriology of Pentecostalism, 'the encounter with the Spirit of God brings about spiritual life; bodily healing; communal koinonia; the transformation of material, social, political, and historical circumstances; and responsible ecological living'. Thus, the Pentecostal motif of holistic healing goes beyond personal physical healing and encompasses the entire human personality, the whole society and all creation.

Turning to the fourth motif of the Pentecostal full gospel - sanctification - Swoboda (2011:288) explains that the Spirit orchestrates eschatological sanctification of all creation beyond exclusively ecclesial sanctification after rebirth. This is illustrated in Matthew 12:28 where Jesus connects the presence of the Kingdom with the casting out of demons by the Spirit; given the conception of a Spirit baptism that includes nature, this signifies a form of cleansing (sanctification) that encompasses all forms of evil - spiritual, physical and ecological (Swoboda 2011:288). Therefore, environmental efforts to clean water sources, change laws that protect forests, encourage recycling and minimise air pollution, among others, can be interpreted in the context of pneumatological cleansing and sustainability (Swoboda 2011:290).

According to Yong (1998:46), when it is understood against the backdrop of the Hebrew Bible's fire imagery (such as the burning bush, the Sinai consuming fire and the pillar of fire by night, among others), the NT metaphor of 'tongues of fire' (used about Spirit baptism) signifies sanctification. For example, in Moses' case, the same presence (Spirit) that rested upon the bush without destroying it, would also anoint and sanctify the human vessel for a divine assignment without destroying him. It is also highly significant that just as the presence of the Spirit of Yahweh sanctified the very ground on which Moses' feet stood (besides its impact on his personality and assignment), so does the fire of Pentecost today also sanctify our late modern context for Christ's mission. It is a pity that contemporary Pentecostals have tended to confine the powerful metaphor of 'tongues of fire' to glossolalia, thus overlooking its broader sanctifying impact not only on Spirit-filled individuals' conduct but also on the very environment in which we live. Therefore, it can be argued that a purely anthropocentric application of the Spirit baptism phenomenon of 'tongues of fire' has effectively depleted an otherwise full Pentecostal gospel, thus rendering it incomplete. It is ironic that many Pentecostals consequently pride themselves in possessing the full gospel while practically touting a depleted gospel!

We can now turn to the final narrative conviction of the Pentecostal fivefold gospel, namely the second coming of Christ. Notwithstanding the indispensability of this doctrine to the Pentecostal full gospel, arguably that eschatological motif is the movement's most problematic aspect from an ecotheological point of view. It is the movement's ecological Achilles' heel because, according to Davis (2021:7), some Pentecostals' premillennial dispensationalist dogma, which believes in the destruction of creation before the Parousia, is the main barrier to Pentecostals' environmental interest. The rationale for such ecological apathy revolves around the sense of futility and frustration emanating from the notion that everything will soon go up in smoke (literally). However, is it possible for Pentecostals to be ecologically relevant without compromising their eschatological commitment? Davis (2021:8) thinks it is quite possible, for instance by reinterpreting the apocalyptic language of the destruction of the cosmos in terms of its renewal and transformation rather than in the sense of its conflagration and annihilation.

Furthermore, it can be argued that a healthy eschatological emphasis should enable believers to be even more ecologically responsible rather than ecologically reckless. According to Davis (2021:9), Pentecostal ecotheology encompasses the renewal and redemption of all creation within its soteriology and eschatology. This stems from the understanding that the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost effectively ushered in the 'last days' (prophesied by Joel and others) and inaugurated the kingdom of God, evidenced by spiritual gifts, miracles and godly lifestyles, inter alia (Davis 2021:9). From this perspective, the signs of the last days are construed as the Spirit's in-breaking into the entire cosmos rather than as the destruction of the world (Davis 2021:9). Similarly, the resurrection of the human body (following Jesus' prototypical resurrection) reflects God's esteem for embodied creation and his intent to preserve it (Davis 2021:9). Thus, believers who anticipate the ultimate transformation of all creation will be motivated to collaborate with the Spirit in the salvation, deliverance and transformation not only of humans but also non-human creation (Davis 2021:10). Therefore, a relevant Pentecostal apocalyptic eschatology cannot be pessimistic, catastrophic and apathetic. Such is a snapshot of the relevant apocalyptic eschatology Pentecostal ecotheology advocates for.

In summary, a Pentecostal full gospel ecotheology transcends an individualistic focus but encompasses the broader human and non-human community. It envisages the church as a loving, cosmic, collaborative, charismatic and prophetic community serving Christ's holistic mission. It embraces the holistic pneumatology of the church and creation where barriers between human and non-human creation are minimised through the Spirit who fills all. All the five narrative convictions of the Pentecostal full gospel have enormous ecological implications. To start with, in a Pentecostal soteriology, all creation eagerly anticipates the consummation of their salvation, liberation and admission into the glorious freedom of God. Pentecostal ecotheology also transcends an otherworldly emphasis - and cares as much about saving souls as saving soils, about eternal matters as well as earthly matters and eschatological as well as ecological affairs. Another implication concerns Pentecostal ecotheology's belief in a Spirit-baptised creation beyond an ecclesial Spirit baptism, where the Spirit vivifies, infuses and sustains the entire cosmos's interconnected life forms and the environment. This reflects the sacredness of all creation and invites believers to participate in ecological care. A third implication is about the healing motif's emphasis on Christ's continuous healing through the presence and anointing of the Spirit and extending to the healing of all creation. A fourth implication avers that the Spirit also orchestrates eschatological sanctification of all creation beyond an exclusively ecclesial demesne. Among other things, this includes an eradication of all forms of evil in the spiritual, physical and ecological domains. Finally, Pentecostal ecotheology advocates a healthy eschatological emphasis that includes the renewal and redemption of all creation based on the understanding that the outpouring of the Spirit in these last days reflects the inauguration of the kingdom of God. Likewise, the resurrection of the body anticipates the ultimate transformation of all creation in the eschaton and motivates believers to treat creation responsibly before the Parousia.

It should be noticed that the aforesaid survey of Pentecostal ecotheology is effectively performed through the lens of a pneumatological imagination. To the latter, in this article, now we devote our attention.

 

Framing the pneumatological imagination

To start with, this section considers definitions of the pneumatological imagination, followed by a contextual consideration of this framework before a survey of its contours can be undertaken.

 

Definitions of the pneumatological imagination

According to Yong (2011:10), the pneumatological imagination is the Spirit-inspired logic of Pentecostal theology. It can also be understood as the overarching superstructure or the underlying substructure of Christian theology that enables us to navigate the pluralism of a dynamic and complex world (Yong 2020:152-153). To Vondey (2023), the pneumatological imagination is:

[A] methodological attempt to integrate the biblical, historical, and theological commitments of Pentecostals into a single hermeneutic that is based on a uniquely pneumatological logic and inclusive of the diverse experiences, performances, and interpretations of Pentecost. (pp. 11-12)

Davis (2022:114) defines the pneumatological imagination as a hermeneutic 'designed to cultivate an imaginative and dialogical means to interpreting reality that has a starting point with the Holy Spirit, so providing a foundationally pneumatic-oriented way of understanding existence'.

 

Theological context of the pneumatological imagination

What is the biblical basis for the pneumatological imagination? As Yong (2020:153) explicates, this hermeneutic is founded on the Pentecost narrative in the book of Acts where the outpouring of the Spirit, empowered the witnessing of people from diverse ethnicities, cultures, and linguistic groups (Ac 2:5, 8, 11). The numerous languages spoken during the first-century Pentecost not only precede the diverse languages of the present-day Pentecostal movement but also foreshadow the various expressions of Christianity in the contemporary global context (Yong 2020:154). It should also be understood that this pneumatic logic does not displace or diminish the Petrological and Christological theological paradigms but enables a richer trinitarian theology (Yong 2020:154).

 

Contours of the pneumatological imagination

According to Yong (2020:155), contours of the pneumatological imagination, derived from the Pentecost event in Acts 2, can be portrayed in three ways, namely experiencing Pentecost, understanding Pentecost and performing Pentecost.

Firstly, the pneumatological imagination can be perceived in the experiential (many senses) domain (based on Ac 2:2-4). This biblical text illustrates clearly how the Spirit relates to God and the world - depicting the Spirit entering (filling), enveloping and enabling human bodies (Yong 2020:155). The arrival of the Spirit activates multiple senses - hearing, feeling, seeing and tactile - thus signifying the pneumatological imagination as the nexus of the convergence of divinity and humanity, where 'such convergence also encloses and encases human bodies in their fullness and complexity' (Yong 2020:155-156). Thus, the pneumatological imagination holds that Spirit baptism entails wholly affective, emotional and physiological dimensions, as opposed to a disembodied spirituality (Yong 2020:156). Moreover, according to the biblical text, the Spirit fills bodies both individually and as 'environmentally situated and constituted realities' (all together in one place), that is, as relational media receptive to, and conductive of the Spirit (Yong 2020:156). Thus, the pneumatological imagination can be conceived of as a socio-relationally charged environment (Yong 2020:156).

The second contour of the pneumatological imagination concerns understanding Pentecost in terms of the cultural (many tongues) domain, based on Acts 2:5-12 (Yong 2020:156-157). Luke explicates the pneumatological imagination's multiculturality through his portrayal of the Pentecostal miracles of speech and hearing (Yong 2020:157). The pneumatological imagination is expressed in multiple languages and culturally articulated in diverse ways. Its dissonance and consonance are evident through this plurality of voices and perspectives (Yong 2020:157). That means the pneumatological imagination can preserve the peculiarity of unfamiliar voices without denying their distinctiveness (Yong 2020:158). Ultimately, the diversity of human existence (creaturely multiculturality) and the interactions between different cultures (interculturality) are reinterpreted as a transcultural phenomenon mediated by a Pentecostal perspective, thanks to the pneumatological imagination (Yong 2020:158). The pneumatological imagination is influenced by and stimulates proficiency in diverse forms of communication, including multicultural, intercultural and transcultural exchanges. There is a need to broaden the understanding of culture beyond natural linguistic groups, such that it should encompass the entire range of human discourse, spanning from ethnic to social, political and disciplinary contexts (Yong 2020:158). Thus, the pneumatological imagination's multiculturality can be employed as a potent tool for engaging the diverse contexts in which the SDGs are situated.

The third contour of the pneumatological imagination concerns performing Pentecost in terms of the communal (many interpenetrating voices) domain (Yong 2020:158). In Acts 2:14-21, the interpersonal dimensions of the pneumatological imagination are outlined, supported by reference to the Hebrew Scriptures (Jl 2:28-32), thus highlighting the pneumatological imagination's scripturality and correlating the Bible's depiction of the role of the Spirit with our experience in the world (Yong 2020:158). Furthermore, the pneumatological imagination reinterprets the Hebrew Scriptures (including the Abrahamic, Mosaic and Davidic covenants) pneumatically and pneumatologically, that is, assisted by the Spirit and in terms of the presence and work of the Spirit (Yong 2020:158). Thus, the pneumatological imagination also aspires to provide a universal panorama and an inclusive capacity, envisioning a 'soteriological trajectory' that promises the gift of the Holy Spirit to everyone everywhere and in every generation, based on Peter's account in Acts 2:39 (Yong 2020:159). It is noteworthy that the pneumatological imagination elevates individuals whose voices have been historically and traditionally marginalised because of gender, power dynamics or socioeconomic class (Yong 2020:159).

Apart from the soteriological dimension of the pneumatological imagination, considering Peter's reappropriation of Joel's prophecy of the Spirit's outpouring in the last days, its eschatological dimension should not be overlooked either (Yong 2020:159). The pneumatological imagination also motivates believers to yearn for and receive the renewal of the cosmos by the breath (Spirit) of God (Yong 2020:159).

Moreover, the pneumatological imagination goes beyond a theoretical framework that not only enables people to interpret the relationship between God and the world but also envisions practical ways to engage in and contribute to the triune God's redemptive renewal of the world (Yong 2020:159-160). This is achieved through a reinforcing activity that establishes the kingdom of God (including the life, mission and message of Jesus the Spirit-anointed Christ) as portrayed in Luke-Acts (Yong 2020:160). Put differently, the pneumatological imagination envisions the interfaces between God and the world through the lenses of creation, the incarnation and Pentecost to facilitate understanding and foster redemptive action in our fallen world (Yong 2020:160). Being both Patrological and Christological, the pneumatological imagination augments the comprehensive trinitarian theological perspective that is pivotal to the broader Christian theology (Yong 2020:160).

To sum up, Davis (2022:116) explains that the pneumatological imagination emanates from the Pentecost story and functions as an invitation for people of diverse ages, genders and classes to get involved in God's global mission (Ac 2:17-18). Acknowledging various Spirit-inspired perceptions, languages and believers, this Pentecostal logic discerns God at work in contemporary contexts (Davis 2022:116). Thus, Pentecostals' notion of 'the prophethood of all believers' sees all Spirit-anointed believers as participants in the mission in their respective communities (Davis 2022:119). Consequently, the scope of the Pentecostal mission, through the lenses of the pneumatological imagination, has the potential to transcend the movement's boundaries, becoming more ecumenical and universal. Thus, among others, traditionally overlooked fields, such as other disciplines, politics, ecological issues and SDGs are readily accessible through the pneumatological imagination. Section 'An overview of the 2030 agenda with special reference to ecological matters' will now survey the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, before considering how the pneumatological imagination can engage them. It should be noticed that the framework this article proposes - namely, a pneumatic ecotheology of sustainable development - is capacitated by the pneumatological imagination, itself derived from Pentecostal ecotheology whose scope is broader than traditional Pentecostalism and basic ecological understandings. Inter alia, the 'genius' of that pneumatological logic is in its capacity to encompass all three dimensions of sustainable development (social, economic and environmental).

 

An overview of the 2030 agenda with special reference to ecological matters

In September 2015, all members of the United Nations unanimously adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which is a global development programme consisting of 17 interdependent SDGs, also referred to as the 2030 Agenda (Bergman 2015:3). Before considering the full list of SDGs, it is necessary to briefly clarify the concept of sustainability in the context of its usage in UN circles. The United Nations (n.d.) defines the SDGs as a call for action by all countries - rich, middle-income and poor - to promote prosperity while protecting the planet (author's own emphasis). That means eliminating poverty in the world must go together 'with strategies that build economic growth and address a range of social needs including education, health, social protection, and job opportunities while tackling climate change and environmental protection'.

Anim (2020:195) sheds light on the aforementioned definition's notion of promoting prosperity while protecting the planet by explaining sustainable development as economic development conducted without depletion of natural resources, and as transformational and responsible development that meets present needs without sacrificing future generations' ability to survive and thrive. This speaks to a holistic perception of prosperity that transcends economic wealth and encompasses well-being as well as social sustainability.

Here are the 17 SDGs:

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.

3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.

5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation, and foster innovation.

10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.

11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss.

16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development.

Given that the overarching goal is to promote prosperity while protecting the planet (or economic progression with ecological protection), all the 17 SDGs have environmental (as well as economic and social) implications - directly or indirectly. Significantly, Tang (2021:119) in an article titled 'Education For Sustainable Development From The Perspective Of Christianity: Pedagogies And Prospects' asserts that sustainability is based on three pillars, namely, environment, economy and society - where a strong sustainability model recognises the prominence of the environmental component such that the economic and social aspects are viewed as subsets of the environmental pillar.

At least the following six of the 17 SDGs have direct environmental implications: SDG 2, SDG 6, SDG 7, SDG 13, SDG 14 and SDG 15. Summaries of what each of these six SDGs entails ensue.

SDG 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.

The ecological relevance of this goal can be illustrated by scenarios where efforts to maximise the production of food on arable land neglect the threats of soil erosion and chemical pollution. SDG 2 highlights the importance of managing land, healthy soils, water and plant genetic resources sustainably, as well as boosting yields on existing agricultural lands, including restoration of degraded lands, through sustainable agricultural practices that relieve pressure to clear forests for agricultural production (General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/1). Likewise, the sustenance of dryland productivity can be achieved through wise management of scarce water through improved irrigation and storage technologies, combined with the development of new drought-resistant crop varieties (General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/1).

SDG 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

According to the General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/1, billions of people still lack access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, despite improvements in the provision of these basic services. Sadly, conflicts (war) and climate change are exacerbating the problem of water scarcity in many parts of the globe (the 2030 Agenda). Furthermore, affecting both human and environmental health, water pollution is a tremendous challenge in many countries (the 2030 Agenda).

SDG 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.

In humans' quest to provide energy to their homes and fuel for their vehicles, reliance on non-renewable energy sources (such as gas and oil) is a great example of an unsustainable approach. About 675 million people on our planet are yet to be connected to the electricity grids and 2.3 billion are still cooking with unsafe and polluting fuels (United Nations n.d.). Moreover, the ongoing conflict in Ukraine and the prevailing economic instability across the globe are contributing to notable volatility in energy prices, prompting certain nations to boost their commitments to renewable energy, and others to intensify their dependence on coal, jeopardising the progress of the green transition (United Nations n.d.). To guarantee universal access to energy by 2030, it is necessary to expedite electrification, enhance investments in renewable energy and improve electricity grids (United Nations n.d.)

SDG13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

According to the United Nations, the planet is teetering on the edge of a climate disaster, and the existing efforts and strategies to tackle the crisis are inadequate (United Nations n.d.). If significant and immediate transformative measures are not taken in the next decade to decrease greenhouse gas emissions substantially and swiftly across all industries, the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C will be in jeopardy, endangering the lives of over 3 billion people (United Nations n.d.). Neglecting to act will result in escalating heatwaves, droughts, floods, wildfires, rising sea levels and widespread famines (United Nations n.d.).

SDG14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

Negative trends affecting the health of the world's oceans persist unabated; the planet's largest ecosystem (the ocean) remains at risk because of increasing acidification, eutrophication, diminishing fish populations and a growing issue of plastic pollution (United Nations n.d.). Although there have been advancements in establishing marine protected areas and addressing illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, there is an immediate requirement for more focused and accelerated initiatives (United Nations n.d.).

SDG15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss.

According to the United Nations, the world is facing a threefold crisis consisting of climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss (United Nations n.d.). The deteriorating forest cover, land degradation, and the extinction of species are becoming worse, jeopardising the health of the earth and its inhabitants (United Nations n.d.). Thus, the world's forest area continues to decline, with agricultural expansion being responsible for almost 90% of global deforestation (United Nations n.d.). However, the significant progress made all over the world in terms of sustainable forest management cannot be overlooked (United Nations n.d.).

 

An engagement of the pneumatological imagination and the sustainable development goals

This section illustrates how the pneumatological imagination can engage the six SDGs summarised above. To start with, concerning SDG 2 - the goal that pertains to the eradication of hunger, the improvement of food security and the promotion of sustainable agriculture - the pneumatological imagination's capacity to broaden the eschatological message to encompass social justice, political change and ecological repentance, beyond conventional evangelism (Swoboda 2011:322), comes in handy. Furthermore, given that the pneumatological imagination holds that Spirit baptism entails wholly affective, emotional and physiological (embodied) dimensions, and given that it is situated in an environmentally charged reality, the goal of ending hunger and improving food security is compatible with this hermeneutics' experiential emphasis. Thus, the meeting of humanity's basic needs, and the related implementation of mechanisms that ensure sustainable agriculture, are not farfetched interests but fall squarely within the ambit of the pneumatological imagination.

As far as SDG 6, the goal of the availability and sustainable management of water resources and sanitation for all is concerned, as noted above (under the second contour), the pneumatological imagination envisions practical ways to engage in and contribute to the triune God's redemptive renewal of the world (Yong 2020:159-160). It has already been established that from an ecotheological standpoint, the soteriological renewal of the cosmos does not exclude environmental matters, such as SDG 6's goal concerning the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Ironically, the Spirit, also known as the 'living water' (Jn 7:37-39), cannot be against the provision of the natural water from which the metaphor is derived. Moreover, the Holy Spirit, responsible for believers' spiritual cleansing (sanctification) per the Pentecostal full gospel, cannot be against humanity's means of maintaining physical cleanliness. In other words, we cannot talk of a holistic gospel that advocates for Pentecostal sanctification and yet overlooks hygienic sanitation.

Concerning SDG 7 - the goal concerning access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all - the pneumatological imagination applies in the sense that the framework elevates individuals whose voices have been historically and traditionally marginalised because of gender, power dynamics or socioeconomic class (Yong 2020:159). Thus, the practice of catering only to the energy needs of affluent members of the human family is not acceptable from the perspective of the pneumatological imagination. Likewise, Pentecostal ministers who are passionate about the necessity for believers to receive the Spirit's energy (empowerment) should not countenance the denial of physical energy to the masses. Stated otherwise, as far as a holistic Pentecostal gospel is concerned, the supply of pneumatic power (Spirit baptism) to all believers is as imperative as the supply of electric power to all consumers. That means local and central governmental agencies' service provision is as much an integral part of God's mission as evangelism!

As observed previously, SDG13 is the goal concerned with taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Among others, the aspect of the pneumatological imagination most relevant to this goal stems from the framework's third contour, which highlights the role of the Spirit in our experience in the world, based on Peter's eschatological depiction of the outpouring of the Spirit. As Yong (2020:158) explicates, Peter's eschatological depiction (borrowed from Jl 2:28-32) includes broader cosmic signs, signifying the 'cosmic expansiveness' of the pneumatological imagination as well as its instigation of humans' yearning for the cosmic renewal by the Spirit-breath of God that extends to the geographical and space demesnes. In other words, the pneumatological imagination envisages a holistic soteriology that encompasses not only the salvation of everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord, and the Spirit's outpouring on all flesh but also includes the renewal of the entire biosphere, stratosphere and beyond. Thus, armed with such a revelation, informed believers from all walks of life can begin now to partner with the Spirit in that cosmic renewal mission, rather than waiting for the ultimate eschatological advent of the new heaven and new earth. In other words, when Christians participate in averting adverse climate changes, they are fulfilling part of their legitimate missiological mandate.

The SDG 14 is about conserving and sustainably using the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. The most applicable aspect of the pneumatological imagination to this goal is the experiential dimension that emanates from the Spirit baptism experience where the Spirit, like the blowing of a mighty wind (Ac 2:2-4) invaded the whole house the disciples were occupying and filled all the human bodies present (Yong 2020:155). The parallels between the Spirit-wind resting upon individuals and the whole environment at Pentecost on one hand, and the creation narrative's allusion to the Spirit-wind (Ruach) of God hovering over the primordial waters on the other hand, are unmissable. The logic of the holistic Pentecostal ecotheology (i.e., the pneumatological imagination), as discussed previously, transcends an anthropocentric focus, and encompasses all creation - seas and oceans included (Swoboda 2011:297). Far be it from us to think that the one who created the oceans with such wisdom and skill, populating them with innumerable creatures, would suddenly stop caring about marine health!

Lastly, we now turn to SDG15, which seeks to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss. As discussed previously, the pneumatological imagination aspires to provide a universal panorama and an inclusive capacity, that envisions the salvation of 'everyone who calls on the name of the Lord' (Yong 2020:159). However, it has already been established that a holistic Pentecostal ecotheology (to which the pneumatological imagination belongs) is not restricted to the anthropocentric world but encompasses all life forms in the biosphere. In other words, an authentic Pentecostal full gospel necessarily includes the salvation, protection and restoration of the earth's ecosystems, forests and biodiversity, beyond anthropocentric interests. Furthermore, given that the pneumatological imagination elevates traditionally marginalised voices (Yong 2020:159), from a pneumatic ecotheological perspective, those suppressed 'voices' are not all necessarily human. That means all the diverse non-human voices in the earth's ecosystems are part of the pneumatological imagination's elevation. Thus, the psalmist's invitation is neither metaphorical nor mere poetic license: 'Let everything that has breath praise the Lord' (Ps 150:6, emphasis added).

 

Proposed pneumatic ecotheology of sustainable development

This article briefly proposes that a pneumatic ecotheological framework of sustainable development is derivable from the Pentecostal full gospel in general and the pneumatological imagination in particular. The outline below sums up the shape of such a framework.

In the first place, a pneumatic ecotheological framework is based on the broader context of an expanded holistic Pentecostal ecotheology, where 'holistic Pentecostal ecotheology' means the fivefold or full Pentecostal ecotheological gospel.

This denotes a broadened Pentecostal full gospel where the fivefold Christological motifs (Jesus saves, sanctifies, baptises in the Spirit, heals and returns) transcend purely ecclesiological and anthropocentric domains to include all creation in the entire cosmos.

The aforementioned broadening of the fivefold Pentecostal motifs includes the salvation of all creation (beyond humanity alone), environmental cleansing (sanctification) through the Spirit's 'tongues of fire', Spirit baptism of all creation, ecological healing and renewal, as well as eschatologically inspired environmental stewardship, among other things.

Whereas the Pentecostal full gospel provides the overall context for the pneumatic ecotheology of sustainable development, the pneumatological imagination provides the specific basis. This theoretical framework, derived from the Acts 2 Pentecost event, is understood in terms of three contours.

The first contour of the pneumatological imagination concerns the hermeneutics' multi-sensory experiential capacity (as depicted in Ac 2:2-4) such that this Pentecostal logic serves as the nexus of the convergence of divinity and humanity, resulting in an embodied, socio-relationally charged environment. Among other things, this multisensory capacity enables the hermeneutic to overcome the otherworldly challenge and to engage in the real, felt and tangible ecological and developmental challenges that confront our planet today.

The second contour of the pneumatological imagination concerns understanding Pentecost in terms of the multilingual cultural domain as depicted in Acts 2:5-12. This hermeneutic can stimulate proficiency in diverse forms of communication, including multicultural, intercultural and transcultural exchanges. It thus also encompasses the entire range of human discourse, spanning from ethnic to social, political and various disciplinary contexts (including ecology and sustainable development).

The third contour of the pneumatological imagination concerns performing Pentecost in terms of the many interpenetrating voices of the communal domain as depicted in Acts 2:14-21. This hermeneutics' soteriological and eschatological trajectory not only promises the Spirit to everyone across time and space but also elevates individuals whose voices have been historically and traditionally marginalised because of gender, age or socioeconomic status. Furthermore, the eschatological dimension of the pneumatological imagination motivates people to yearn for and receive the renewal of the cosmos by the eschatological Spirit of all creation. The relevance of this to sustainable development, such as to the eradication of hunger and the provision of energy to all people groups in developing and developed countries alike, is unmissable.

 

Conclusion

To conclude, the journey from the altar to action in the realm of sustainable development necessitates a profound customisation of the pneumatological imagination within Pentecostal ecotheology. By exploring the rich tapestry of the full gospel and understanding the dynamic role of the Holy Spirit, we can bridge the lacuna between spiritual beliefs and the SDGs. The survey of the pneumatological imagination undertaken by this article provides a crucial foundation, unlocking the transformative potential of Pentecostal perspectives on sustainability.

Through a concise examination of the 17 SDGs, particularly those with direct ecological implications, this article has identified ways to harness the pneumatological imagination to drive positive change. By engaging the Spirit's guidance in addressing these ecological challenges, Pentecostal communities can become catalysts for sustainable development, actively contributing to the global efforts outlined in the 2030 Agenda.

The proposed pneumatic ecotheology of sustainable development provides a framework that invites Pentecostals, other Christian believers and other stakeholders, to view the ecological and developmental issues facing our planet through the lens of pneumatological logic. This theological perspective encourages believers to embrace a holistic understanding of the Christian mission, acknowledging the interconnectedness of humanity, the Spirit and the natural world. Thus, we can all play a vital role in shaping a more sustainable and harmonious future for our planet. In essence, this article calls for a conscientious integration of the pneumatological imagination and ecological responsibility, urging Pentecostals to not only cherish the divine encounter at the altar but also to manifest the transformative power of the Holy Spirit in their commitment to sustainable development.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology for the support provided in conducting this research.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

M.S.K. contributed to the conceptualisation, formal analysis and writing of the article. J.C. contributed to the theoretical framework of the article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the University of South Africa, College of Human Sciences Research Ethics Review Committee and ethics consent was received on 1 July 2019. The ethics approval number is 2019-CHS-90343018-Dept.

Funding information

This study was financially supported by the University of South Africa.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

References

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Yong, A., 1998, '"Tongues of fire" in the Pentecostal imagination: The truth of glossolalia in light of RC Neville's theory of religious symbolism', Journal of Pentecostal Theology 6(12), 39-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/096673699800601203        [ Links ]

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Correspondence:
Mookgo Kgatle
kgatls@unisa.ac.za

Received: 03 Mar. 2024
Accepted: 27 Mar. 2024
Published: 30 Apr. 2024

^rND^sAnim^nE.K.^rND^sArcher^nK.J.^rND^sBergman^nM.M.^rND^sDavis^nA.^rND^sDavis^nT.R.^rND^sLamp^nJ.S.^rND^sTang^nK.H.D.^rND^sVondey^nW.^rND^sYong^nA.^rND^sYong^nA.^rND^1A01^nAku S.^sAntombikums^rND^1A01^nAku S.^sAntombikums^rND^1A01^nAku S^sAntombikums

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Divine presence and absence: A theodicy of narrative analytic theology

 

 

Aku S. Antombikums

Department of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

For centuries, philosophers and theologians debated how to reconcile the existence of an all-powerful, all-loving, and ever-present God with the problem of evil. However, the question of why the righteous suffer remains unanswered. Given the omnipresence of God, one wonders why the sufferers experience what seems like God's absence in their adversity. This study presents a theodicy of narrative analytic theology because the experiences of the saints of old compel us to rethink our approach to the problem of evil from the 'God's-eye view' to the experiential and existential worries of the sufferer. The study looks at the story of Job and Daniel and his friends in Babylon. The narrative theodicy approach helps us understand why the righteous never denounced God in the Old Testament. The New Testament, in line with the Old Testament, reveals a suffering motif of the saints, which includes participation in the atoning work of Christ and the purification of the souls of the sufferer. Nevertheless, it seems some evils are pointless. The sufferers do not see their suffering as a punishment or a weakness from God but as a distraction and a test to perfect their covenantal relationship with the Triune. Ultimately, the suffering of the righteous will be overcome at the eschaton.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article aligns with the scope of Verbum et Ecclesia. It contributes to the current discussion on the problem of suffering within the broad discipline of theology, philosophy of religion, and how narrative analytic theology can enhance our response to the problem of evil

Keywords: divine presence; narrative theodicy; analytic theology; participation; soul-making.

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You are always righteous, LORD, when I bring a case before you. Yet I would speak with you about your justice: Why does the way of the wicked prosper? Why do all the faithless live at ease? (Jeremiah 12:1 [New International Version])

 

Introduction

God has been traditionally conceived to be omnipresent. However, believers seem to experience divine presence differently. Sometimes he is very close to them, but sometimes, he seems absent, especially in adversity. How do we make sense of God's everywhereness in adversity? In this paper, I propose a theodicy of narrative analytic theology. By a theodicy of narrative analytic theology, contrary to traditional theodicies, I mean a response to the existential problem of evil that takes the narratives of saints in the Hebrew Bible seriously to draw lessons relevant to contemporary believers in their adversity. When scrutinised, these narratives compelled us to see another dimension to why both the just and wicked suffer. This is necessary because

[T]aking a narrative turn involves a hermeneutical stance, in which the individual biography and religious construction are valued … From a theological point of view, this is called for if we want to do justice to [the] voices of the oppressed and the unheard …., and if we want to acknowledge the religious individual. (Ganzevoort 1998:24)

The purpose of adopting this approach is to see how our answer to the problem of suffering could

[S]hift its attention somewhat from the theoretical God's-eye view to that of the existential and religious situations of those who really suffer - and from the epistemic status of religious belief to the practical situatedness of lived experience. (Griffioen 2018:3)

For a very long time, philosophers and theologians have consistently tried to respond to the problem of suffering while giving little or no attention to the stories of the sufferers. It has always been on the justice of God amid aberrant evil. Sure, this is not bad. However, how my brothers and sisters feel today in the context of religious persecution, bad governance, and all forms of suffering calls for a rethink. To do this properly, we must begin with personal experiences of suffering in the Scripture. The narrative approach to theodicy has epistemological relevance. It firstly helps the sufferer to see their suffering in the light of the saint of old and, secondly, helps them to draw lessons from such experiences for their lives today (Hernandez 2021).

The Bible's narratives, as well as contemporary Christians' experiences, suggest that human suffering may have been for refining their souls (Ja 1:2-4). It also seems that after our souls have been purified by Christ's atoning work on the cross, the suffering of contemporary Christians is a participation in the suffering of Christ. However, there are instances in the Scripture suggesting that there might be no sense of suffering, like in Mark 2:1-11 or John 9:1-3. In the New Testament, Jesus neither says that there is any meaning in an illness nor that a sick person or their ancestors must have sinned against God.

The characters of the Old Testament saints, as shown below, revealed they were unwilling to give up on God despite their suffering. They saw their afflictions as distractions that could not truncate their covenantal relationship with God. Their responses to suffering were not necessarily contingent upon the fact that they may have been suffering for their sins or that some good was to be obtained at the end of their suffering. It might be that they also thought about the fact that some of their sufferings were natural in a falling world as they were falling humans. This suggests that just as Christ's Trinitarian union with the Father did not stop him from suffering on the cross to redeem us, our union with Christ and the Trinity, instead of ending our suffering here on earth, could mean calling us to participate in everything the Trinity experienced, including suffering. This conclusion aligns with Karl Barth's argument that

If we suffer with Him in this hope, and we believe according to God's Word that we have to suffer with Jesus Christ in this hope, we can and may and must suffer in patience: answering His patience with our patience; giving the right answer to the waiting of His wrath with our waiting for redemption. (CD2 1956:140-142)

 

God's presence in suffering

God's significant promise to Christians in the Bible is that he will always be with them. However, the Bible has several examples of saints experiencing both God's presence and seeming absence. According to Antombikums (2024), presence and mutual intimacy are essential for the survival of a partnership:

… presence and mutual closeness are critical elements to sustaining a union. These lead to the question of what it means to be present with or to and if it is possible to be present with or to someone without being close to the person. Stump distinguishes between minimal personal presence and significant personal presence, depending on the nature of closeness. (p. 10)

Stump (2010:110) established that actual presence requires second-person experience and [joint] shared attention, adding to her former view that being present to or with someone involves 'having direct and unmediated causal contact with and cognitive access to another'.

Surprisingly, on the cross, even the Son of God cried loud because he felt the absence of the Father and asked, Father, Father, why have you forsaken me? (Mt 27:46). The Greek word enkataleipō means to 'separate' or to 'disconnect,' which means Christ's connection to the Father was disconnected on the cross. Why will there be such a disconnection among the Persons of the Trinity? Bible commentators believed that the Father forsook the Son because he vicariously took our inequities and, as a result, stood as an enemy of God (Holmen 2003). This explains why the Father abandoned him.

Charles Spurgeon (1902) argues that because it was not in the custom of Christ to address the Father as God, Christ must have been speaking like a man and not as the second Person of the Trinity. On the cross, contrary to his prayer at Gethsemane, Christ referred to the Father as God. Spungeon's explanation is justified because there is no way we can make sense of God forsaken God on the cross if it was not for the fact that Christ, the God-human, was speaking from his humanity and not the divine-human Christ. This explanation may also face some logical consequences. However, the reader has a sense of a divine-human relationship rather than a divine-divine relationship.

In explicating 'Christ's cry of dereliction', Stump (2018) argues that God the Father's forsaken God the Son should be understood from a distance perspective because of internal fragmentation. Three possibilities come to mind according to Stump (2018):

(1) something about God prevents closeness between God and Christ … (2) something about Christ prevents closeness between God and Christ … (3) shared attention between God and Christ is hindered. (pp. 219-220)

After assessing all possibilities, Stump (2018) argues that:

The shame of…[Christ's] mode of death must be dwarfed by the feeling of that inward experience of human moral vileness … [there was] a real distance between Christ and God that assigns no culpability for the distance and no lack of love to either Christ or God. (p. 236)

In other words, although humanity's sin was the cause of the Father's apparent abandonment, the Son (who is both God and human) was not actually abandoned because the Father did not desert him, nor had the Father forsaken him. In his humanity, having taken upon himself the sin of all humanity and its corruption, the Son could not share attention with the Father, which he was able to do before ascending the cross. This gives us an idea of the noetic effect of sin, firstly, for the divine-human relationship, and secondly, for understanding divine presence in suffering.

On the cross, Christ took away humanity's sin to reconcile us to God and fellow humans (2 Cor 5:19). This reconciliation leads to a union with Christ. In this union, death and sin, including the consequences of sin, have been overcome. However, if Christ had already vicariously taken away our disconnection or separation from the Father, are we supposed to be disconnected further? In what follows, I will examine how God's presence was understood in suffering in the Old Testament before presenting a summary of the suffering motif of the New Testament.

Because of their desire to experience God concretely after Moses had gone to be with the Lord at the Mountain, the Israelites requested Aaron to construct the Golden Calf for them. After its construction, Aaron presented it as the God that led them out of Egypt (Bernd 2015). The Israelites sometimes felt that God was absent. This was often the case when no visible representation showed that God was with them. However, because of his immateriality, can God be absent? Metaphysically, God cannot be absent because he is omnipresent.

Because God is omnipresent, his Spirit was always present with the Israelites, even in exile. However, because they wanted to experience God concretely, they made several decisions contingent on their desire for a material presence of God - for instance, requesting a material leader like other nations (1 Sm 8). In exile, they felt God was not there; they missed a golden opportunity to demonstrate who God was as well as fellowshipping with him when they were asked to sing the Lord's song, but they refused. They claimed it was improper for the Lord's song to be sung in a strange land (Ps 137:1-4). The apparent reason for this decision is unclear.

However, one could deduce a trend in pre-exilic, exilic and post-exilic Hebrew Scripture suggesting that God was more present in some places than others because he is Holy, which means to be set apart. God was intensely present in such set-apart areas than the common places. The Lord's Temple, the Ark of the Covenant, the tent of meeting, and theophanies are examples of these set-apart places or instances. This explains why they were unwilling to sing the Lord's song because they believed the Lord was not present in Persia or Babylon; after all, those were the lands of the heathen, a common place where God could not be present. This seemingly explains why Jonah fled from the Lord's presence when he was asked to go and preach at Nineveh. He somehow believed that God was absent at Tarshish. Jonah's prayer from the belly of the fish seems to contradict this conclusion because it seems to show that Jonah acknowledged that God is everywhere given that it was God who saved him (Jn 2:6). Contrary to the aforementioned, although the Israelites felt that God was not present in the common places as he was in the holy places, and therefore not everywhere intensely, God was present with them by his Spirit. His Spirit ruled over them through the judges, the Kings, and even in exile (Macdonald 2013).

The exile is complicated because it happened in the context of war. One expects that women, children, and older people should have been exempted in the context of military might. However, this was not the case as it is in modern warfare. The captives lived with a daily reality of struggle in a foreign land. They suffered in exile despite having the promise of God as the chosen race, including God's covenant relationship with their ancestors, which was continued with them. Where was God when the Southern and Northern Kingdoms of Israel were destroyed? How did this experience affect how the Hebrew saints viewed the presence of God? A closer reading of a few selected texts in the Hebrew Scriptures will show that one of the responses to suffering was Deuteronomistic theodicy.

 

Deuteronomistic theodicy

By Deuteronomistic theodicy, I mean a response to the problem of suffering based on one of the central theological messages of the Book of Deuteronomy: blessings for obedience to the Law of Moses and curses for disobedience taken from Deuteronomy chapter 28. This notion is recapitulated in the Pentateuch and appropriated progressively into the prophets. In Deuteronomy, the apparent response to the problem of evil seems to be what is regarded as the free will defence today. The writers take for granted that humans can do good or evil (Laato 2003). Every action has a corresponding consequence (Crenshaw 2003). Deuteronomistic theodicy, as stated above, can be found in the Law of Moses and prophets. In fact, it was the guiding principle of Deuteronomistic theodicy that the prophets used to justify the exile, including every form of suffering in the Hebrew Scriptures. We will see this precisely as we turn to the Book of Job below (Crenshaw 2003).

Job

The Book of Job opened with the assertion that Job has met all the requirements of the law. God also boasted about Job's righteousness and integrity before the Devil. After a couple of engagements between God and the Devil, Job is brought into the picture and tested severely. His wife failed, but Job did not. His friends came to lament with him. This lament is a deep philosophical discussion on retributive theodicy. Job boasted that he knows his redeemer lives and shall see him. The redeemer in Job 19:25-27 seems to resonate with Numbers 35 and Deuteronomy 19, who avenges by killing the killer. Typologically, this appears to mean the killing of God by God for Job after he has passed from this life from his flesh. In that case, it means the death of Christ on the cross for those who suffer (Friesenhahn 2016). However, the Book 'seemed to make quite clear that the pious are not necessarily blessed with prosperity by God' (Friesenhahn 2016:96).

Contemporary analytic philosophers and theologians have done a great job rereading the experiences of some Saints in the Hebrew Scriptures, especially Job. Eleanor Stump and N. Verbin are among such thinkers providing a dynamic response to the problem of evil from the Book of Job. However, some, for instance, Bart D. Ehrman (2008; Friesenhahn 2016), think that the Book of Job fails to provide a sufficient and viable account of suffering because he believes the Book is a conglomeration of disjointed texts - prose and poetry with contradictory responses to the problem of suffering. He argues that God fails to answer Job's questions when God appears but merely bullies him into submission (Ehrman 2008:163; Friesenhahn 2016:95). Since I am upholding the unity of the Book, in what follows, I will present a summary of how Stump and Verbin understand Job, after which I will show that there are other possible responses to why the just suffer and whether or not they saw their suffering as having anything to do with God. Looking at Job, and as we will see in Daniel later, it is evident that contrary to how philosophers and theologians conceived and discussed the problem of evil today, Biblical saints, although they had similar questions we ask today, seem to have a different perspective from ours. This is because they had a covenantal relationship with God.

Stump argues that the most important thing the story of Job presents, which many commentators missed, is that Job saw God face-to-face at the end of the story. Although not a literal way of seeing, because of shared attention when God showed up, Job saw God in such a way that he would not have seen him except for his suffering. This seeing is crucial to the entire Book of Job, so that after it, Job drops his charges against God, including his existential worries. His focus shifted to hearing why he suffered. Although God did not answer the why question, Job saw the love of God as a parent directing his love towards the entire creation, including those suffering (Stump 2008).

An African proverb states that people should be aware of what they say when separating a fight between lovers because when they finally reconcile, the peacemaker sometimes becomes the enemy. Stump argues that this is what we found in the Book of Job when God showed up after Job had presented his case. God challenged Job for questioning him and simultaneously condemned his friends for condemning Job. These conflicting responses raise a few questions and objections. Stump finds an answer to this objection in the ontological distinction between the creator and the creatures - notwithstanding Job's second-person experience with God. Because God showed up at the summons of Job, it means that Job was honoured. God acted like a parent who defended the child from their bully but disapproved of the child questioning them (Stump 2008).

Verbin holds that being intimate with God in suffering and experiencing his presence actively is possible. In his suffering, Job never saw God far away nor felt any disconnection from God. He was still intimate with God. However, contrary to the former, God is now cruel to Job in this new intimacy. Job wonders what has become of his relationship with God and seeks explanations for God's actions, hoping to reestablish the former blissful relationship (Verbin 2007). The following two passages substantiate these claims as cited by N. Verbin. Job noted how having the former relationship with God was great, saying in Job 29:1-2 (author's emphasis):

How I long for the months gone by, for the days when God watched over me, when his lamp shone on my head and by his light I walked through darkness! Oh, for the days when I was in my prime, when God's intimate friendship blessed my house, when the Almighty was still with me and my children were around me, when my path was drenched with cream and the rock poured out from streams of olive oil.

Contrary to these good days, God is no longer with Job as He used to be. Although, as argued, God is not distant from Job. However, He is absent from Job's life by His positive mutual relationship. Here, Job laments:

I cry out to you, God, but you do not answer; I stand up, but you merely look at me. You turn on me ruthlessly; with the might of your hand you attack me. You snatch me up and drive me before the wind; you toss me about in the storm.

Job believed God unjustly treated him; he put on a defence and rejected the Deuteronomistic or retributive construction of his afflictions by his friends. He thinks he is innocent even when God appears to him. However, the fundamental question about why Job suffered in the first place and the suffering of all the righteous is not answered unequivocally in the Book of Job, even when God appears (Verbin 2007).

As is evident, Stump believes that the answer to Job's predicament is that he saw God; Verbin argues that Job recanted equalling himself with God but not the accusation of his unjust suffering. Nevertheless, he forgave God but was unwilling to reconcile with him. Verbin argues that the centrality of the entire episode is about a failed relationship. God was an assailant who refused to take responsibility for his actions and tried to buy Job over by giving him a double portion of his earlier riches. Nevertheless, it does not change the fact that the relationship failed because God is like an assailant without a deep knowledge of his actions' harm to the victim (Verbin 2007).

I agree with these interpretations. However, given the argument of this paper, a new understanding of Job is possible contrary to the lesser evil for the greater good, protest and forgiveness of Verbin and finding God, as in the case of Stump. I believe that another important aspect of summarising the entire Book of Job, which I think is in line with the experiences of the Old Testament saints and is in close proximity to the New Testament, is accepting the fact that God and humanity have an eternal indissoluble bond. This bond is not based on benefits, but it is an ontological bond. In other words, although the Hebrew Scriptures show the just agonising in their suffering and wondering why God seems distant, their actions suggest that they never believed he was absent in their suffering. Let us now turn to the Book of Daniel to see another example.

Daniel 3:16-18

The general background to the Book of Daniel is an exilic context built on the Deuteronomistic theodicy. Because of Israel's sin, they were taken captives to exile. Daniel and his friends were removed from their ancestral land and the Holy Temple. They were disconnected from the physical representation of the dwelling place of God. Deventer (2012) argues that for the deportees, including those left behind,

[T]he exile meant the loss of what they believed their God had promised and given them: a land, a place of worship, and an everlasting royal lineage. To them, the event of the exile presented a conundrum: why had their God not lived up to his promises? (p. 208)

Notwithstanding this question, from the beginning of the Book, the writer makes it clear that Daniel and his friends had resolved to live in a covenantal relationship with God despite being in exile. Their God could not defend them but gave them up because they sinned against him. Instead of giving up on him since he forsook them because they broke the law of Moses, Daniel and his friends did not consider their precarious condition as a justification for worshipping a self-acclaimed god who is a mere mortal.

Against this background, Shadrack, Meshack and Abednego are spectacular characters amid adversity worth emulating by contemporary Christian sufferers. Montgomery (1959) argues that:

The defendants [Shadrack, Meshack and Abednego] throw themselves upon their God; yet with the restraint of faith, for they admit that he may not interfere, but nevertheless they will keep faith and defy the king. Had the story meant that they were sure of deliverance, their reply might have been spiritual arrogance. (p. 206)

I want to highlight that in their defence, three elements are essential to the current discussion: (1) The exilic context had already given the sufferers grounds for dismay, given that God could not save them from their captors, notwithstanding the Deuteronomistic context. (2) They were aware that God might not save them from the arrogant king, who had exalted himself to the level of God and demanded worship from them. (3) The apparent reason for the sufferers' attitude amid such aberrant evil is not based on God's deliverance but on a conscious decision to sustain a union, including sacrificing their earthly lives.

Philosophers and theologians, including those suffering like Job, have always expected black-and-white answers to the problem of suffering. However, the Books of Job and Daniel reveal that this is impossible (Dell 2023). As we shall see below, the New Testament also wrestles with the question of the suffering of the saints and provides different responses.

 

Suffering motif in the New Testament

Just like in the Old Testament, there are various justifications for the suffering of the saints in the New Testament. Retribution is taught in the Gospels; for instance, in Matthew 5:3-12, testing seems to refine souls in 1 Corinthians 10:13, and James 1:2-4, and suffering is seen as a discipline by a loving parent in Hebrews 12:5-11 (Holmen 2003). However, as stated above, there are instances in the Bible where there might be no sense of suffering, like in Mark 2:1-11 or John 9:1-3.

Despite the continuation of the retributive principle, there seems to be a change of order in how suffering is understood: it is one of the signs of discipleship. Because humanity was subjected to the law, sin and the Devil in the old covenant, one expects the new covenant to reverse the old completely. This is indeed the true story of the incarnation. God became human to save humans. Surprisingly, the New Testament never taught that suffering ended with the coming of Christ. Instead, Jesus continually taught his followers that there was no hope in the current world during his earthly ministry. He explicitly told his followers they would suffer greatly for his name's sake. He argues that the student is not greater than the master. Since he, the master, did not escape suffering, they could not but also suffer (see Mt 10). He ended his ministry by promising to always be with his followers: 'And lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the world' (Mt 28:20).

Paul's death to self and life in Christ in Galatians gives some insight into the nature of the divine presence in the new creation. Because of this new creation, the believers now live their lives in union with Christ and share the mind of Christ with him. They can now experience joint or shared attention with Christ. This is a form of a mystical union. Through dyadic and triadic joint attention, Paul now has a mutual closeness with Christ, sharing in his compassion and suffering (McCall 2021).

As seen above, the Deuteronomistic or retributive concept of suffering sees suffering from a perspective of cause and effect. Despite its vulnerability, this perspective has a scriptural basis and seems rooted in Genesis chapter three in the Fall and its aftermath. The Fall and Deuteronomistic theodicy, which informs the response of the friends of Job, is, however, challenged in the New Testament, as mentioned above. In Paul, union with Christ means a lot. In as much as union with Christ, a critical part of the ordo salutis leads to glorification; through it, believers must first go to the cross with Christ, die, be buried and rise with him to obtain glorification (Holmen 2003).

In Galatians 2:20, Paul argued that:

I have been crucified with Christ, and I no longer live, but Christ lives in me. The life I now live in the body, I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for me.

Biblical exegetes have been polarised regarding the message of this passage, and there seems to be a rejection of a literal interpretation. There are moderate and radical apocalyptic, occasionalist readings of the passage (McCall 2021).

The occasionalist reading refers to the body, the soul or consciousness and denies that dying with Christ is a continuous process but fails to mention the Spirit (McCall 2021:19). In as much as Adam and Eve did not die immediately after disobeying God's command, it is clear that what happened was the departure of God's Spirit from humans. It was the entrance of such Spirit that gave humans life. In other words, as a result of their union with Christ, believers today are once again alive spiritually, having died because of their sins. This spiritual becoming is progressive and will be fully actualised at the eschaton.

So how do we understand suffering as Christians today, given the narratives above, Jesus' teaching and sufferings, and other New Testament books, especially the Pauline Corpus? The Epistles to Hebrews, Romans, of James, among many, have many answers to the question of suffering in the New Testament.

Suffering is a central element of the Christian life. During His earthly ministry, Christ suffered all kinds of sufferings, which made Him perfect as He obeyed His Father (Hebrews 5:7-10). Christ is present in our suffering because he also suffered when he was tempted. He can help those suffering today (Heb 2:14-18; 4:14-16). Suffering not only serves the purpose of refining our souls, but it is part of our glorification with Christ. In other words, our suffering with Christ could ignite a form of divine intimacy that is not received outside of suffering with Christ (Ekstrom 2023).

Christ endured the cross and all its shame because of the joy and glory ahead (Heb 12:1ff). Although Christ died once and for all, we cannot but participate with him on the cross so that we can participate in his future glory. Believers are automatically part of Christ's suffering after being united with him in death and resurrection. Just as Christ was exalted after passing through the cross, believers may also be elevated after their earthly suffering with Christ. In other words, there is no future glory without the cross.

The New Testament sees suffering as part of character and spiritual formation because resilience is a critical hallmark in the Christian race. Paul argues in Romans 5:2-4 (New International Version [NIV]) that:

And we boast in the hope of the glory of God. Not only so, but we also glory in our sufferings, because we know that suffering produces perseverance; perseverance, character; and character, hope.

Without hope, there is no faith with which we can please the Lord while patiently waiting for his second coming.

Because Christians are not of this world but pilgrims, the world cannot love them just like it hates their master. The rulers of this world killed him, so his followers must be hated and persecuted. Because they are in a wilderness moving to their promised land, they must endure all forms of suffering, including tests and temptations. In fact, no true believers will not experience persecution and suffering because they authenticate that we belong to Christ (2 Tm 3:12).

 

Conclusion

Although believers may suffer all forms of suffering today, Paul argues in Romans 8 that nothing can separate them from the love of God. He ended up by stating that all things work together for their good. Of course, this is a hard pill to swallow for the unbelievers. Because of suffering, the power, love, and God's existence have been denied. Christian philosophers and theologians laboured daily to show that evil does not negate any of the great-making properties of God, including his goodness, love, mercy and compassion. There is nothing wrong with doing that. However, this study argues that while that approach is excellent, it seems to over-concentrate on God with little attention to the sufferer.

The study argues that God is always present in the affliction of the righteous. Their suffering is not always a result of their actions or from God. It might simply mean participation in the suffering of Christ because of their union with him. It could also be a result of distraction from the enemies of God. The Holy Spirit groans and sympathises with the believers in their affliction; therefore, they are comforted. We look forward to the end, where everything will be perfected at the consummation of all things. We shall live in eternal bliss with the Lord forever; amen.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

I declare that I am the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author, and the publisher.

 

References

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Ehrman, B.D., 2008, God's problem: How the Bible fails to answer our most important question - Why we suffer, HarperCollins, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Ekstrom, E.W., 2023, Evil and theodicy: Elements in the problems of God, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.         [ Links ]

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McCall, H.T., 2021, Analytic Christology and the theological interpretation of the New Testament, Oxford University Press, Oxford.         [ Links ]

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Correspondence:
Aku Antombikums
antombikums@gmail.com

Received: 23 Nov. 2023
Accepted: 05 Mar. 2024
Published: 03 May 2024

^rND^sBarth^nK.^rND^sBernd^nW.^rND^sCrenshaw^nJ.L.^rND^sDell^nK.J.^rND^sGanzevoort^nR.R.^rND^sGriffioen^nA.L.^rND^sHolmen^nT.^rND^sHernandez^nJ.P.^rND^sLaato^nA.^rND^sMacdonald^nN.^rND^sSpurgeon^nC.^rND^sVan Deventer^nH.J.M^rND^sVerbin^nN.^rND^1A01^nMawethu^sMsebi^rND^1A01^nJacques W.^sBeukes^rND^1A01^nMawethu^sMsebi^rND^1A01^nJacques W.^sBeukes^rND^1A01^nMawethu^sMsebi^rND^1A01^nJacques W^sBeukes

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Enhancing youth involvement in community development: A pragmatic strategy for local churches

 

 

Mawethu Msebi; Jacques W. Beukes

Department of Practical Theology and Mission Studies, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This article reports on the findings of the Christian youth ministry involvement in community development in the Mayibuye community of Tembisa, in the Gauteng province of South Africa. The article employed Richard Osmer's model of the four tasks of practical theological interpretation. These tasks have been used to understand better what is happening in youth ministry and community development contexts in the Mayibuye community by utilising documentary analysis and in-depth semi-structured interviews. The findings divulged that the Mayibuye community faces several socio-economic challenges. Most importantly, young people are the most affected. Furthermore, the findings exposed that youth involvement is limited in community development processes within local communities. As a result, the article proposes implementing a pragmatic strategy to enhance the youth ministry's involvement in community development. Various principles of the youth ministry have been presented in the study as the essential principles that need youth leaders' attention for functional youth ministry, and to achieve developmental outcomes. The study also recommended further empirical studies on youth culture, the importance of young people's inclusion in leadership roles and the use of young people as catalysts for community transformation.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The anticipated outcomes of this research endeavour are poised to make a valuable contribution to the current corpus of knowledge in various academic domains, including Practical Theology, Youth Ministry, Theology and Development, Community Development, Congregational Studies, Missiology, Anthropology, and Sociology. This contribution suggests that adopting a pragmatic strategy is likely to yield positive outcomes for local churches, youth ministry, and community development as a whole

Keywords: youth ministry; community development; strategy; teamwork; erratic youth culture; talent enhancement; servant leadership; parent involvement; youth theology.

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Introduction

Local communities are facing several socio-economic difficulties like unemployment, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, gender-based violence (GBV), and hunger, to mention a few (Buheji & Ahmed 2017:2405). These problems are concurrent with the ongoing creation of local churches inside local communities. Churches are anticipated to assume a significant function in the process of societal transformation within local communities (Mutemwa, Hattingh-Rust & Hatting 2018:3). Similar to several other townships in South Africa, Tembisa is now confronted with the aforementioned socio-economic difficulties in the middle of the existence of various local churches. This situation is severe in almost every township if not all local townships in South Africa. For this reason, several people in Mayibuye live in poverty, in shacks, and even those who live in houses live in small, tiny houses benefiting from a government-sponsored housing project named Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). The situation is worsening although several established churches within local communities exist.

Given the aforementioned circumstances, the authors acquired a keen interest in investigating the correlation between community development and youth ministry in the locality of Tembisa. Tembisa is a township located inside the City of Ekurhuleni, which was formerly known as the East Rand, situated in the Gauteng province of South Africa. It is located in close proximity to Kempton Park. This township stands as the second most populous settlement in Gauteng, surpassed only by Soweto. Tembisa was founded in 1957 within the apartheid regime, serving as a symbol of optimism for black households who were forcibly displaced from their residences. The Tembisa community is one of the groups that underwent forced removal and relocation during the apartheid period, resulting in ongoing repercussions of uneven development (Butler 2017:34). This historical context suggests that the residents of Tembisa township have long endured with the aspiration for improved living conditions. Nevertheless, a significant portion of the population residing in this township continues to experience poverty and live in substandard housing, having received assistance under the government initiative known as the RDP (Charman 2017:3). Tembisa is home to a population of around 463,109 people. According to Statistics South Africa (2011), the population mostly comprises the younger demographic, with 48.1% being youth. Among this group, 26.3% are men and 21.8% are females. Based on the analysis conducted by Statistics South Africa (2011) about the population of Tembisa, the researcher has chosen the Mayibuye area of Tembisa as the designated study site. The Mayibuye community has allocated a specific area of land next to the Mayibuye Taxi Rank for the purpose of constructing churches. Consequently, a significant number of churches in the vicinity have been constructed, with a notable emphasis on makeshift architectural designs. The research has shown that the youth constitute a significant component of the community. Consequently, it is important to recognise the role of the youth in fostering community development.

Numerous scholars, including Christens and Dolan (2011:533), Udensi et al. (2013:63), as well as Buheji and Ahmed (2017:2407), posit that young individuals possess significant potential for fostering community development. This potential stems from their abundant reserves of energy, knowledge, motivation, novel ideas, creativity, experience, innovation, and critical thinking abilities. Also, according to Buheji and Ahmed (2017:2407), the young population is considered to be a valuable resource for a country. However, although this is the view of various scholars, it is not always the case on the grassroots level where the potential of young people is considered valuable for community development. In fact, in some townships, youth ministry is regarded as a tool to occupy young people for a specific hour of the week. Consequently, acknowledging the potential of youth to contribute to local development may have a significant impact on communities at the local level. According to Buheji and Ahmed (2017:2409), if provided with sufficient opportunities, young individuals have the potential to address many socio-economic deficiencies. Hence, it is important for congregations to acknowledge the role of youth ministry and young people as catalysts for transformation (within community development); however, certain strategies and principles are also needed which will be discussed later in this article.

Considering the above situation, the study needed to investigate the relationship between local churches and community development. The study examined the strategy for local churches to enhance the involvement of their youth ministry in community development. The reason being that young people comprise a significant proportion of other community segments. Therefore, if local churches could use youth as the catalyst for transformation, they might yield positive results earlier than expected.

 

Methodology

The content of this article is based on findings derived from the research done in the Mayibuye section of Tembisa township in Gauteng province of South Africa. The qualitative research approach was employed to describe the data collection process, sample selection, interviews, data analysis, and interpretation. The study used both document analysis and field data to determine the involvement of youth ministry in community development. Further, the study applied Richard Osmer's (2008) model of theological interpretation. The model offers four tasks of practical theology namely, descriptive-empirical, interpretive, normative, and pragmatic. The descriptive-empirical task was undertaken through the collection of data, using document analysis and in-depth interviews. The concepts from humanities were used to interpret field data as part of the interpretive task. The normative task dealt with the theoretical analysis in terms of what ought to be going on in this specific context, and the pragmatic task is the output of the study. The fundamental objective of this model is to empower church leaders to systematically involve in practical theological interpretation of challenges facing them in ministry. Therefore, the model has been used to comprehend exactly what is happening in youth ministry and community development contexts.

The purposive sampling technique was employed in selecting the participants. The ministers and youth leaders from various local churches in Mayibuye were selected to participate in the study. These churches were from various denominations, including pentecostal, charismatic, and mainstream churches. For this study and ethical reasons, their names and those of the people interviewed are withheld. The results of this study are likely to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in areas like business, community development, development, theology and development, and youth ministry as well as the intersection of youth and community development. Because this article is focused on the Mayibuye area and the intersection between youth and community development is regarded as a new proposal within this context and area, the importance of discussing the strategy of youth ministry becomes paramount. Hence, we will turn our attention to the brief discussion on strategy.

 

The importance of strategy in youth ministry

Strategic management is vital for the success of any institution. Based on this reality, the church strategy, specifically the youth ministry strategy, is the mechanism for the ministry to attain the great commission, the objective of the church (White & Acheampong 2017:5). As for these scholars, the strategy is centred on proper planning and must be written and well communicated to everyone and young people. In this light, East (2004:5) asserts that the most excellent strategy in youth ministry is to ensure that youth is involved in all activities like prayers and teachings, to mention a few. In emphasising the value of strategy in youth ministry, Moser and Nel (2019:3) accentuate that youth leaders must adopt the strategy, and in their strategy, they should split evangelism from discipleship if they need to experience a significant impact on contemporary youth ministry. In this view, evangelism would be used as the critical element of the strategy to attract people, particularly outside the church walls. The respondents support the above statements by stating that youth evangelism attracts more young people to the churches. For them, youth evangelism should include fun, entertainment, and anything culturally relevant.

 

The proposed youth ministry strategy

The proposed youth ministry strategy is aimed at the Mayibuye area and the churches involved in this study. Ordinarily, the institutions should adhere to the designed organisational strategy to achieve the desired results. It is, therefore, significant for churches, specifically local churches, and their youth ministry structure, to develop youth ministry strategies that would enable them to achieve the desired goals. Further, the strategy would also assist local churches, especially youth ministries, to strengthen the efficacy of their involvement in community development. The strategy development and implementation task of the study are summarised in Figure 1. The task is summarised in five views, namely, perspective, plan, tactic, position, and pattern, as adopted by Mintzberg et al. (1998).

 

 

Figure 1 depicts crafting and implementing the strategy, and the essence of different views in strategic management. These perspectives would be indispensable for the youth ministry, as they are critical for any institution to attain the desired outcome. All the views are crucial, dependent, and interconnected and should be implemented sequentially and connected, showing the solid dependency for yielding the anticipated results.

Vision and mission

It is important that the churches and the youth ministries of these churches within the Mayibuye area have a vision and mission. More importantly, the vision and mission of the congregation and her youth ministry should speak to one another. Vision and mission constitute the initial crafting and execution of the strategy implementation process. This phase would give the youth ministry the strategic objective, intent, and direction. Scholars like Osmer (2008:201) understand this strategy stage as the task of transforming leadership, and further states that this task projects a vision of what the church might become. In other words, this task answers the question of 'What the church should look like if it carries out its mission in contextually appropriate ways?' According to Osmer, local churches, notably youth ministries, need to be mindful of the impact of socioeconomic conditions in the local context. Bariu (2017:302) states that youth leaders should be engaged at an early phase of the strategic management process in the forecast of the vision and mission of the church, specifically youth ministry. The participants argued that part of their vision is to see young people be more involved in leading and taking initiatives in local development activities. In this light, youth leadership, including youth ministers, need to ensure that the church's vision and mission are well merged and executed in the youth ministry structure. This process must incorporate integrating the image and mission of youth ministry (Aziz, Nel & Davis 2017:5).

Setting objectives

Setting objectives identifies the purpose of the institution and its abilities for it to attain its preferred objectives (Osmer 2008:183). Authors such as Bora, Borah and Chungyalpa (2017:4) argue that setting strategic objectives should be processed immediately when the vision and mission of the organisation are defined. Setting objectives transforms the shared vision into performance targets. In this case, Grobler, Van der Walt and De Klerk (2012:3) postulate that the objectives of youth ministry need to be aligned with the entire church's vision and mission. The respondents articulated that setting the objectives in institutions, mainly in youth ministry, allows the youth's involvement at a strategic level, like decision-making. The respondents believe local churches, including youth ministries, must translate their vision and mission into measurable objectives tailored to target the needs of their communities. Most importantly, Aziz (2019:3) states that youth leaders need to understand that the objectives of youth ministry have to assist the youth in experiencing a profound and meaningful relationship with God. For this to happen, the set objectives should rely on the theological departure points of the entire church. Eventually, youth leaders need to ensure that youth ministry's general purpose is to capacitate the youth to play the leading role in community development in their church and local communities (Osmer 2008:198).

Strategy implementation

Strategy implementation is the implementation of plans by the institution to move towards its strategic direction or achieve the desired goals (Cater & Danijel 2010:210). Similarly, Osmer (2008:176) views strategy implementation as a task of competence, as it is a process that puts the envisioned strategy into practice and leads to the institution's growth. Rani (2019:214) concurs with the scholars mentioned above. Nevertheless, she contends that for organisational success, the strategic implementation should depend on crucial strategic planning aspects like vision, mission, and values. Considering the above deliberations, resource allocation plays a vital part during the strategy implementation phase, and the involvement of young people in this stage is critical too. Participants echoed the significance of involving young people during the strategy implementation phase. They supported their views by arguing that technology has transformed the world and that youth is exceptional with technology. Therefore, youth inclusion will assist institutions, particularly local churches, to adapt quickly to changing environments. Participants further qualified their views by arguing that youth think fast and do things better and quicker than older people.

Processes and systems

The processes and systems phase are the task of transforming leadership in a strategy implementation process (Osmer 2008:196). Processes and systems are controlled internally although they are provoked by internal and external factors. For example, to draw more youth to the youth ministry, youth leaders might need to modify the worship service by making it less formal and using modern music. However, such alteration of processes and systems must align with the church's vision and mission, including the youth ministry. The respondents concur with the above viewpoints. For them, processes and systems in strategy implementation must significantly attract church and unchurched people, particularly youth. Even for respondents, the kind of music played in youth ministry, physical appearance, structure, and so forth should be attractive to young people. The respondents added that youth have to be weary of processes and systems implemented in the church, specifically in the youth ministry. This would include the whole process of conducting a sermon. Considering the exhortations above, Bariu (2017:305) states that youth need to be involved in this stage of strategic management. As for Bariu, institutions, including churches, need to design and implement policies that promote an environment that encourages youth to engage in a comprehensive range of processes and systems.

Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation are vital during the strategy implementation because they illustrate the degree of the organisational direction and accomplishment of the purpose (Ragui & Weru 2013:278). Monitoring and evaluation alert the leadership if something is not going well, enabling them to identify or fix it as soon as possible. In light of the above, Grobler et al. (2012:9) articulate that churches, especially youth leaders, have to constantly monitor and assess youth ministry performance against the standards established for strategy management. Scholars like Bariu (2017:302) support the monitoring and evaluating performance for youth ministry but expatiate further by stressing that churches need to have a system that monitors and evaluates the existing programmes to ensure their relevance and focus in attaining the purpose of youth ministry. Therefore, relentless monitoring and evaluation should help determine if the strategy remains correctly aligned with the purpose and progress towards the calling of the youth ministry. The respondents stressed the significance of monitoring and evaluation in the strategic management process, and articulated that the projects assigned to youth ministry should be continually monitored and evaluated. The respondents believe monitoring and evaluation tasks would tell whether youth ministry operations align with the church's vision and mission. As a result, youth leaders would quickly identify if anticipated objectives were being met through monitoring and evaluation, and if not, what and where are the causes.

 

Principles of effective youth ministry strategy

The principles of youth ministry assist local churches in obtaining their desired developmental results through their youth ministry arm. Teamwork, erratic youth culture, talent enhancement, servant leadership, parent involvement, and youth theology have been identified in this study as the core principles to be considered by youth leaders to accomplish the development results.

Teamwork

Teamwork is critical for any organisation to function effectively and efficiently (Berber, Slavic & Aleksic 2020:1). Teamwork enables all people to participate in decision-making rather than being told what to do (Fapohunda 2013:10; Msebi 2022:42). In bringing the theological perspective in the matter, academics like Kgatle (2018:3) illuminate that certain Scriptures in the Bible, particularly the synoptic gospels, state that Jesus built servant leadership and teamwork to carry out a worldwide vision (Mt 20:20-28, Mk 10:45, Lk 22:25-30, Jn 13:1-17). In expatiating on the significance of teamwork in Christianity, Alawode (2020:2) notes the metaphor of the church as a body as written in the book of 1 Corinthians 12. The message in this metaphor is that people, specifically Christians, need to work as solid teams, as the body cannot function well if its parts are disconnected, dysfunctional, or not operative. The participants concur with the above realities. They added that to encourage teamwork in their churches, they ensure that the culture of teamwork is fostered in almost all church activities, specifically in youth ministries. Strong (2014:7) discusses that youth ministry should form teamwork with all other ministries in the church's existing structures as it is not a separate entity but a church arm. For this reason, all church ministries need to be aligned and depend on the leadership of the whole church. Christofides and Meiring (2012:2) concur with the above viewpoint; these authors further argue that the abovementioned teamwork will also create trust, a significant aspect of community development. Youth ministry must use teamwork to engage and help the communities prosper (Kabongo 2019:2). Academics like Gathogo (2018:8) support Kabongo's views above but emphasise that it is essential for youth and community leaders to ascertain that teamwork becomes zero tolerant to friction and ill-treats.

Erratic youth culture

The term 'youth culture' was introduced in the early 1940s and got recognition in the late 1990s (Genova 2019:242). Scholars like Cloete (2012:2) define youth culture as the values, choices, and beliefs in youth's lives. Cloete further illuminates that young people's culture is dynamic as it changes with time. The unpredictable youth culture challenges churches to always review hermeneutics as a different and constantly evolving world (Knoetze 2015:3). This means, for local churches to respond to such erratic changes, they need to ensure that their youth possess the necessary skills and professional knowledge of fundamental matters about young people's culture and youth development processes (Aziz et al. 2017:5). In addition to the youth culture, Aziz (2019:1) alludes that church leadership, including youth leadership, should understand the environment and culture in which they operate in the community. This understanding will give youth ministry a better opportunity to confront challenges antagonising local communities.

Scholars like Aziz et al. (2017:3) concur with the above deliberations that young people's culture is one of the critical characteristics of the community. They also acknowledge that churches, particularly local churches, need to respond to the erratic youth culture as it affects the churches' lives, youth, and community. The respondents added to this reality by articulating that churches should ensure that their development plans and programmes align with contemporary youth culture for effective response. The respondents believe youth ministry will never grow if its leadership is ignorant of the unpredictable young people's culture.

Talent enhancement

The church leadership, including youth leadership, should ensure that they unveil talent within youth in their churches (Bariu 2017:303). In acknowledging the importance of identifying and developing talents, Aziz (2020:5) postulates that church leaders should unearth and develop talent within church structures as the outcome would benefit both the church and the community. Authors like White and Acheampong (2017:6), Buys and Nogueira (2019:9), Kwaramba and Dreyer (2019:2), Buys, Korevaar, and Stubbs (2020:4) support the idea of unearthing and developing talent inside church walls. However, they urge churches to invite the Holy Spirit to lead such processes. These academics argue that no segments (including women, youth, disabled people, people with low incomes, etc.) should be overlooked. The respondents supported the above debates, though they emphasised that local churches' role is to unveil and enhance talent among youth through youth ministry structures.

According to the respondents, youth leaders ought to ensure that youth ministry programmes are organised in a manner that exhumes talent. Most importantly, youth inclusion must include opportunities such as involvement in critical skills such as problem-solving. Such skills create chances for young people to operate at a strategic level, even at corporate institutions. Landman and Yates (2018:4) support including young people in various roles as they believe that youth have numerous talents that need appropriate management. Therefore, for these reasons, churches, mostly local churches, need to support youth talents and use them to improve the church and the community (Kgatle 2018:6). Kabongo (2019:6) agrees with Kgatle, as he believes that youth talents must be nurtured appropriately to benefit the church, youth, and the entire community.

Servant leadership

Robert Greenleaf introduced the term servant leadership in 1970 (Magezi 2015:6). As for Magezi, this term is usually used in the management literature. Nevertheless, the study centred around the Christian perspective, and therefore, biblical servant leadership has been deliberated. Biblically, Matthew 20:20-28 and Mark 10:35-45 narrate Jesus Christ as the former servant leader. Kgatle (2018:3) asserts that in the above deliberation, Jesus also talked in context about servanthood and leadership broadly. In light of the above, churches, particularly local churches, need to adopt servant leadership as their leadership style to implement changes that signify the servanthood of Jesus Christ (Osmer 2008:192). This author introduced servant leadership with the final task, namely the pragmatic task of his four tasks of theological interpretation. In this pragmatic task, Osmer emphasises crafting and executing strategies of action that produce the anticipated results (Osmer 2008:176). Considering the above, Kgatle (2018:3) agrees that if servant leadership is implemented appropriately, it is likely that the company's performance be improved. Du Plessis and Nkambule (2020:5) exhort that for the company to perform well, servant leadership needs managerial qualities that would assist the leadership in making conversant decisions when dealing with management matters such as strategic management.

Moreover, servant leadership would also need characteristics like courage, empathy, wisdom, integrity, compassion, and so forth, but they would always trust and be obedient to God. Du Plessis and Nkambule add to the above characteristics by illuminating that the excellent significant feature of servant leadership is being able to execute a change of heart in other people. Correspondingly, the respondents alluded that they name themselves servants who work for people. In their view, servant leaders need to be God-sent, empathise and sympathise with all kinds of people, including the marginalised. Considering the above, Ottuh (2020:11) postulates that youth leaders should take note of the Scripture in John 13, as this chapter gives an excellent example of servant leadership. The Scripture outlines that the master or leader is expected to be in the forefront as the servant leader for all and lead by example. Further, the passage engrains humility and selflessness among the church leadership, including young people leadership. As for the respondents, leaders are expected to play a fundamental role in reshaping the mentality of selfishness, bossiness, arrogance, and more inside church walls and the entire community. As described, for the church and youth leaders to be servant leaders, they need to put their followers' interests first, empower them, and help them develop their full individual capacities and skills (Osmer 2008:192; Stenschke 2017:10).

Parent involvement

Young people are God's gifts to parents, and parents are responsible for raising them to serve God with all their hearts, souls, minds, and strength (Strong 2014:3). Furthermore, parents are expected to support evolving and transferring of the gospel-oriented faith to young people from their early life stages. Nel (2018:267) concurs with the above deliberations and further accentuates that it takes the entire church to make a Christian. Therefore, it is empirical for parents to consistently and strongly partner with youth within youth ministry structures. To emphasise the importance of partnership with parents, some respondents alluded that most young people in their churches ordinarily follow instructions and the examples from their parents, whether good or bad, in shaping their lives. The respondents further encouraged the partnership with the youth ministry as they articulated that it supports youth ministry in physical aspects like transportation, funds, equipment, and other material things that might be needed.

However, parents' support is not limited to the physical element as they join youth prayers. In other words, parents' partnership is inevitable for youth ministry to attain its goals as they also bring a wealth of experience and knowledge. For this reason, the efficiency and effectiveness of youth ministry need to stimulate a solid partnership with parents and ensure that the rest of the membership embraces it (Nel 2018:263). Several scholars (Chifeche & Dreyer 2019:3; Cloete 2014:5; Mangayi 2018:9; Molobi 2016:7) embrace the partnership with parents. These academics expand on this discussion by articulating that youth ministries must partner with other developmental role players like the government, faith based organisations, and community development organisations.

Youth theology

The term 'theology' etymology is derived from two Greek words, namely 'theos', meaning God, and 'logos' meaning word. Theology is the study of the word of God and the understanding of his nature, including how he reveals himself to his people (Strong 2015:3). Jackson (2016:34) coincides with the above explanations that theology is the study of God and thinking about him. However, he further expatiates the debate by enunciating that if theology is the study of God's word, youth ministry's theology should mean studying God's word and thinking about him through the lens of work with youth. In this light, Strong (2015:1) accentuates that for effective and efficient youth ministry, church leadership needs to take seriously and implant theology as the foundation. Using theology as a basis in youth ministry is fundamental as it guides young people to God's presence and imparts youth with the Word of God. For this reason, youth leaders should ascertain that youth theology is eloquently employed in youth ministry and is used to guide young people already in the church and new believers who have just arrived in the community of faith (Moser & Nel 2019:6). The respondents stressed the significance of youth theology in youth ministry. For them, youth theology forms the basis of their youth ministry structures. They use various stages in youth theology to introduce young people to the Word of God. For example, they have diverse teachings for different ages and groups that assist youth with theology to grow and mature in the Lord. In other words, the beginners' classes are different to the classes of the other youth who have been in the church for a longer period. The respondents also argued that youth is facing several difficulties in the world. Thus, they need something to uplift them spiritually and maturely. Hence, youth ministry and youth theology are profound. In this regard, Chiroma (2019:7) utters that church structures, including youth ministries, must understand youth ministry's theology.

 

Interface of youth ministry and community development as catalysts for transformation

A number of scholars contend that the church should actively engage with individuals experiencing various forms of adversity, such as those who are impoverished, afflicted with HIV and AIDS, vulnerable children, individuals affected by gender-related challenges, and those involved in efforts to address crime and corruption (Akanbi & Beyers 2017:1; Modise 2018a:15; Mutemwa et al. 2018:3; Van Niekerk 2014:4; Verster 2012:83). According to Van der Westhuizen and Swart (2015:731), it may be argued that the church has historically played a significant role in providing care for vulnerable individuals within communities. Similarly, it is logical that the church often attracts its members from the same community that is confronted with similar challenges. One potential strategy for the church to attain this objective would be to actively engage the younger demographic. According to Adeline and Okechukwu (2015:50), the wheel of community development is reliant on the productivity and creativity shown by young people. Based on the aforementioned reasoning, it is recommended that churches should include young people from youth ministries to effectively interact with communities in order to tackle these difficulties.

According to Baron (2017:4), it is posited that the involvement of young people in community development activities might provide advantages for both the church and the wider community. According to Jones (2003:13), there has been a significant shift in the perception of youth ministry, transitioning from a peripheral activity to an essential component for churches aiming to exert influence within their communities. Youth ministry serves as a platform that effectively engages individuals, especially the younger demographic, to actively participate in church activities by offering them an opportunity to showcase their unique abilities and aptitudes. The abilities mentioned include many activities such as spreading religious teachings, engaging in evangelism, worshipping within a religious setting, participating in community service, and providing encouragement to others (Aziz 2017:4). The level of youth engagement aligns with the assertion made by Moser and Nel (2019:2) that youth ministry should foster lasting impact in the lives of Christian children and young people, and serve as a method to attract young people, both inside and outside the church, to participate in youth-oriented activities.

Furthermore, according to Magezi (2019b:5), community mobilisation is characterised as a systematic procedure that seeks to raise awareness within the church about its responsibilities and duties within the community. The church is required to collaborate with the community in order to address the many needs of individuals, including physical, spiritual, economic, psychological, and social aspects. Local churches should engage together with local communities in addressing their own needs by utilising their own resources and indigenous knowledge (Scott et al. 2014:2). For these scholars, this method serves to foster and empower individuals in envisioning and shaping their future by using the few resources that are accessible within their communities. During the course of this process, the community is equipped with the necessary resources to effectively address the needs of its members, while taking into consideration the constraints imposed by the restricted availability of resources. Therefore, this method facilitates the enhancement of the capabilities of local churches and communities in promoting community development. The process of church and community mobilisation serves to awaken and foster the church's comprehension of its biblical responsibility for comprehensive service (Magezi 2019a:6).

People have an inherent right to lead a life characterised by dignity, whereas religious institutions, namely churches, have the responsibility of actively promoting and safeguarding human rights. According to Chiroma and Muriithi (2019:6), it is said that young people have the capacity and ability to actively participate in advocating for social justice and driving societal reform. Hence, there are high expectations placed upon the younger generation; nonetheless, they seem to exhibit disengagement or are being excluded from participating in communal endeavours. According to Costanza-Chock (2012:1), there is a prevailing perception that young people play a significant role in dynamic social movements that have the power to alter the trajectory of human history. One such example is that in October 2015, a student-led campaign known as the '#Fees Must Fall' initiative was organised. The aforementioned campaign led to favourable outcomes, as South African colleges had difficulties in raising tuition costs for the academic year of 2016. This exemplifies the importance of including the perspectives of young individuals within the community. This aligns with the argument made by Beukes and Van der Westhuizen (2016:1) that it is crucial to give voice to the perspectives of young people, particularly within the context of the church. The younger generation has the capacity to embrace the task of promoting social justice and facilitating societal reform. According to Chiroma and Muriithi (2019:6), one of the key objectives of youth ministry is to provide young people with the necessary tools and knowledge to promote social change and justice. In light of this, it is imperative for youth ministry to actively promote the cultivation of a secure environment and the enhancement of communities. The engagement of young individuals in social movements has the potential to provide valuable perspectives and understandings. Subsequently, the church is compelled to engage in the ongoing processes of societal development occurring within the community. Engaging in other courses of action would have adverse consequences for the church's global mission, ultimately resulting in the church losing its relevance as an institution. In order to maintain its relevance within the community, it is imperative for the church to actively engage in the processes of social cohesion and social transformation. This is particularly significant in the context of South Africa, where the nation is currently undergoing a transformative period. Consequently, the church has a unique opportunity to play a pivotal role in shaping the community (Van Wyk 2017:9).

Social action is a collaborative process in which individuals come together with the aim of effecting transformative change in their lives. Social action refers to collective efforts that prioritise learning and change, emphasising collaboration rather than individual achievements. According to Pillay (2017:1), it is argued that churches, as agents of transformation, should actively participate in activities pertaining to social change. According to Baron (2017:5), it is argued that churches should not just function as self-contained organisations, but rather actively engage with societal concerns that hinder progress within local communities. However, it is essential that young people actively participate in conjunction with their religious institutions in order to tackle the societal challenges that afflict communities.

Hence, it is imperative for young leaders to encourage active engagement of church youth in social action initiatives via the platform of youth ministry. The involvement of young people in community-transforming activities is vital. This assertion is made based on the observation that a significant proportion of issues within the community are often identified by those belonging to the younger demographic. One viewpoint that was highlighted, is the importance of youth to be actively involved and engage with others. Failure to do so may result in missing out on significant information or opportunities. Important information emerged indicating that a significant number of young individuals within their church are actively involved in the Mayibuye neighbourhood. Consequently, it is imperative that they be included in social initiatives. It is crucial to bear in mind that particular individuals may be directly impacted by certain difficulties, thereby emphasising the need for their involvement. According to Weber (2017:5), it is important for youth ministry to ensure that its programming is aligned with the methods of resolving societal difficulties that young people encounter in conjunction with their process of faith development. Hence, it is of utmost importance that youth ministry places significant emphasis on addressing social issues, namely those pertaining to young people. In due course, the implementation of social action is expected to invigorate the youth population, as it arises from the dissemination of the teachings of God, the propagation of the gospel, and the facilitation of young individuals' connection with the divine existence (Woodbridge & Joynt 2019:4).

According to Idike and Eme (2015:59), it is posited that the involvement of young individuals in developmental activities is crucial, as their contributions seem to play a pivotal role in various community-building processes. The youth demographic has a significant numerical advantage within communities, therefore making it imperative for communities to use this factor as a means to actively include them in community development initiatives. In light of the aforementioned viewpoint, it is evident that the youth have the ability to expedite economic progress and have a substantial influence on the social advancement of their communities (Udensi et al. 2013:61). According to Udensi et al. (2013:65), the participation of young people in community development endeavours should have a double purpose. This entails equipping them with knowledge and skills, while concurrently effecting positive transformations within the communities themselves. Hence, we also believe that it is important to include young people in decision-making and implementation processes at significant levels. This approach is crucial for the long-term sustainability of youth development initiatives and community development programmes.

Similarly, according to Iwuchukwu, Ogbonna and Agboti (2015:41), it is essential to provide young people with the opportunity to participate in community transformation endeavours. The authors believe that the provision of such chances would cultivate and equip young people with the necessary skills and attributes to effectively and responsibly contribute to their communities. According to Baron (2017:5), he aligns with the aforementioned viewpoint and also elaborates on the discussion by asserting that churches have to engage young people in endeavours that bring about transformative effects on the lives of community members. In addition, it is essential for churches to cultivate young people engagement in initiatives aimed at effecting social change within their communities. The youth ministry needs to prioritise the conscientious consideration of young people's social needs within its initiatives. Youth programming should include youth culture as a crucial aspect to effectively address the everyday difficulties and experiences encountered by young people (Weber 2017:5). It is said that the involvement of young individuals in leadership roles within various groups, such as churches and local communities, is crucial for the purpose of effecting positive transformation and development (Ragira, Wepukhulu & Angeline 2017:49).

 

Recommendations

The findings of this study lead to the following recommendations:

• Churches should develop a youth culture that will enable young people to take initiative in community development.

• Churches, particularly local churches, should include young people in leadership roles.

• Churches need to use young people as transformational catalysts within communities.

• The researchers of this study argue that the study is not conclusive and therefore recommend similar studies to be conducted in other fields and/or provinces.

 

Conclusion

The study gave a synopsis of youth ministry, particularly Christian youth ministry involvement in community development in the Mayibuye area of Tembisa Township in Gauteng province, South Africa. The article is based on findings from qualitative research that applied Richard Osmer's theory of theological interpretation. In this model, the researchers used the descriptive-empirical task to collect and analyse data from the theory, and theories of arts and sciences were also used in interpreting the data. The perspectives, principles, and critical factors in strategic management have assisted in formulating the strategy to strengthen youth ministry involvement in community development. The study determined gaps and recommended further empirical studies on youth ministry and community development among local churches. The researchers believe that the study is not conclusive, hence they recommend further similar empirical studies in other fields or provinces. Also, the researchers believe that the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge in areas like business, community development, development, theology and development, and youth ministry.

 

Acknowledgements

This article is partially based on M.M.'s dissertation entitled 'Youth ministry and community development: A practical-theological perspective' towards the degree of Master of Theology and Practical Theology in the Department of Practical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, South Africa in April 2021, with supervisor Dr Jacques W. Beukes. It is available at: https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/87675/Msebi_Youth_2021.pdf?sequence=1.

This article draws from the research work for the project consortium 'South African-German Research Hub on Religion and Sustainability' (SAGRaS) (2022-2025).

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

M.M. did the conceptualisation, methodology, formal analysis, and writing of the original draft for this article. J.W.B. was involved in analysis and conceptualisation as well as project administration. J.B. provided supervision, writing review and editing of the article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the University of Pretoria, Faculty of Theology and Religions and ethics consent was received on 5 August 2020. The ethics approval number is T046/20.

Funding information

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF), that forms part of the South African-German Collaborative Research Programme (SAG-CORE) on 'The Interface between Global Change and Social Sciences: Post-COVID-19'. The funding reference is: SAG201111573377.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors, and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Mawethu Msebi
mawethu.msebi@gmail.com

Received: 01 Aug. 2023
Accepted: 28 Oct. 2023
Published: 09 May 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Election violence in Africa: Using John 1:1 'Eν ἀρχῇ' as a remedial solution

 

 

Canisius Mwandayi^I; Martin Mukole^II

^IInstitute of Theology & Religious Studies, College of Social Sciences, Theology, Humanities & Education, Africa University, Mutare, Zimbabwe
^IIDepartment of NewTestament and Old Testament, Faculte de Theologie, Universite Methodiste de, Lubumbashi (UML), Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Whilst the term 'elections' insinuates some democratic space within a given electorate, elections on the African continent have often displayed an opposite trajectory as they tend to thwart that democratic space. Many a time, they have been characterised by sharp divisions leading thus to violence and atrocities of every kind. It is a great concern for unity in our motherland, Africa, which generates interest in this article to proffer a roadmap that can help address challenges that threaten to swirl the continent into a state of constant chaos and locus known for manslaughter. Using a hermeneutic of identification or cultural hermeneutics whereby readers identify themselves with the biblical characters and culture, we make reference to John 1:1 ἐν ἀρχῇ, which speaks unity in the Godhead as our roadmap. The text shows that unity is one of the intrinsic values of the community born out of their ontological unity. In the same way, disciples of the community of God must be characterized by unity while they are still in the world. It is thus our argument that Africans in their interpersonal relationships, including their political interactions, need to mirror the oneness of the Trinity and not follow the dictates of their societies plagued by social classifications.
INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The issue of violence is by definition of multi-disciplinary interest. This contribution addresses the ever-recurring problem of election violence in Africa, which is also of significance within multiple disciplines including biblical studies, gender studies, political theology as well as even history

Keywords: Africa; believing community; politics; elections; community of God; unity; John 1:1.

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Introduction

Since the 1990s, African states have committed themselves to the institutionalisation of democratic governance individually and collectively through regional and continental inter-governmental bodies. One of the institutional cores of democracy which is generally accepted as basic to all forms of democracy is periodic elections often regulated by law (Nkansah 2016:97-131). The problem in Africa, however, is that these elections are in the large reportedly tainted with flaws and irregularities undermining the credibility of the outcome. There have been complaints of bloated voter registers, over-voting and tampering with election figures, among others, whenever elections are held in Africa (Omotola 2010:51-73). There have been cases where losers and their affiliates have rejected the election outcome at any stage in the voting process or at the declaration of the results. Non-acceptance is being registered in several ways ranging from protest, outrage and demonstrations such as the naked-breast women's demonstration by elderly women of Nigeria (Aliuna 2019) and a sex strike in Kenya in 2009 (Ajayi 2010; BBC News 2017) to the perpetration of violence which sometimes leads to civil conflicts. Given that electoral laws at most leave room for appeals that emanate from any aspect of the electoral process through various mechanisms, namely the courts, administrative bodies and alternative dispute resolution bodies (Fall et al. 2011:1-245), parties or individuals often resort to such justice mechanisms for a remedy. Unfortunately, many a time, such mechanisms seem not to alleviate electoral violence in Africa.

The electoral process is indeed a serious challenge in almost all African countries. In fact, we talk of pre-electoral violence, violence during elections and post-electoral violence. For Albert (2007:133), election violence refers to 'all forms of organized acts or threats physical, psychological, and structural - aimed at intimidating, harming, blackmailing a political stakeholder before, during, and after an election with a view to determining, delaying, or otherwise influencing an electoral process'. Thus, electoral violence can take any of the three dimensions referred to by Albert.

Now given that electoral violence has been an ongoing challenge bedevilling the African continent for decades, firstly, this article seeks to challenge African states to rise above their racial, linguistic, political, socio-cultural and ethnic diversities which have often been used as grounds for fragmentation and work rather towards appreciating these diversities as originating from the Trinitarian nature of God whose persons are distinct yet formidably united. To achieve this goal, we shall begin with a brief look at examples of a few African states where political, racial, linguistic, socio-cultural and ethnic diversities have often ushered into electoral violence. Also, in the article we try to remedy this problem by reflecting on the reverberations of the unity in the Godhead on human societies.

 

Overview of electoral violence in some African countries

The countries that our survey focuses on are: Nigeria, Kenya, Côte d'Ivoire, Zimbabwe and Cameroon. Our choice of these countries is not premised on anything save that they were just randomly sampled. While it was possible to use one African country as a representative sample, it is our conviction that the ubiquitous and different manifestations of electoral violence in different African countries can best be portrayed by a slightly bigger sample.

Elections in the Federal Republic of Nigeria

Generally, elections can be taken as trademarks of democracy. They can also be viewed as the purpose of peaceful change in government and confer political legitimacy on the government. When thus viewed from this prism, elections represent the expression of the sovereign will of the people. The conduct, however, of elections in a plural society such as Nigeria is often fraught with anomalies and violence. At the centre of this bitter contest is the struggle for power by factional elite groups perceived as representing ethno-religious and regional interests. With regards to Nigeria, election periods more than any time else reveal the fragility and soft underbelly of the Nigerian state. The country's electoral history is full of narratives of defective and disputed elections that have turned violent, with a resultant number of fatalities and reversing previous attempts at democratic consolidation (Ashindorbe 2018:93).

From the observations by Orji and Uzodi (2012), physical electoral violence has remained a recurring theme in the five general elections in Nigeria since the reintroduction of multiparty politics in 1999. In 2011, the presidential election witnessed the height of physical electoral violence whereby more than 800 fatalities were recorded; besides, properties worth millions of dollars were destroyed mainly in the core northern states (Orji & Uzodi 2012:44-45).

Despite even the improved electoral process of 2015, the ugly face of physical violence still reigned as candidates competed for the executive governorship positions. The West African Network for Peace (WANEP) and the International Crisis Group (ICG) in their risk assessment of the 2015 general elections highlighted some of these violent trends on the eve of elections including the disruption of political rallies, negative and inciting statements by political actors, complaints over voter registration, burning and destruction of party campaign billboards, availability and use of small arms and light weapons and bomb explosions as well as shooting at campaign grounds and party primaries (ICG 2015:6-8; WANEP Report 2015:7-11). According to the National Human Rights Commission of Nigeria (NHRN), pre-election violence resulted in the death of 58 people within 3 months (NHRN cited in Olupohunda 2015:13).

The 23 February 2019 presidential election in Nigeria added another phase to the already unfortunate record. This election was characterised by thuggery, vote buying, rigging and so many other challenges. Major contenders and their political parties employed violence as a strategy to influence the outcome of the election. Many lives were lost and properties were destroyed. In a period just covering 104 days, a daily average of 3.5 deaths were recorded. Incidents that resulted in fatalities were recorded in 29 of 36 States (Ojukwu, Okeke & Mbah 2022:133-151; Ominisi & Omelegbe 2019:107-113). It follows from the above that in almost every election year, since independence, electoral violence has become part and parcel of the Nigerian electoral process. Scores of people have lost their lives to electoral violence, and property worth millions of naira has been destroyed.

In 2023, Nigeria held general elections once more. Reports claim that one observer team was prevented from observing by security officials at a polling unit in Abuja. In Rivers state, for instance, violence involving voters throwing rocks and engaging in verbal abuse in two polling units was witnessed by observers. According to the Civil Society, Violence Monitors and News Reports, election day violence and disruption of the electoral process occurred in at least 18 states. In Abia and Bayelsa states, violent disruptions resulted in the suspension of voting in several hundred polling units. Lagos suffered multiple attacks throughout the day, including an attack on a collation centre, potentially excluding a large number of voters. At a ward collation centre in Rivers, observers saw irregularities including direct manipulation of the vote tally forms to disfavour one candidate (International Republican Institute 2023, under 'II. The Nigerian Election Context').

The US Department of State, on 01 March 2023, wrote concerning the 2023 Presidential Election Results in Nigeria:

We understand that many Nigerians and some of the parties have expressed frustration about how the process was conducted and the shortcomings of technical elements that were used for the first time in a presidential election cycle. Nigerians are clearly within their rights to have such concerns and should have high expectations for their electoral processes. We join other international observers in urging INEC to improve in the areas that need the most attention ahead of the March 11 gubernatorial elections. (n.p.)

The Heads of the Election Observation Missions of the Commission of the Economic of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Africa Union (AU) noted with concern signs of growing tensions in the country following the 25 February general elections. In response to the tension, part of their joint statement highlighted the following key issues:

We call on all political parties and their candidates to appeal to their supporters to exercise maximum restraint and refrain from the use of provocative language and the dissemination of misinformation and disinformation, which would only exacerbate political tensions, divisiveness, and violence at this critical stage…, We further call on political parties and their candidates to settle electoral disputes through peaceful means and dialogue, in accordance with the law…. (n.p.)

Behind the exhortation is an indication of the electoral violence Nigeria has been long facing.

Elections in the Republic of Kenya

Kenya has had different levels of violence related to elections since it became independent. The country has been controlled by a strict government for over 30 years. However, the first two governments led by Kenyatta and Moi were seen as undemocratic, oppressive and not willing to listen to the people's needs. There were differences in how power and money were shared in the two systems.

After taking over from the colonial government, Jomo Kenyatta, the first president of Kenya, had control over the government. According to Nasong'o (2007:20), Kenyatta had control over the space for group associations, got rid of the Majimbo system and used the oppressive colonial administrative system. He changed the law so that he would have control over the state. The Constitutional Amendment Act No. 16 of 1969 gave the president the authority to oversee and manage the civil service. He gathered all the trade unions together in one group and merged the only party that disagreed with him, KADU, into his own party called KANU in 1964 (Sulley 2016:93).

Most importantly, the opposing opinions were pushed away from having control or influence. One example is Oginga Odinga, who led the Kenya People's Union (KPU) and wanted to rebuild the state. This was stopped in 1969. The Constitution of Kenya (Amendment No. 2) Act. No. 17 of 1966 allowed the president to create and get rid of government jobs. The civil service was not independent, fair or politically neutral (Mosota 2011:47). People who did not like the government were either killed or put in jail (Throup & Hornsby 1998:77-78).

Some important people were killed, such as Pio Gama Pinto in 1965, Argwins Kodthek in 1966, Tom Mboya in 1969 and Josiah Mwangi Kariuki in 1975. Some people were also put in prison, such as Martin Shikuku, Ngugi Wa Thiong'o and George Anyona (Nasong'o 2007:32). This means that because of the unequal distribution of power under Kenyatta's leadership, the government resorted to violence against people who disagreed with the regime and wanted to see a more changed Kenya (Sulley 2016:92).

In 2007, there were problems with Kenya's elections because people did not trust the Electoral Commission of Kenya. In the study by Dercon and Gutiérrez-Romero (2011:731-744), they found that 42% of people believed that violence happened because they thought the election was not fair. They mentioned problems with the election process and a not-very-effective electoral commission as the reasons for this perception. This caused problems after the elections, leading to many deaths, destruction of homes and things, and many people having to leave Kenya for other countries (Kenya: Commission of Inquiry into the Post-Election Violence [CIPEV] final report, 2008:28-30).

Mild protests and political tension surfaced in parts of western Kenya and Nairobi on 09 August 2007 following allegations by the opposition leader, Raila Odinga, that the electoral commission's system had been hacked and polling results manipulated in favour of Kenyatta. The protests intensified on 11 August when the electoral commission declared Kenyatta the winner. Odinga challenged the results in court but the court verdict did not nullify Kenyatta as the winner. In Western Kenya, police used teargas canisters and water cannons to disperse protesters, who threw stones and other crude objects at police. Protesters also blocked roads with stones, burned tyres and lit fires on the roads (CIPEV Final report 2008:162-204).

On 08 August 2017, Kenya held its second presidential election since the disputed 2007 election that resulted in the death of more than 1100 people, 650 000 displaced and severe human rights abuses (Human Rights Watch 2017). As for the 08 August 2017 held elections, within hours after the initial results started streaming live on television on 09 August, and before the electoral commission announced Uhuru Kenyatta's victory, the leading opposition candidate, Raila Odinga, expressed concerns that the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission's (IEBC) server had been hacked and presidential results that were streaming in had been manipulated (Matinde 2017), and this sparked protests across the country. According to reports from the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights, by 12 August the police had killed at least 24 people nationwide, including one in Kisumu and 17 in Nairobi. Fears were that the numbers could even have been higher as the media were slow in reporting on the violence and families were afraid to speak out (Kenya: Post-Election Killings, Abuse 2020).

There was serious unrest especially after the Kenya Supreme Court nullified the Presidential Election and by the constitution ordering the presidential election to be rerun within 60 days. The presidential elections were annulled because of illegalities and irregularities. The government and the main opposition seemed not to agree as much, and the whole process appeared to be dividing Kenyans more than ever along tribal lines. Kenya appeared to be in a worse ethnic mobilisation than it did in 2007 and even in the past elections including the transition from a single-party to a multi-party country. The tribal division in Kenya appeared to be growing deeper, and any continued growth was bound to affect the relationships between the Kenyan people. Political tribalism appeared behind people picking up sticks or even doing worse things against each other (Kimani 2018:3-8).

Kenya went to the polls again on 09 August 2022 after a 5-year cycle, marking the third general election since the promulgation of a new constitution in 2010. This represented the end of the second and final term of the Jubilee Alliance party government under President Uhuru Kenyatta and Deputy President William Ruto. The presidential campaign was between Raila Odinga, a legacy candidate who has previously run four unsuccessful presidential campaigns and Ruto who experienced some local troubles, but the focus during this campaign was whether the Kenyan electoral landscape had shifted to emphasise class, demographic and elite divisions. Reported rioting and protest activity in the lead-up to the 2022 elections far exceeded the level of activity reported ahead of the 2017 elections when nearly 110 peaceful protest events and 160 riot events were recorded. During a presidential debate on 26 July 2022, Ruto attributed the violence to politics meant to punish his supporters (Akello 2022). This allegation was dismissed by Interior Minister, Fred Matiang'I (Raleigh & Wafula 2022). Six months later after Ruto had been declared president, Raila Odinga felt he still had a bone to chew with the electoral board, accusing it of gross irregularities and this sparked a fresh wave of election-related violence around mid-March 2023.

Elections in the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire

Making reference to the 31 October 2020 presidential elections in Ivory Coast, Human Rights Watch stated that the Ivory Coast's authorities were urgently supposed to investigate the killing of more than 50 people in the political and inter-communal violence that accompanied the elections and ensure that anyone responsible for unlawful killings was prosecuted (Côte d'Ivoire: Post-Election Violence, Repression 2020). The same report added that the security forces failed to adequately protect civilians and in at least one case used excessive force to disperse opposition-led protests, shooting dead at least two demonstrators and beating a man unconscious.

President Alassane Ouattara was re-elected for a third term with a reported 94% of the vote in the controversial election, which the main opposition parties boycotted. The poll triggered confrontations between opposition and government supporters in the capital, Abidjan, and at least eight other towns, resulting in brutal street clashes fought with machetes, clubs and hunting rifles. 'The killings of the past month pushed Côte d'Ivoire toward a deadly spiral of violence, a decade after the 2010-2011 post-election conflict left over 3000 dead', said Jim Wormington. Wormington further added, 'Respecting the right to freedom of expression and assembly, including for opposition leaders and their supporters, will be a key ingredient to a peaceful resolution of the current crisis' (Côte d'Ivoire: Post-Election Violence, Repression 2020).

Côte d'Ivoire's National Human Rights Council said that 55 people were killed and 282 injured between 31 October and 10 November 2020 (Koaci 2020). The Ivorian government said that 20 people were killed on election day and an additional 3 in the days that followed. Human Rights Watch documented 13 of these deaths, including 2 people killed during violence between government and opposition supporters on election day, 9 during clashes in the following days and at least 2 who were killed by security forces. The U.N. Refugee Agency says more than 3200 Ivorians have fled post-election savagery in their nation to Liberia, Ghana and Togo and more supposedly are on their way (Schlein 2020). This is another example of another country where elections were marred by violence in all its forms.

Election violence in Zimbabwe

The 1980 elections which saw the ushering of independence from British rule became almost the blueprint of election violence that characterised subsequent elections in Zimbabwe. During the 1980 elections, wartime methods of coercion and intimidation against opponents were carried over and became a defining modus operandi in future elections in favour of ZANU PF (Mwandayi & Chirongoma 2023:3). While almost every election in Zimbabwe is marred by episodes of violence, the June 2000 and June 2008 elections are arguably the worst. A detailed follow-up to the election violence in Zimbabwe can be gleaned from Mwandayi (2018:57-80) and Mwandayi and Chirongoma (2023:1-7).

Elections in the Republic of Cameroon

On 06 November 2018, the 85-year-old Paul Biya, president of Cameroon since 1982, was sworn in for his seventh term in office after complaints arising from multiple allegations in polls held a month earlier were dismissed by Cameroon's constitutional court (Nsongan 2018). Just weeks before the presidential election which was scheduled for 07 October 2018, thousands of people began to flee the Southwest and Northwest regions, fearing an escalation of violence as clashes between secessionists and the army intensified. During that year, the Anglophone crisis in Cameroon deteriorated, with armed secessionist groups and Cameroonian armed forces both perpetuating brutal attacks and human rights violations. Given the state of things, Autorité de Contrôle des Assurances et de la Prévoyance Sociale (ACAPS) projected that the pending election of that year, coupled with the lack of political dialogue to solve the conflict, was likely to fuel further displacement and continue disrupting basic services, livelihoods and the economy (ACAPS Risk Report 2018).

After the election, violence continued. Violent clashes between the Ambazonian separatists and the Cameroonian government were witnessed during the post-election period. Both the Cameroonian government and the armed separatists were using violence to screen civilian populations and punish them for the perceived support of their opponents (Matfess 2020). While mechanisms for dialogue and peaceful resolution were put in place through international and national peace and resolution agencies, such violence is likely to occur in future elections because such mechanisms do not solve problems at the pace expected by the population. It is against the backdrop of such election violence bedevilling almost every African nation that we move on now to propose a roadmap that may help curb future scenarios of election violence and ensure lasting peace on the continent.

 

Unity in the Godhead and African elections

Centrality of the Bible

Christianity is arguably the major religion in numerous African countries. According to some statistical data, in 2020, Christians accounted for around 60% of the sub-Saharan African population. In numerical figures, this translates to approximately 650 million Christians and this figure is projected to increase over to 1 billion by 2050. As of 2023, African countries with the highest share of Christians are as follows: Zambia - 95.5%; Seychelles - 94.7%; Rwanda - 93.6%; DR Congo - 92%; Republic of the Congo - 90.7%; Namibia - 90%; Lesotho - 90%; Cape Verde - 89.1%; Uganda - 88.6%; Gabon - 88%; Zimbabwe - 87%; Liberia - 85.5%; Kenya - 85.1%; Central African Republic - 80%, Malawi - 79.9% and South Africa - 79.8% (Saleh 2023). While we picked only countries within the range of 80% and above, Christianity is also prevalent in many other African nations. What all this translates to is that the Bible is interacted with by a vast majority of people in Africa and it is undeniably true that the Bible is the heartbeat of African Christianity. As it is appealed to by many as solace to many dilemmas of life and a guide too even in matters related to politics, we feel vindicated to draw our roadmap from this precious age-old document.

Unity in the Godhead - John 1:1

John 1:1a needs to be understood in relation to the tradition behind the Gospel of John itself. While the Gospel has traditionally been attributed to John, the disciple is nowhere identified by name. The Gospel, in other words, does not provide explicit internal evidence regarding its author (Burge 2024). The lack of unity in its structure and style as well as the lack of consistency in its sequence of events have led to a considerable discussion among scholars on the actual identity of the author with a number coming to conclude that it was the work of more than one author. A generally shared position is that an original shorter gospel was added to and edited by later writers to produce the now-canonised version (eds. Zinkuratire & Colacrai 1991:1782). Be that as it may, the Gospel exudes a deep theological meditation on the person and mission of Jesus and his oneness and perichoretic relationship to the Father and the people to whom he is God's self-revelation. As reflected in a classic commentary by St Thomas Aquinas, after other evangelists had written their Gospels, heresies had arisen concerning the divinity of Christ to the effect that Christ was viewed simply as a man, as Ebion and Cerinthus falsely taught. To guide his audience in the maze of these false teachings, John thus makes known the divinity of the Word drawing the truth from the very fountain-head of the divine breast, thereby refuting all heresies (St Thomas Aquinas, translated by Weisheipl 1998). Such a unique Johannine portrayal of Jesus is rooted in the early Gospel tradition of the church and owed its subsequent development to the eyewitness testimony of John and the Spirit-led life experience reflection of the Johannine church. In other words, the gospel to a greater degree is a product of a developed theological reflection (USCCB 2019-2023) and it does present an interpretation of Jesus that reflects ideas and situations that prevailed in the Christian community towards the end of the 1st century AD, a time when Christianity was under attack from several quarters including Romans, Jews, sceptics, heretics and many others who were making charges against it (CliffsNotes 2023).

 

The immediate context of the text - 'Eν ἀρχῇ'

The Gospel's opening phrase - in the beginning was the Word - attests to the existence of the Word before creation. In Jewish understanding, the Word of God was the way God communicated himself and in Greek thought, Logos 'Word' referred to the central idea that held the universe together (Ngewa 2006:1277). Both understandings connote an identification of this Word with divinity and in John 1:17, the writer clearly associates this Word with the person of Jesus.

John's opening verse: έν αρχη ην ό λόγος καί ό λογος ήν προς τον θεόν καί θεός ην ό λόγος [in the beginning was the Word and the Word with God and God was the Word] indicates that the Word existed already at that point in the past labelled herein as έν αρχη 'in the beginning'. As rightly noted by Boaheng (2021:74), the expression, 'the Word was with God' informs us that the Word is a separate person or personality. The Word was with (pros) God, but not in (en) God. Only in John is the Word (Jesus) explicitly identified with God (Carson 1991:25). Thus, in accordance with John's revelation, God the Father and God the Son who is Jesus, enjoy eternity and coeternity as they are both ontologically equal. The oneness and the perichoretic relationship that they enjoy, however, does not denote the sameness of persons; rather it is a relationship that allows the individuality of the eternal distinctions to be maintained while sharing in the life of each other. John, in other words, hereby stresses the beginning of what some commentators refer to as the timeless eternity similar to what we find in Genesis 1:1 when God created the heavens and earth (Ngewa 2006:1277).

What John meant when he said 'and the Word was with God, and the Word was God' set the foundation to what Tertullian of Carthage came to coin as the doctrine of Trinitas 'Trinity'. In his AdversusPraxeam (AP2), Tertullian argues that the Godhead is of unius autem substantiae, et unius status, et unius potestatis 'one substance, and of one condition, and of one power' (Tertullian ca.213 CE). According to McGrath (2011:240), Tertullian carefully chose the term substantiae 'substance' to articulate his idea of a fundamental unity within the Godhead but not compromising the distinct identity of their persons. In as much as Tertullian had emphasised the idea of fundamental unity, so too was Irenaeus who argued:

For Him were always present the Word, and Wisdom, the Son and the Spirit, by whom and in whom, freely and spontaneously, He made all things, to whom also He speaks, saying, 'Let Us make man after Our image and likeness'. (Against Heresies 4:20:1 [A.D. 189])

Formulations about the Trinity which started with Church Fathers in the likes of Tertullian, Origen, Irenaeus, Augustine and Athanasius were pursued by Scholastics, mystics of the Middle Ages, theologians such as Schleiermacher, Rothe, Dorner as well as even by philosophers such as Bohme to Hegel. A closer follow-up on each of these pursuits lies beyond the scope of this article. Commenting, however, on all these efforts, Philip Schaff (1997:149) was right to say that the Trinity, though the most evident, remains the deepest of mysteries, and cannot be adequately explained or exhausted till we reach beatific vision.

 

Unity in the Godhead and its reverberations on the believing community

When it comes to the implications of the doctrine of the Trinity on the believing community, the article gives credence to an insightful observation by Boaheng. Firstly, Boaheng (2021:78-81) articulates that the Trinity demonstrates the equality of the Godhead's three persons. Despite playing various roles, the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are all equal in terms of their essence, dignity, power and other attributes. The fact that all humans are God's image bearers consequently implies that each person is connected to God through the concept of Imago Dei. Since God's image does not vary from person to person, it means therefore all persons are equal irrespective of their varied backgrounds and circumstances.

Secondly, the Trinity must also guide human-divine, human-human and human-environment interactions. God made people so that they could have relationships with him, one another and other living things. People must uphold excellent relationships with other people while simultaneously upholding good relationships with the divine. Injustice, prejudice, discrimination and the like, which exist in contemporary cultures, are thus abhorrent to God.

Thirdly, if God is the Trinity and humankind is made in his image, then humanity has a communitarian ontological structure. The social relationship of the Trinity serves as a model for earthly human societies. As a result, all human societies, including the Christian society, must demonstrate some degree of interdependence and oneness that is consistent with the unity that is innate in the Trinity. While the Trinity reveals the reality of diversity in the Godhead and humanity, this does not amount to fragmentation. Thus, Africa's racial, linguistic, political, socio-cultural and ethnic diversities emanate from God (whose name can be taken to mean the Generator Of Diversity).

Building on Boaheng's (2021) ideas, we find that the Trinity's social relationship and the bearing this has upon human societies finds an echo in Jesus' exemplary life and teachings. In John 17:11, Jesus prays to the Father for the protection over his disciples so that they may be one as he and the Father are one. This emphasis on unity among communities of believers is enforced in John 17: 20-22 where Jesus prays not only for his present disciples but for all those who will believe in him through the disciples' work that they may all be one just as the Father is in the Son, the Son is in the Father. Speaking of the relationship between the Father and the Son, David Ford (2023:3) characterises it as a relationship marked by mutual love and it reaches out to the whole world. For him, the Father's purpose in sending the Son was that those who trust him could be embraced in this love and, in turn, sent in love for others and for the creation God loves. It is only when, in their daily manner of living, the community of believers wash each other's feet that they can fully participate in God's image.

In the previous selected verses of John 17, Jesus envisioned the great multitude before the throne of God of every nation, race, language, age, culture, class and social level (Rv 7:9-10). Jesus prayed that these people might rise above their different backgrounds and understand their unity. His deepest desire expressed in the climatic initiative on the cross: 'Woman, behold your son', and to the disciple 'Behold, your mother', (Jn 19:26-27) was for this coming together in trust and love, a creation of an ongoing community of trust and mutual love, something that was beyond family ties (Ford 2023:9). Jesus broadened the sense of 'behold your mother' and 'behold your son' to all believers that they may be one. The oneness Jesus had in mind was the unity that comes from the shared life both in God the Father and God the Son. Milne (2009:62) was thus right to say, 'the entire fabric of Christian redemption and its application to human experience depends wholly on the three-in-oneness of God'.

This unity among communities of believers is not to be perceived in the form of uniformity but oneness just like we can have children who are not uniform, but they make one family. Jesus indeed did not pray for uniformity or institutional unity among believers, but for unity rooted in love and a shared nature, bringing together the many different parts of Jesus' one body. This is not a legislated uniformity seeking to unite wheat and tares, nor is it the unity of institutions. Jesus had in mind the true unity of the Spirit (Eph 4: 3). Within the same verses in John 17, Jesus made a remarkable statement that 'the world may believe that you sent me' (vs. 21). Jesus basically gave the world permission to judge the validity of his ministry based on the unity of his people and this must be a serious concern for believers today. Based on the verses in John 1 and 17, it is a requirement from Jesus that his disciples and those who shall follow them emulate the unity existing between the Father and the Son. It is this message of unity modelled against unity between the Father and the Son that we are putting forward given our continent of Africa which continues to be rocked by disunity even among people of the same country. The Gospel of John was in fact designed to invite readers to meet Jesus and consequently to see and experience God (Van der Merwe 2019:1). It is a call to trusting him and maturing in their relationship with Jesus and with each other through habitually rereading its message. The thrust of the Gospel is thus not only to draw readers into a relationship with Jesus but it is also to send them deeper into the world to which he was sent in love, 'As the Father has sent me, so I send you' (Jn 20:21). Just as he was sent into the 'darkness' of his world, so in the same way, contemporary readers are being sent into the darkness of the 21st century (Ford 2023:6). The darkness of our times includes election violence, disunity, greed, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), environmental crisis, atrocities of every kind and so on. Addressing the darkness of the 21st century involves calling African rulers to accountability, standing against corruption of every kind, voting out corrupt leaders and political parties and amicably resolving conflicts. Thus the call for unity should not be just understood in its abstract terms but people ought to live it. This finds echo in the words of Burge (2024) who says that living the Gospel of John in a postmodern culture demands that Christians understand and internalise the truth about God and his plan for the world.

 

John 1:1; 17:11, 15, 21-22 as a roadmap for future African elections

During the pre-incarnate stage, Jesus was 'with God' and the incarnation enabled him to become an agent of reconciliation between God and fallen humanity, propagating thus a heavenly culture in a human context. As argued by Anderson (2011:26-27), the heavenly Jesus became earthly so as to transform the world. Jesus, in other words, appeared in human form so as to transform people, making them both earthly and heavenly. As heavenly and earthly natures were part and parcel of his identity, Jesus thus became the perfect model of humanity. As noted by Thomaskutty (2021:3-4), when Jesus told his listeners 'you are my friends if you do what I command' (Jn 15:14), he showed that the friendship he intended would result in the perfect restoration of humanhood and such friendship could only be restored in relation to the creator. When reading therefore from the perspective of humanhood, the Johannine message is that humans can only overcome all sorts of human-made boundaries, including racial, linguistic, political, sexual, socio-cultural and ethnic boundaries through the mediation of Jesus.

In African politics, human-made boundaries often manifest themselves when it is election time. The same community which at one point claims being bound together in faith in Christ often finds itself torn apart along ethnic and linguistic lines, thus losing all attributes of humanhood. African elections, in other words, have often been sources of extreme violence in all its forms to the extent that people tend to forget that they are believers and belong to the same nature and have the mandate to attain perfect humanhood and remain united as recommended by Jesus. Candidates continue to be chosen along ethnic, tribal, and social class and linguistic lines as evident in discussed countries such as Nigeria, Kenya and others. It is against this backdrop that we strongly argue that John 1:1 is a real and utmost dependable edifice upon which to build a pathway for Africa's future elections; a reference point whereby Africans in their interpersonal relationships, including the political exchanges imitate the oneness of the Trinity and not use social classifications to dictate elections in their societies. Instead of viewing racial, linguistic, political, socio-cultural and ethnic diversities as grounds for fragmentation, there is a need rather to work towards appreciating these diversities as originating from God (who is the Generator Of Diversity). Unity is a mark that proves not only that we are true disciples of Jesus but it is a sign to the world that Jesus' message is indeed valid. What Jesus required from the disciples and those who were to follow them was that they imitate the unity existing between the Father and the Son. Interestingly, most African states where elections have been marred by violence are Christian states or the Christian community is the majority. Therefore, believers are urged to remain one and work towards justice as one even in cases of electoral mismanagement to avoid violence which continues to leave our countries stranded with no future for our children.

 

Conclusion

In the foregoing discussion, we attempted to raise to attention the ever-recurring challenge of election violence in Africa. We explored several manifestations of election-related violence in selected African countries and raised alarm on how such violence was continuing to swirl the continent in a state of constant chaos and a locus known for manslaughter. Worried about a torn-apart continent, with no development and no future for our children, we moved on to proffer a roadmap for future elections using a hermeneutic of identification. We argued that such violence can be reduced or eliminated especially if communities of believers identify themselves with the Triune God in whose image they were created. As highlighted in the article, the social relationship of the Trinity serves as a model for earthly human societies. Human societies therefore are called to demonstrate some degree of interdependence and oneness that is consistent with the unity that is innate in the Trinity. While the Trinity reveals the reality of diversity in the Godhead and humanity, this does not amount to fragmentation. The call for unity should not be just understood in its abstract terms but people ought to live it through washing each other's feet. Just as he was sent into the 'darkness' of his world, so in the same way contemporary believers are being sent into the darkness of the 21st century. In as much as the Johannine Jesus stood his ground against the antagonists of his day so also to address the darkness of the 21st century, there is a need for African Christian believers to break human-made boundaries by calling their African rulers to accountability, speaking against divisions along ethnic lines, standing against the corruption of every kind, voting out corrupt leaders and political parties and amicably resolving conflicts.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

M.M. and C.M. are equally responsible for the conceptualisation, methodology, investigation, the writing of the original draft, funding acquisition, formal analysis, review and editing of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, C.M., on reasonable request.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Matfess, H., 2020, Continued clashes between the government and anglophone separatists in Cameroon put civilians at risk, viewed 07 October 2023, from https://acleddata.com/2018/11/08/continued-clashes-between-the-government-and-anglophone-separatists-in-cameroon-put-civilians-at-risk/.         [ Links ]

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McGrath, A.E., 2011, Christian theology: An introduction, Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex.         [ Links ]

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Mwandayi, C. & Chirongoma, S., 2023, 'The Gibean solution (Jdg 19:20-48) as a mirror to reclaiming and restoring the dignity of women exposed to sexualized violence in Zimbabwe since Rhodesian times', HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 79(1), a8165. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v79i3.8165        [ Links ]

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Correspondence:
Canisius Mwandayi
canisiusm@gmail.com

Received: 01 Apr. 2023
Accepted: 02 Feb. 2024
Published: 09 May 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Kerklike tug: Verleentheid of nuwe geleentheid? / Church discipline: embarrassment or a new opportunity?

 

 

Johan M. van der Merwe; Bianca R. Van Graan

Department of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Church discipline: embarrassment or a new opportunity? In 2004, 2007 and 2011 the General Synod of the Dutch Reformed Church decided that the way in which church discipline functions in the church, should be researched and investigated. This article is based on the doctoral study of the co-author, who tragically died of COVID-19 during the pandemic of 2020-2021. She investigated the development of church discipline in the Dutch Reformed Church from 1652 to the present day, to determine why church discipline has become an embarrassment to the church. This article is based on a part of the outcome of her research. The article discusses the purpose, nature of and need for church discipline, and states that the way in which members of the church understand discipline in the church, should change. The authors emphasise that church discipline must be built on the foundation of brotherly love within the framework of tolerant care. This will not only help to change the understanding of informal and formal church discipline but will also challenge the church to create a safe space for confession, forgiveness, and reconciliation. By doing so, church discipline as tolerant care will become part of the spiritual journey of members of the church. As such, it will change from being an embarrassment to becoming a huge opportunity for spiritual growth.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article focuses on church discipline as tolerant care. In doing so, church discipline does not only function as part of the study field of Church Polity, but it also incorporates Practical Theology. The most important implication is that discipline is understood as care

Keywords: Ecclesiastical discipline; Dutch Reformed Church; tolerant care; informal discipline; formal discipline, reconciliation.

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Inleiding

Die Algemene Sinode van die Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk (NGK) het in 2004 besluit dat daar opnuut nagedink moet word oor 'n meer relevante toepassing en verstaan van kerklike tug. Hierdie opdrag is in 2007 en in 2011 herhaal. Dit het soos volg gelui: 'Die Sinode gee opdrag aan die ATK en ATR om ondersoek te doen na die toepassing van die amptelike tug in die kerk op 'n eietydse wyse' (NGK Handelinge 2007:203). Een van die hoofredes waarom hierdie saak op die agenda van die kerk bly, is die feit dat dit deur die Nederlandse Geloofsbelydenis verduidelik word as een van die kenmerke van die ware kerk.¹ Die uitdaging is dus om voortdurend nuut oor die kerklike tug te dink. Uit empiriese navorsing van BR van Graan,² blyk dit dat lidmate kerklike tug negatief beleef en dan verkeerd verstaan. Lidmate beleef kerklike tug as 'n straf en veroordeling wat nie inpas by die liefde wat gelowiges teenoor mekaar moet uitleef nie. Dit het daarom inderdaad 'n verleentheid vir die kerk geword. Om hierdie verleentheid in 'n geleentheid te omskep, moet nuut oor kerklike tug gedink word.

 

Die regte verstaan van kerklike tug

Kerklike tug moet altyd verstaan word binne die raamwerk van wat ons van die kerk verstaan. Dit word deur Koffeman (2009:17) beklemtoon wanneer hy skryf: 'Kerkrecht is verankerd in ecclesiologie'. Dit beteken dat kerklike tug wat 'n belangrike deel uitmaak van kerkreg, ook net so veranker is in die ekklesiologie. In die Gereformeerde tradisie word dit nader omskryf deur die sogenaamde notae ecclesia, naamlik eenheid, heiligheid, algemeenheid en apostolisiteit.³ Wanneer oor enige aspek van kerkreg nagedink word, moet deeglik met hierdie viertal rekening gehou word.

Met bogenoemde in gedagte, is dit belangrik om die doel van kerklike tug te verstaan wanneer daar nuut oor kerklike tug nagedink word. Dit word in die Kerkorde van die NGK (2019), Artikel 59 soos volg uiteengesit, 'Kerklike tug en dissipline word uitgeoefen tot eer van God, tot heil van die kerk, tot behoud van die sondaar, volgens voorskrifte uit die Woord van God, die Belydenisskrifte, die Kerkorde en ander bepalings van die Kerk en die diensooreenkoms' (NGK Kerkorde 2019:80). Dit beteken dat kerklike tug eerstens, ten diepste nie net die eer van God moet beskerm nie, maar ook moet weerspieël. Die kerklike tug is daarom nie soos burgerlike straf, 'n straf nie, maar eerder 'n betoning van respek in antwoord op God se liefde vir die sondaar, om hom of haar weer binne God se wil te bring (Kleynhans 1988:147; Visser 1980:50, 51; Kleynhans 1965:8; Smuts 1962:23-24). Tweedens moet kerklike tug ook die heiligheid van die gemeente beskerm. Dit beteken dat die gemeente soos God aan wie sy behoort, in die wêreld, maar anders as die res van die wêreld moet wees (Kleynhans 1988:147; Kamphuis 1982:32, 33; Jonker 1965:58, 66-67). 'Die kerk moet voortdurend stry om te word wat sy in Christus alreeds is' (Jonker 1965:55, 68). Christus is die Hoof van die kerk, wat beteken dat 'dieselfde lewe wat in die Hoof is ook in die liggaam moet wees' (Jonker 1965:24). Derdens het gelowiges die verantwoordelikheid om vir mekaar te sorg. Die belangrikheid van hierdie opdrag word beklemtoon deur die feit dat dit een van die vrae is waarop lidmate tydens openbare belydenis van geloof moet antwoord.⁴ Jonker sluit hierby aan en beklemtoon die feit dat alle gelowiges deel is van die liggaam, 'n verantwoordelikheid het om vir mekaar te sorg, mekaar se laste te dra en om die heiligheid van die gemeente te beskerm (Jonker 1965:24, 58, 60, 61, 116-117). Omdat gelowiges deel is van een liggaam, kan elkeen se dade nooit los gesien word van die gemeente en die kerk waaraan hy of sy behoort nie (Kleynhans 1988:147-148; Visser 1980:52; Jonker 1965:7; Smuts 1962:24). Kerklike tug is daarom wesenlik deel van die liggaam-wees en fokus as sodanig op die versorging van gelowiges. De Bruyn (1997:218) sluit hierby aan wanneer hy skryf dat God deur Jesus Christus aan mense onbeskryflike liefde bewys het. God het 'n aanbod aan die mens gemaak waarin Hy ewige redding en verlossing skenk. In reaksie op God se liefdesaanbod kan die mens nie anders nie as om verantwoordelikheid vir mekaar te neem. Dit beteken dat gelowiges mekaar moet versorg en reghelp, en dat die kerklike tug toegepas sal word.

Om nuut oor kerklike tug te dink, vra nie net dat daar opnuut na die doel van kerklike tug gevra moet word nie. Om kerklike tug reg te verstaan, is dit nodig en belangrik om die aard van kerklike tug te verreken. Kerklike tug is nie straf nie, dit wil lidmate nie verneder of seermaak nie. Kerklike tug wil gelowiges se harte nie verhard en hulle onwelkom laat voel nie. Dit wil ook nie die indruk skep dat sekere lidmate beter as ander en sonder sonde is nie. Kerklike tug wil die verhouding tussen God en die een wat afgedwaal het, herstel (Visser 1986:165; 1980:57; Nauta 1971:352; Smuts 1962:27, 29). Bogenoemde word duidelik wanneer die aard of karaktereienskappe van kerklike tug onder oë geneem word.

Kerklike tug het eerstens 'n regterlike aard. Dit beteken nie dat mense daardeur onder dwang geplaas kan word nie, maar wel dat daar reëls is wat onderhou en nagekom moet word (Kleynhans 1988:142; Jonker 1965:102). Dit beteken egter nie dat kerklike tug as straf verstaan moet word nie. Straf wil deur dwang en fisiese leed wette en reëls handhaaf; kerklike tug of dissipline wil nooit 'n persoon dwing of leed aandoen nie, maar wil deur oorreding, vermaning en waarskuwing die sondige persoon tot bekering en boetvaardigheid beweeg (Kleynhans 1988:143; Visser 1986:166; Jonker 1965:102, 103; Smuts 1962:18-9).

Tweedens het kerklike tug ook 'n geestelike aard. Dit beteken dat kerklike tug anders is as die straf van die owerheid en nooit mag lei tot geldboetes, tronkstraf of lyfstraf nie. Mense wat tug uitoefen, mag hulself ook nie handhaaf soos burgerlike regters nie (Kleynhans 1988:142, 143; Visser 1986:157; 1980:63-4; Nauta 1971:350, 358; Smuts 1962:19). Die geestelike aard daarvan vra dat kerklike tug saam met evangelieprediking geskied (Visser 1980:64-65).

Kerklike tug het derdens ook 'n pedagogiese aard. Dit beteken dat kerklike tug deur die Woord sal onderrig en toerus. Deur die tug probeer die kerk om die skape na die kudde terug te lei. Die kerklike tug voed dus op, en begelei die sondaar (Jonker 1965:105; Smuts 1962:20). Met liefde en deernis moet die sondaar gelei word om te besef wat hy of sy in Christus is. Om dit te kan doen, moet die kerklike tug 'n opvoedende aard hê soos die dissipline wat 'n vader in die huishouding toepas, om sy kinders op te voed, en te leer wat reg en wat verkeerd is (Jonker 1965:105; Smuts 1962:20).

Kerklike tug het vierdens ook 'n genesende aard. Dit beteken dat die kerklike tug die sondaar van die sonde wil red. Om hierdie rede is kerklike tug nooit die eerste stap nie, maar die laaste, wanneer mense gered en van hulle sonde oortuig moet word. Smuts (1962:20) beklemtoon dat daar daarom altyd plek vir belydenis, berou en versoening in die tugproses moet wees.

So vertaan, is dit duidelik dat kerklike tug noodsaaklik is. Die kerklike tug moet die heiligheid van die vergadering van gelowiges beskerm en dit moet die identiteit van die kerk as liggaam van Christus beskerm (Visser 1988:146; 1980:3-4). Wray (1978:332-333) beklemtoon dit dat ''n kerk wat nie dissipline (oftewel kerklike tug) uitoefen nie, nie die respek van die wêreld of die vertroue van sy eie lede kan verwag nie'. Die kerk is 'n heilige vergadering van gelowiges en om hierdie heiligheid te beskerm, is kerklike tug nodig. As kerklike tug agterweë gelaat word, of afgeskeep word, lei dit tot die verval van die kerk en die ontheiliging van die vergadering. Daarom het Christus sy dissipels beveel om mekaar en medegelowiges te vermaan (Visser 1986:161; 1980:4; Vorster 1985:18-19; Van't Spijker 1970:173, 235; Jonker 1959:35; Vorster 1950:2).

Jonker (1965:2-3) en Smuts (1962:45) sluit hierby aan deur te beklemtoon dat Jesus besef het dat die mens se sondige natuur hom steeds gaan bybly en daarom het Hy bepaalde voorskrifte aan die kerk gegee oor hoe daar 'in volle verantwoordelikheid in die kerk deur medebroeders en-susters gehandel moet word, as daar gesondig word'.

Hieruit word dit duidelik dat kerklike tug 'n spesifieke liefdesopdrag is. Die kerk moet die liefde wat God aan hulle betoon het, ook aan ander betoon. Die kerk moet ook uit liefde vir die mense, hulle deur die kerklike tug lei en hulle heil beskerm. Hierdie liefde gaan soms gepaard met 'n verlies van lidmate en populariteit, asook onaangenaamheid, maar die kerk moet hierdie dinge verdra, indien dit sou beteken dat iemand gered kan word van die verderf en dat hy of sy gered sal word (Jonker 1965:97-98). Indien kerklike tug sodanig verstaan word, help dit nie slegs die individuele gelowiges op wie dit toegepas word nie, maar ook hele gemeenskappe. Dit help ook ander om te besef en te verstaan dat hulle verkeerd is en om nie in hulle verkeerde optrede te volhard nie (Wray 1978:333). Dit is daarom nie sonder rede dat Calvyn van mening was dat kerklike tug noodsaaklik is, omdat die kerk nie staande kan bly sonder die uitoefening daarvan nie (Kleynhans 1988:146; Visser 1980:4; vgl. ook Polman s.a. III:331).

Jonker beklemtoon egter dat bogenoemde altyd binne die raamwerk van die liefde moet plaasvind, omdat tug ten diepste 'n liefdeshandeling is. Hy verduidelik dit soos volg, ''n Kerk wat die liefde van God misverstaan, verstaan nie meer die noodsaaklikheid van die tug nie, en 'n kerk wat nie meer die noodsaaklikheid van die tug kan sien nie, begryp nie meer die liefde van God nie. 'n Kerk wat die liefde van God en die tug nie meer met mekaar kan rym nie, verstaan nie meer die evangelie nie. As die kerk egter verstaan dat Gods liefde 'n heilige liefde is, sal hy die tug beoefen' (Jonker 1959:133). Die verstaan van kerklike tug soos wat Jonker dit verduidelik, staan in sterk kontras met die wanopvatting wat in die kerk onder gemeentelede en ampsdraers bestaan, naamlik dat die kerklike tug ten doel het om mense te veroordeel en uit die gemeente of kerk weg te jaag.⁵

Die kerklike tug moet 'n uitdrukking van God se liefde vir die mensdom wees. In plaas daarvan dat die tug gebruik word om sonde te ontbloot en openbaar te maak, moet dit eerder op 'n subtiele en liefdevolle manier poog om van die sonde, nie die mens nie, ontslae te raak. Wanneer die tug as liefdevol en simpatiek ervaar word, sal dit help dat die persoon tot berou en bekering gebring word. So verstaan, kan kerklike tug as versorging van mekaar beskryf word (Kleynhans 1988:148-8; Smuts 1962:29). Van Rooyen (1970:14, 15) bevestig die uitkoms van hierdie verstaan van kerklike tug verder, deur te beklemtoon dat dit altyd gepaard moet gaan met verdraagsaamheid. Deur verdraagsaam te wees met mense, is nie swakheid of beginselloosheid aan die kant van die kerk nie, maar eerder 'n aanduiding van die feit dat daar rekening gehou word met mense se swakheid, en dat dit persoonlike vryheid respekteer. Kamphuis (1982:120-121, 122) maak dit egter duidelik dat daar 'n voorwaarde vir verdraagsaamheid is, naamlik dat die persoon die wil moet hê om hom- of haarself te laat onderrig. Hy beklemtoon verder dat liefde verseker altyd 'n rol in die kerklike tughandeling moet speel en dat daar geen aansien van 'n persoon behoort te wees nie, en dat onpartydigheid deurentyd gehandhaaf moet word. Hierdie onpartydigheid is nodig, sodat reg en geregtigheid sal geskied, en dat regverdig oor die betrokke persoon geoordeel sal word (Kamphuis 1982:83-85). Dit beteken dat daar geen magsmisbruik mag wees nie. Die vermaning gebeur nie uit die hoogte nie, maar moet altyd van gelykheid en liefde spreek. Die persoon wat vermaan, moet dit in 'n gees van nederigheid doen, omdat hy of sy van hulle eie sonde en onvolmaaktheid bewus is. Hierdie kenmerk mag nooit by die tughandeling ontbreek nie (Visser 1980:62; cf. Grosheide 1952:13). Die vermaning moet nie hard en afstootlik wees nie, maar altyd sorgsaam soos wat lede van 'n huisgesin mekaar versorg (Visser 1980:66; cf. Bouma 1942:169, 170). Jonker (1965) vat dit korrek soos volg saam:

Ons spreek oor die juiste geestelike klimaat vir die uitoefening van die tug in die kerk. Waarin bestaan hierdie klimaat? Ons kan dit met een woord aangee: gemeenskap. Waar die ware, bloed-warme gemeenskap in die kerk ontbreek, is alle tugoefening feitlik gedoem tot mislukking; waar dit wel bestaan, is tugoefening spontaan en doeltreffend. (p. 159)

So verstaan, is kerklike tug nooit 'n handeling van bo na onder nie. Dit is ook nie straf nie. Dit is 'n gebeure wat voortvloei uit die opdrag van Jesus Christus aan gelowiges, om mekaar in liefde met groot verdraagsaamheid te versorg. Die vraag is, op watter wyse hierdie verstaan van kerklike tug op 'n nuwe manier in die NGK neerslag kan vind.

 

Kerklike tug in die NGK

Bogenoemde verstaan van die tug, is nie nuut aan die NGK nie. Dit word deur die Kerkorde van die NGK bevestig. Artikel 60 van die NGK Kerkorde (2019) bepaal:

Die kerklike opsig en tug dra 'n geestelike karakter en pas by die kerk as 'n geloofs- en 'n liefdesgemeenskap. Opsig en tug word dus op 'n kerklike wyse en met geestelike middele uitgeoefen. Amptelike kerklike opsig en tug is pastoraal-kerkregtelik van aard en moet uit 'n Bybelse en geestelike oogpunt billik en regverdig toegepas word. (p. 193)

Reglement 22 van die NGK Kerkorde (2019) beklemtoon verder:

Reglement 22 mag nooit so vertolk word of gebruik word dat dit die aard van die kerklike opsig en tug misken nie. Verder geskied die toepassing van Reglement 22 teen die agtergrond dat lidmate by die aflegging van belydenis van geloof en ampsdraers by legitimasie, ordening en bevestiging hulle onderwerp aan die kerklike opsig en tug. Daarmee lê hulle saam met ander lidmate en ander ampsdraers 'n eed af om hulle verantwoordbaar te hou aan die Woord, die belydenisskrifte en Bybelse waardes wat gepas is vir lidmate en ampsdraers, en versoek hulle die geloofsgemeenskap om hulle daaraan te hou en te vermaan en te tug wanneer hulle leer en lewe in stryd is daarmee, in so 'n mate dat dit hulle getuienis, geloofwaardigheid en die heil van die liggaam van Christus tot nadeel strek. (p. 110)

Bogenoemde maak dit belangrik om te verstaan dat kerklike tug op twee maniere in die praktyk moet uitspeel. Eerstens behoort tug op 'n informele wyse 'n rol in gemeentes te speel, terwyl dit tweedens ook formeel volgens die Kerkorde toegepas kan word. Beide behoort egter binne die raamwerk van verdraagsame versorging plaas te vind.

 

Informele tug

Om van kerklike tug 'n geleentheid te maak, beteken dat die standpunt van lidmate oor kerklike tug moet verander, en dat 'n nuwe verstaan in die kerk gevestig moet word. Dit beteken verder dat lidmate kerklike tug en hulle eie verantwoordelikheid ten opsigte van kerklike tug opnuut moet verstaan. 'n Nuwe verstaan van kerklike tug begin by lidmate wat eerstens verantwoordelikheid vir verdraagsame versorging van mekaar aanvaar. Die algemene beskouing dat 'tug' net 'n formele handeling is wat deur kerkvergaderings uitgeoefen word, moet verander word. Wanneer kerklike opsig en tug 'n geestelike karakter dra wat by die kerk as geloofs- en liefdesgemeenskap pas, word dit verhoudingsgedrewe, wat van onder na bo funksioneer. Prof. Christina Landman (27 September 2023, Netwerk 29)⁶ verwoord die wyse waarop verdraagsame versoging in die praktyk uitspeel, soos volg:

Verby is die kerk se harde mag. Maar daar is nog 'sagte mag' vir die kerk. Om die waarheid te sê, dis nou tyd vir daardie sagte mag. Sagte mag is om … te oortuig en uit te nooi, eerder as om … te dwing.

Daar bestaan reeds in baie gemeentes strukture wat verhoudingsgedrewe funksioneer. Voorbeelde hiervan is kleingroepe, bedieningsgroepe, selgroepe en wyksgroepe. Hierdie geleenthede kan sinvol benut word in terme van 'n nuwe verstaan van kerklike tug. Om hierdie groepe as ruimtes te omvorm waar verdraagsame versorging van mekaar kan plaasvind, is 'n aantal belangrike aanpassings nodig.

Dit moet by die toerusting van gemeentelede begin, deur geestelike onderrig. Geestelike onderwysing gebeur op twee maniere, naamlik deur prediking en deur kategese. Prediking speel 'n belangrike rol in die geestelike opvoeding van lidmate. Daarom kan lidmate help deur te verstaan dat hulle omgee vir mekaar, verdraagsame versorging moet insluit. Dit beteken dat kerklike tug op grondvlak reg sal funksioneer. Prediking word so 'n volgende belangrike wyse waardeur die lidmate kollektief as 'n geloofsfamilie vermaan kan word sodat belydenis en versoening kan plaasvind. Alhoewel dit lank deel van die gereformeerde erediens was, het dit op die een of ander wyse verlore geraak. Barnard (1981) skryf soos volg daaroor:

Prediking is ook 'n goeie manier om die gemeente toe te rus, om hulle bewus te maak van hulle verantwoordelikheid en roeping om mekaar te vermaan en vir mekaar se geestelike welstand om te sien. Vir predikante is dit dalk nie altyd maklik om oor sonde te preek nie, want hulle wil nie die boodskap van vergifnis deur Christus se liefdesoffer tot niet maak nie. Dit moet ook vermy word dat daar teruggeval word in 'n geloof van goeie werke om so God se genade te verdien. Daar moet egter daarop gelet word dat daar ook nie soveel gelet word op die verlossing dat lidmate 'n boodskap kry wat sê dat hulle kan sondig soos wat hulle wil sonder om ook hulle skuld te bely nie. Prediking moet dus gebruik word om mense te help om hulle eie sondes te bely, maar ook om mense aan te moedig om mekaar te vermaan. Prediking val natuurlik binne die breër konteks van die erediens. Die gereformeerde erediens skep ruimte vir die openbare skuldbelydenis vir die gemeente as geheel. Hierdie gesamentlike skuldbelydenis van die hele gemeente bring lidmate tot die besef dat alle mense sondig is, dat almal hulle skuld moet bely en dat niemand net in sonde mag volhard sonder vermaning en skuldbelydenis nie.

'n Tweede belangrike gebeure in geestelike onderrig, is kategese. Deur middel van kategese moet die verstaan en aanvaarding van kerklike tug opnuut onderrig word. Die doel van kategese is om dooplidmate te leer van die Christendom, wat dit beteken om 'n Christen te wees, hoe dit 'n impak het en verskil maak in hulle lewe as Christene, en hoe hulle in die wêreld moet leef. Kategese speel 'n belangrike rol in lidmate se houding teenoor kerklike tug. Wat kinders geleer word in die jare waarin hulle kategetiese opleiding kry, bepaal hoe hulle later, as belydende lidmate, hulle sondigheid en die verlossing van Christus verstaan en hoe hulle hul verantwoordelikheid teenoor ander gelowiges verstaan. Kategese moet dooplidmate dus toerus om hul verantwoordelikhede as belydende lidmate te verstaan. Kinders moet ook toegerus word om hulle sondigheid te verstaan en hulle moet aangemoedig word om hulle skuld te bely, met die wete dat hulle nie veroordeel sal word nie. Wanneer katkisante dus by die openbare belydenis van geloof gevra word of hulle aanvaar dat hulle medegelowiges die verantwoordelikheid het om hulle te help om op die regte pad te bly, sal hulle opreg 'ja' kan antwoord, want hulle besef hulle eie en hulle medegelowiges se verantwoordelikheid.

Die plek waar hierdie versorging verder tot sy reg kan kom, is in selgroepe en huisbyeenkomste. Bybelstudie en wyksbyeenkomste kan verder sinvol benut word vir die suksesvolle hantering van kerklike tug. In hierdie kleiner groeperings wat binne gemeentes vorm, word hegte verhoudings gevorm omdat almal in die groep soortgelyke uitdagings ervaar, byvoorbeeld jonggetroudes, enkelouers, ensovoorts. Hierdie verhoudings skep die basis vir 'n baie goeie ondersteuningsnetwerk. Daarom, wanneer ons nuut wil dink oor die kerklike tug, moet hierdie groeperings ook in ag geneem word. Die verhoudings wat nodig is vir die suksesvolle uitvoering van kerklike tug, bestaan alreeds in hierdie kleiner groepe. Daarom moet die leiers toegerus word, sodat daar ook binne hierdie byeenkomste geleentheid geskep word om belydenis te doen sonder veroordeling, en om ook vermaning aan te moedig. Wanneer dit gebeur, word verdraagsame versorging van mekaar, as nie-amptelike tug, die raamwerk waarbinne formele tug plaasvind.

 

Formele tug

Bogenoemde sluit egter nie die formele tughandelinge uit nie. Artikel van die Kerkorde van die NGK verwys spesifiek hierna: '60.2 Die amptelike uitoefening van die tug deur kerkvergaderinge of hulle gevolmagtigdes vervang nie die roeping van die gelowiges tot onderlinge vermaning nie, maar vul dit aan' (NGK Kerkorde 2019:18). Artikel 60.3 lui soos volg: 'Amptelike kerklike opsig en tug is pastoraal-kerkregtelik van aard en moet uit 'n bybelse en geestelike oogpunt billik en regverdig toegepas word'; terwyl Art 60.4. uitspel dat die hele lewenswandel (leer en lewe) van al die lidmate (doop en belydend) van die gemeente, asook ampsdraers, by kerklike tug ingesluit word.

Dit beteken dat waar kerklike tug formeel op lidmate en ampsdraers uitgeoefen word, dit ook binne die raamwerk van verdraagsame versorging moet plaasvind. Hierdie verstaan van kerklike tug is 'n uitdaging aan die verskillende vergaderings van die kerk, wat vir die formele hantering en die toepassing van kerklike tug verantwoordelik is.⁷ Dit beteken dat selfs wanneer daar van 'n amptelike tugproses sprake is, dit verhoudingsgedrewe sal wees. Dit is 'n vertrekpunt wat reeds in die Kerkorde van die NGK (2019) neerslag gevind het en wat soos volg lui:

Die tugliggaam tree nie op as regter nie, maar as besorgde lid van die liggaam van Christus wat soek na weë en middele vir hoe daar gehandel kan word om die eer van God, die welwese van die liggaam van Christus, asook die behoud van die sondaar ten beste te dien. (p. 110)

Dit beteken dat daar op die onderlinge verhoudings tussen predikante, ouderlinge en diakens in die Ringsgebied waarbinne hulle val, gelet moet word, omdat die Ring verantwoordelik is vir die toepassing van tug. Ook wanneer tug oor predikante uitgeoefen word, moet dit 'n liefdeshandeling wees, en dieselfde geld hier as by die tug oor gewone lidmate. Indien daar nie onderlinge verhoudings in die Ring bestaan nie, of as die verhoudings sleg is, gaan die predikant oor wie die kerklike tug toegepas word, dit as negatief ervaar, as liefdeloos en hardvogtig. Daar moet dus in die Ring daarop gelet word dat daar nie onderlinge struwelinge en klieks bestaan wat veroorsaak dat die tughandeling onenigheid teweeg sal bring nie. Die tug oor predikante moet ook soos met lidmate, by die broederlike en susterlike verantwoordelikheid teenoor mekaar begin.

Alhoewel die Ring primêr verantwoordelik bly vir die tug oor predikante en ampsdraers, bly broederlike vermaning die mees basiese vertrekpunt. Hierdie broederlike vermaning kan plaasvind deur 'n lidmaat, 'n kerkraadslid of 'n predikant buite die Ring. Binne ringsverband is verhoudings net so belangrik, om te sorg dat tug as verdraagsame versorging van mekaar, verstaan word. Dit moet egter in gedagte gehou word, dat die ring 'n verantwoordelikheid teenoor predikante en gemeentes het. Die ring is nie net verantwoordelik vir die welstand van die ringspredikante nie, maar ook van die gemeentes binne die ringsgrense. Tug oor predikante is 'n baie sensitiewe saak, omdat dit die predikant se lewensonderhoud kan beïnvloed en selfs sy of haar status as predikant. Aan die gemeente se kant, bestaan daar die moontlikheid dat hulle 'n geliefde predikant kan verloor, of dat hulle 'n ongewensde predikant moet behou. Daarom moet die Ring aan predikante sowel as aan gemeentes ondersteuning gee en sover moontlik die trauma aan beide kante verminder en bestuur. Om hierdie rede moet die konsulent nie by die tugproses betrokke wees nie, sodat hy of sy onpartydige ondersteuning kan bied. Die verhouding van Ringspredikante met mekaar moet op so 'n vlak wees dat hulle mekaar kan vertrou, en dat hulle kan weet dat die een nie met kwade gevoelens teenoor die ander gaan optree nie.

Ringe moet aangemoedig word om 'n naburige Ring te nader indien hulle voel dat hulle nie onpartydig teenoor die predikant of gemeente kan optree nie.

Daar moet te alle tye genoegsame ondersteuning gebied word vir sowel die ampsdraers as die gemeentes. Ringe moet hulp aanbied of inwin waar dit nodig is, nadat die tugprosedure afgehandel is.

Een van die belangrikste wyses waarop verhoudings in ringsverband versterk kan word, is die kerklike visitasie. Koffeman (2014:227) sê in hierdie verband: visitasie is: 'an expression of the common responsibility of a denomination and the local congregation'. Wanneer dit ernstig opgeneem word, word dit 'n belangrike kerkordelike instrument vir die bevordering van die integriteit van die kerk. Vereistes vir die aanstelling van besoekers, sowel as voorskrifte rakende die frekwensie, die inhoud en die prosedures van visitasie, is bepalend en moet die nodige aandag geniet. In die NGK is kerkvisitasie een van die belangrike verantwoordelikhede van die Ring (NG Kerk Kerkorde Art. 31). Met kerkvisitasie word ondersoek gedoen na die welstand van die gemeentes in die Ring. 'n Deel van die ondersoek na die welstand, is om te bepaal of daar tevredenheid is met die predikant en die kerkraad, sodat probleme en bekommernisse vroegtydig hanteer en opgelos kan word. Dit is ook 'n geleentheid vir die kerkraad om in vertroue met 'n ander predikant as die gemeente se leraar, oor bediening in die gemeente te praat. Daar moet meer aandag gegee word aan kerkvisitasie. Deur visitasie leer ken die gemeente en veral die kerkraad die konsulent en ontstaan daar 'n verhouding wat dit makliker maak om die konsulent vir advies, hulp en leiding te nader. As 'n gemeente nooit hulle konsulent sien of ontmoet nie, sal hulle ook nie die vrymoedigheid hê om hom of haar vir hulp of raad te kontak nie. Visitasie help om vroegtydige probleme in die welstand van die gemeente te identifiseer: nie net op dissiplinêre vlak nie, maar op alle terreine van gemeentewees, veral op die geestelike vlak. Visitasie is nie 'n middel van tugtoepassing nie, maar dit het wel 'n invloed op die vroeë bewuswording van probleme, ook dié wat moontlik kan lei tot tug. Kerkvisitasie kan ook help om verhoudings te bou, wat die fondament is van 'n suksesvolle tugoefening. Dit kan ook help dat die konsulent die leraar kan nader as hy of sy bewus word dat daar probleme is, sodat die probleem opgelos kan word. Dit kan ook help dat die konsulent die leraar broederlik kan vermaan voordat dit nodig word dat 'n klag by die Ring gelê word, soos vervat in die Kerkorde, Artikel 2, 3, 4 en 5 van die Protestantse Kerk in Nederland (2018).

 

'n Nuwe ruimte waar informeel en formeel ontmoet word

Wanneer nie-amptelike en amptelike kerklike tug binne die raamwerk van verdraagsame sorg funksioneer, skep dit die moontlikheid van 'n nuwe ruimte waar nie-amptelike en amptelike kerklike tug mekaar ontmoet. Dit is 'n ruimte vir belydenis, vergifnis en versoening. Dit beteken dat daar in die kerk in gemeentes en in die breër kerklike verband, veilige ruimtes geskep moet word waar beide lidmate en ampsdraers hulle verhale kan vertel, en kan hoor en ervaar dat hulle vergifnis ontvang, en versoening tussen partye kan plaasvind, sonder dat formele tug toegepas word - waar die Bybelse eis van tug op die regte manier as sorgsame verdraagsaamheid op grondvlak uitspeel. Hierdie gebeure beteken nie dat formele tug nie kan of sal volg nie. Dit skep egter die regte teologiese raamwerk waarbinne formele tug, indien nodig, toegepas kan word.

 

Samevatting

Jonker (1959) maak die vogende belangrike opmerking oor die funksionering van tug in die kerk:

Ons staan hier voor 'n verootmoedigende waarheid wat ons laat besef dat daar probleme aan 'n geslaagde en doeltreffende beoefening van die tug verbonde is, wat nie met 'n handomdraai verwyder sal kan word nie. (p. 157)

Jonker (1959) gaan dan voort:

Sonder tug sou die kerk wees soos 'n ongeskoffelde tuin waar alles deurmekaar groei, onkruid en blomme, sodat die eintlike karakter van die tuin daardeur op so 'n wyse bedek word dat dit nie meer as tuin herken kan word nie. As die kerk sonder tug sou wees, sonder die onderlinge sorg van die lede vir mekaar, sonder die voortdurende vermaning aan diegene wat sondig, dan sou die heilige karakter van die kerk daarmee heen wees. (p. 9)

Bogenoemde beklemtoon die belangrikheid van kerklike tug. Om dit in die kerk te laat realiseer, sal 'n nuwe verstaan van tug onder lidmate gekweek moet word, en sal informele en formele kerklike tug binne die raamwerk van verdraagsame versorging moet plaasvind. Van Graan het hierdie belangrike waarheid deur haar hele studie uitgewys en beklemtoon.

 

Erkennings

Hierdie artikel is gedeeltelik gebaseer op die mede outeur se navorsing vir haar PhD in Kerkreg aan die Universiteit van Pretoria, Suid Afrika, met studieleier prof. JM van der Merwe.

Mededingende belange

Die outeur verklaar dat daar geen finansiële of persoonlike verbintenisse is wat die skryf van hierdie artikel negatief kon beïvloed nie.

Outeurs bydrae

Ds. B.R. van Graan het haar PhD-verhandeling geskryf oor 'n nuwe model vir kerklike tug in die NGK. Sy is egter tragies aan COVID-19 oorlede voordat sy dit finaal kon afhandel. Hierdie artikel is gebaseer op sommige van haar navorsing en lewer 'n interdisiplinêre bydrae in die studievelde van Kerkreg en Praktiese Teologie. J.M.v.d.M is die enigste outeur van hierdie navorsingsartikel.

Etiese oorwegings

Hierdie artikel het alle etiese standaarde gevolg vir navorsing sonder direkte kontak met, en deelname van mense.

Befondsingsinligting

Die outeur het geen finansiële ondersteuning vir die navorsing, outeurskap en/of publikasie van hierdie artikel ontvang nie ontvang nie

Databeskikbaarheidsverklaring

Datadeling is nie van toepassing op hierdie artikel nie omrede geen nuwe data geskep of ontleed is nie.

Vrywaringsverklaring

Die menings en sienings wat in hierdie artikel uitgespreek word, is dié van die outeur en weerspieël nie noodwendig die amptelike beleid of posisie van enige geaffilieerde instelling, befondser, agentskap of dié van die uitgewer nie. Die outeur is alleen verantwoordelik vir hierdie artikel se en inhoud.

 

Bronnelys

Barnard, A.C., 1981, Die erediens, N.G.Kerkboekhandel, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Bouwma, C., 1942, De Brieven van den apostel Paulus aan Timotheus en Titus, in Kommentaar op het Nieuwe Testament, Van Bottenburg, Amsterdam.         [ Links ]

De Bres, G., 1561, Nederlandse Geloofsblydenis, besigtig 10 Oktober 2023, vanaf https://kerkargief.co.za/doks/bely/GB_NGB.pdf        [ Links ]

De Bruyn, P.J., 1997, Jou enigste troos: Die Heidelbergse Kategismus vir die hedendaagse mens, Departement Sentrale Publikasies, Universiteit vir CHO, Potchefstroom.         [ Links ]

Grosheide, F.W., 1952 Wat leert het Nieuwe Testament inzake de tucht? In Exegetica I: Derde deel, Delft, Keulen.         [ Links ]

Jonker, W.D., 1959, "En as jou broeder sondig …", N.G. Kerk-Uitgewers, Kaapstad.         [ Links ]

Jonker, W.D., 1965, Om die regering van Christus in sy kerk, N.G. Kerk-Uitgewers, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Kamphuis, J., 1982, Om de heiligheid van de gemeente: De kerkelijke tucht, Copieërinrichting Van den Berg, Kampen.         [ Links ]

Kamphuis, J., 1986, De tucht over 'doopleden' en de structuur van het genadeverbond, in Smit, C.J. (samest.), In gehoorsaamheid: Opstelbundel aangebied aan Prof. G.P.L van der Linde by sy emeritering as hoogleraar, pp. 50-61, Potchefstroomse Teologiese Publikasies, Potchefstroom.         [ Links ]

Kleynhans, E.P.J., 1965, Christendom en sy kerke ontmasker, Roodepoort.         [ Links ]

Kleynhans, E.P.J., 1988, Gereformeerde Kerkreg: Deel IV (Die arbeid en betrekkinge van die kerk), Kerkboekhandel Transvaal, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Koffeman, L.C., 2009, Het goed recht van de kerk: een theologische inleiding op het kerkrecht, Kok, Kampen.         [ Links ]

Koffeman, L.C., 2014, In order to serve: an ecumenical introduction to church polity, Lit Verlag.         [ Links ]

Landman, C., 2023, Die tyd is verby vir die kerk se 'harde mag', besigtig 27 September, vanaf https://www.netwerk24.com/netwerk24/stemme/menings/christina-landman-die-tyd-is-verby-vir-die-kerk-se-harde-mag-20230923        [ Links ]

Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk, 2007, Handelinge van die Algemene Sinode, Bybel Media, Wellington.         [ Links ]

Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk, 2010, Handleiding vir die Erediens, Bybel Media, Wellington.         [ Links ]

Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk, 2019, Kerkorde van die Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk met Reglemente, Kerkordelike riglyne en funksionele besluite soos vasgestel deur die Algemene Sinode, Bybel Media, Wellington.         [ Links ]

Nauta, D., 1971, Verklaring van de Kerkorde van de Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland, Kok, Kampen.         [ Links ]

Polman, A.D.R., s.a., Onze Nederlandsche Geloofsbelijdenis, derde en vierde dele, Wever, Franeker.         [ Links ]

Protestantse Kerk in Nederland, 2018, Kerkorde en ordinanties van de Protestantse Kerk in Nederland.         [ Links ]

Smuts, A.J., 1962 Die kerklike tug in wese en praktyk, Randfontein.         [ Links ]

Smuts, A.J., 1968, Die tweede sleutel: riglyne vir kerklike tug, N.G. Kerkboekhandel, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Van Rooyen, J.H.P., 1970, Kerklike tug - 'n heilige saak, Prompt Drukpers, Johannesburg.         [ Links ]

Van't Spijker, W., 1970, De Ambten bij Martin Bucer, Kok, Kampen.         [ Links ]

Visser, J., 1980, Kerklike tug: wat sê die Nuwe Testament? Van Wyk drukkers, Pretoria.         [ Links ]

Visser, J., 1986, Kerklike tugoefening: geen afbraak, maar opbou, In C.J. Smit (samest.), In gehoorsaamheid: opstelbundel aangebied aan Prof. Dr. G.P.L. van der Linde by sy emeritering as hoogleraar, pp. 155-168, Potchefstroomse Teologiese Publikasies, Potchefstroom.         [ Links ]

Vorster, J.D., 1956, Die kerkregtelike ontwikkeling van die Kaapse kerk onder die Kompanjie 1652-1792, Pro Rege-Pers, Potchefstroom.         [ Links ]

Wray, D.E., 1978, Biblical church discipline, Banner of Truth, Pennsylvania, PA. http://churchsociety.org/docs/churchman/110/Cman_110_4_Wray.pdf        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Johan M. van der Merwe
johan.vdmerwe@up.ac.za

Received: 25 Oct. 2023
Accepted: 09 Dec. 2023
Published: 10 May 2024

 

 

1. 'Die kenmerke waaraan ons die ware kerk kan uitken, is die volgende: Wanneer die kerk die evangelie suiwer preek, die sakramente suiwer bedien soos Christus dit ingestel het, en die kerklike tug gebruik om die sondes te straf; kortom, wanneer almal hulle ooreenkomstig die suiwere Woord van God gedra, alles wat daarmee in stryd is, verwerp en Jesus Christus as die enigste Hoof erken' (Nederlandse Geloofsbelydenis Artikel 29).
2. Die uitkoms van Van Graan se navorsing is in besit van die outeur. Sy kon weens haar ontydige afsterwe tydens die COVID-19 pandemie nie haar PhD voltooi nie.
3. Die outeurs erken die belangrikheid van die notae ekklesiae vir die beofening van kerkreg, maar 'n volledige bespreking daarvan val buite die fokus van hierdie artikel. Vir 'n volledige bespreking daarvan, sien Koffeman (2009:183-289).
4. Die vraag lui soos volg, 'aanvaarjy dat jou medegelowges die verantwoordelikheid het om jou te help om op die regte pad te bly?' (Handleiding vir die Erediens 2010:122)
5. Hierdie is een van die belangrike uitkomste van Van Graan se navorsing.
6. Source available online at https://www.netwerk24.com/netwerk24/stemme/menings/christina-landman-die-tyd-is-verby-vir-die-kerk-se-harde-mag-20230923.
7. 62.1 Alle doop- en belydende lidmate van die gemeente val onder die opsig en tug van die kerkraad.

^rND^sBouwma^nC.^rND^sKamphuis^nJ.^rND^sVisser^nJ.^rND^1A01^nRisimati S.^sHobyane^rND^1A01^nRisimati S.^sHobyane^rND^1A01^nRisimati S^sHobyane

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

The selection of narrative information in John 6:1-14 and 22-71: On focalisation

 

 

Risimati S. Hobyane

Department of Ancient Languages and Text Studies, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The article is part of a series of investigations into the Johannine text, specifically focussing on the performative nature of focalisation. Previous contributions by the researcher posited and illustrated that the construction of a narrative involves a deliberate intention by the author to prompt the reader to take action based on their reading. The present article continues to explore the pragmatic power of the narrative of John 6:1-14 and 22-71, utilising focalisation as an analytical tool. The analysis underscores what the narrative strives to teach, revealing Jesus as the bread of life, crucial for satisfying the hunger of the soul, that is salvation leading to eternal life. The careful selection of narrative materials in this passage aligns with the overarching purpose of the Fourth Gospel, as outlined in 20:30-31, and is deemed to have a performative function towards the reader.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article's unique contribution lies in demonstrating that traditional exegetical methods, for example, grammatical-historical approach and others, can be supplemented by literary critical methods such as focalisation to expound or extract meaning from biblical narratives. In this article, the field of (traditional) hermeneutics is supplemented by a literary critical approach to get the better of what the text can offer to the reader.

Keywords: Fourth Gospel; performative; narrative analysis; focalisation; literary artistry.

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Introduction and problem statement

One of the most contested issues in the Fourth Gospel, particularly from the perspective of the Jewish opponents, revolves around the revelation of Jesus' origin and identity, highlighting his transcendent (he comes from God the Father) and divine nature (he is the Messiah - the Son of God, sent by the Father). The author of the Fourth Gospel, as stated in 20:30-31, carefully and deliberately gathered narrative material or information to convey to the reader¹ so that they may believe in Jesus Christ, and through that belief, may attain eternal life. The narrative of the feeding of the 5000 serves as a tributary to this main river of life in the Gospel. The author of this article explored the phenomenon of focalisation in his unpublished PhD thesis titled 'The performative nature of literary devices in the Fourth Gospel' (Hobyane 2023), and also in his article titled 'Focalisation and its performative nature in John 3:1-21' (Hobyane 2024).

The present article delves into the examination of the performative influence embedded in the narrative of the feeding of the 5000 found in John 6:1-14 and 22-71. The objective of this article is to illustrate the pragmatic power of focalisation by scrutinising a specific narrative within the Fourth Gospel, namely 6:1-14 and 22-71 where Jesus feeds 5000 people. The selection of this narrative is based not on predetermined criteria but solely on the observation that it offers unique or more extensive perspectives compared to those already explored by the author in John 3:1-21 and 4:1-42.

 

Methodological orientation

This article utilises the narrative criticism technique known as focalisation as an analytical tool in its effort to investigate the performative aspects of John 6:1-14 and 22-71. The concept of 'focalisation' has garnered positive recognition from scholars since its inception in the early 1980s (Hobyane 2023). As such, this article is a renewed effort to employ this phenomenon to explore the performative nature of the text. While the article does not aim to delve into an exhaustive discussion of the framework of focalisation, it focusses on key aspects of this methodology. The analysis zooms in on two primary areas: identifying the types of focalisation employed in the selected narratives and discussing the three facets of focalisation - namely, the perceptual facet (space and time dimensions), psychological facet (cognitive and emotive components) and lastly, ideological facet (it focusses on the way in which the characters and events of the story are evaluated) (cf. Hobyane 2022:2; 2023:247; Lotman 1975:339-352; Rimmon-Kenan 1983:77-82; Tolmie 1991:272).

In addition to utilising focalisation as an analytical tool, this article will incorporate elements of the speech act theory, specifically addressing the performative nature of utterances in its exploration of the types and facets of focalisation in the selected narratives of the Fourth Gospel. The application of the speech act theory in this context will be confined to the examination of utterances and their potential effect on the reader.²

 

Focalisation and its performative nature in John 6:1-14 and 22-71

Summary of the story

John 6:1-14 and 22-71 recount yet another miraculous sign performed by Jesus - the feeding of a crowd of approximately 5000 men (besides women and children) with just five loaves and two fish (Barry et al. 2016; Richards & Richards 1987:720). Keener (1993:278; cf. Hakola 2005:158; Tasker 1999:93) observes that following his discussion about Moses (5:45-47), Jesus proceeds to enact a sign that might be expected of a new prophet such as Moses (Dt 18:15) - providing manna to the people (cf. Bruce 1983:139; Lindars 1972:234-235). As alluded to above, the signs performed by Jesus in the Fourth Gospel serve a specific purpose: to advance the discourse about Jesus' identity and origin. Each sign is designed to direct the audience's attention to a profound teaching about Jesus as the Son of God or the Messiah. As aptly pointed out by Guthrie (1994:1037), 'John calls them signs because they led people to seek for Jesus' (cf. Richards & Richards 1987:720). This particular sign unfolds during Jesus' public ministry, and is evident from the substantial crowds that gathered around him. In the context of John, those regarded as wonderworkers often attracted large followings in the ancient world. However, a distinctive feature sets Jesus apart - unlike many wonderworkers of his time, he placed a greater emphasis on teaching over miracles (Keener 1993:278).

According to Guthrie (1994:1037-1038), this miracle stands out as the only one recorded in all four Gospels (Mt 14:13-21; Mk 6:32-44; Lk 9:10-17). For this reason, only the special features of John's account will be mentioned here. John refers to the Sea of Tiberias³ (v. 1), a term likely not used to describe the Sea of Galilee during Jesus' time but familiar at the time of writing (Guthrie 1994:1037-1038). The key figures in the narrative include Jesus, his disciples and the crowds who came looking for him because they saw the signs he performed on the diseased (v. 2). The story unfolds primarily through the voice of the narrator (e.g. vv. 1-5, etc.), dialogues (e.g. vv. 7-10, etc.) and asides (v. 6).

Types of focalisation

When analysing the narrating voice in the passage, it can be suggested that the type of focalisation in John 6:1-14 and 22-71 may be characterised as both external and internal. In terms of external focalisation, the focaliser is external to the story. He is an 'onlooker' outside the space where the events are taking place but very close to the vehicle of focalisation (Tolmie 1991:279). This type of focalisation may be described as narrator-focalisation. On the other hand, concerning internal focalisation, the focaliser appears to possess the ability to access the minds of the characters. A few scenarios from John 6 can be cited here:

• In 6:2, the focaliser knows the reason why the crowd followed Jesus, that is 'because they saw his signs which he performed on those who were diseased' [ὅτι ἐθεώρουν τὰ σημεῖα ἃ ἐποίει ἐπὶ τῶν ἀσθενούντων]. Through internal focalisation, the implied reader has access to the minds of the crowd.

• In 6:5-6, the reader is assisted to gain access to Jesus' mind through internal focalisation. The text reports as follows: 'But this he said to test him, for he himself knew what he would do' [τοῦτο δὲ ἔλεγεν πειράζων αὐτόν· αὐτὸς γὰρ ᾔδει τί ἔμελλεν ποιεῖν]. The reader gets to know that Jesus was only testing Phillip because Jesus knew what he would do in terms of feeding the crowd.

• In 6:15, the narrator-focaliser leads the reader into Jesus' mind again. He knows the reason why Jesus departed to the mountain, that is 'Therefore, when Jesus perceived that they were about to come and take him by force to make him king, he departed again to the mountain by himself alone' [Ἰησοῦς οὖν γνοὺς ὅτι μέλλουσιν ἔρχεσθαι καὶ ἁρπάζειν αὐτὸν ἵνα ποιήσωσιν βασιλέα, ἀνεχώρησεν πάλιν εἰς τὸ ὄρος αὐτὸς μόνος].

• In 6:61, the reader is led into the mind of Jesus once again. The passage states, 'When Jesus knew in himself that His disciples complained about this, he said to them: "Does this offend you?"' [εἰδὼς δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἐν ἑαυτῷ ὅτι γογγύζουσιν περὶ τούτου οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς, Τοῦτο ὑμᾶς σκανδαλίζει]. The narrator-focaliser aids the reader in understanding why Jesus posed the question to his disciples about his teaching - because the disciples were complaining about it.

• Lastly, in 6:64, the narrator-focaliser accesses Jesus' mind and divine knowledge regarding the person (or disciple) who did not believe and would eventually betray him. The narrator-focaliser reports as follows: 'For Jesus knew from the beginning who they were who did not believe, and who would betray Him' [ᾔδει γὰρ ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὁ Ἰησοῦς τίνες εἰσὶν οἱ μὴ πιστεύοντες καὶ τίς ἐστιν ὁ παραδώσων αὐτόν]. As already suggested and pointed out in the observations aforementioned, it may be concluded that this narrative is both externally and internally focalised. Besides being an 'onlooker' to the story, the narrator-focaliser also has the ability to focalise the characters internally.

This type of focalisation is not neutral in its pragmatic power; it possesses the potential to influence and persuade the reader. The reader is prompted and confronted with the challenge of trusting the narrator-focaliser, as the narrative demonstrates that this form of focalisation is expansive and, to some extent, reliable. This becomes crucial for the reader as the narrative aims to achieve specific goals in the life of the reader in relation to Christ (cf. 6:51 and 20:30-31).

 

Facets of focalisation and their performative nature

The perceptual facet in John 6

The spatial facet of focalisation in this narrative can be characterised as fixed or limited to specific scenes of miracles and the subsequent movements of the Protagonist, as well as the places of his teachings. For example, scenes include the mountainside (vv.1-15), the Sea of Galilee (referred to as the Sea of Tiberias) (vv.16-21) and the Synagogue in Capernaum (v.24). The reader is not presented with a simultaneous focalisation of events in the story. For instance, when Jesus retreats to the mountainside (v.15), the narrator-focaliser remains with the disciples (vv.16-19) until Jesus rejoins them in verse 20. When Jesus and the disciples are already in Capernaum (vv.22-24), no activity is reported taking place there until the crowds find him (v.25) and begin to engage with him. This type of focalisation notably contrasts with the reader's experience in John 4:1-42. In this narrative, the narrator-focaliser remained exclusively with Jesus and his disciples, focussing on the message they conveyed to the crowds. The people had to actively seek Jesus or go to his location for the narrative to progress.

From a performative point of view, it becomes evident that the narrative is focalised in a manner that the reader's view of the Protagonist and his ideological stance is not distracted by any other event occurring elsewhere. This may serve to underscore how critically important the ideological facet of the Protagonist is valued in the narrative. The ideology of the Protagonist is presented and communicated to the reader without interruptions, reflecting its significance to the author's intent. This performative aspect invites and actively persuades the implied reader to concentrate solely on the Protagonist, urging them to focus on no other events but to fix their attention on the central figure.

The temporal dimension of focalisation is to a large extent similar to the spatial facet here. The temporal dimension of the narrator-focaliser is generally restricted to the present events. Nevertheless, at least two exceptions can be identified. Firstly, as previously emphasised, the narrator-focaliser exhibits awareness of the impending miracle (v.6) before it transpires. In this instance, the narrator-focaliser demonstrates possessing knowledge about 'near-future events' that the disciples and the reader are not privy to. Only the narrator-focaliser and the Protagonist are aware of these events. This aside serves to alleviate tension for the reader, aiding in a clearer understanding and smoother navigation of the narrative. In this way, the narrator-focaliser ensures that the reader remains closely connected to the narrative and the ideology of Jesus in the text, as this alignment with the main purpose of the Fourth Gospel is paramount.

Secondly, the narrator-focaliser possesses knowledge about Judas and his future actions towards the Lord (vv.64, 71). Once more, only the narrator-focaliser and the Protagonist share this insight into future events. This proves invaluable for the reader, providing them with advanced information about the future and sparing them from unexpected surprises.

In summary, the temporal dimension of focalisation, in this context, can be considered performative in nature. The narrator-focaliser's insights and asides in verse 6 (that Jesus knew what he was about to do) as well as in verses 64 and 71 (regarding Judas) play a crucial role in shaping the reader's understanding of the content of Jesus' utterance and the future events.

Through internal focalisation, the narrator-focaliser exhibits a caring and guiding presence towards the reader, aiming to facilitate a proper understanding of the unfolding narrative. The reader gains valuable insight from this support, being placed in a position even more insightful than that of Philip or the other disciples themselves. With the narrator-focaliser's meticulous descriptions and insider knowledge of the characters, the reader engages with the story of Jesus with heightened interest and clarity. Such attentive care in the narrative process empowers the reader to make personal decisions and fosters a deeper connection with the unfolding story. As the reader is guided through this experience, they may find themselves at the point of making decisions while immersed in the story. This aligns with the Gospel's overarching purpose (John 20:30-31) and is thus performative in nature.

Psychological facet in John 6

The cognitive component of focalisation can be described as both restricted and unrestricted knowledge of the narrator-focaliser. On the one hand, it is restricted in the sense that the narrator-focaliser does not, at all times, possess the knowledge of why some utterances and actions are done in the manner they are done for example in verse 12, the narrator-focaliser does not provide an aside to inform the reader why Jesus directed the disciples to gather up the fragments that remained after eating. The reader is left to make their own conclusion that this utterance was meant to underscore the magnitude of the miracle because the gathered fragments after eating could still fill up 12 baskets (v.13). However, it is noticed, on the other hand, that the narrator-focaliser does prove to have the ability to access the minds of the characters, as discussed as discussed under internal focalisation. Furthermore, it is noted that a large amount of information is conveyed by the Protagonist (Jesus), as he responds to the Jewish opponents (vv.43-51, 53-58, and 61-63). Here, Jesus is focalised as possessing profound knowledge about his oneness with the Father and its significance for those who place their belief in him. The cognitive component of the narrator-focaliser is confined to this specific knowledge, with the Protagonist assuming the responsibility of directly imparting it to the reader. This has the potential to captivate the reader's focus on Jesus, as he personally addresses them, ensuring that the invitation to believe in him is vividly presented. The reader experiences a direct invitation to initiate or enhance their relationship with Jesus. The depiction of the ideological aspect of the Protagonist, from the standpoint of this study, is remarkably clear and direct, compelling the reader to make a choice rather than remaining on neutral ground. The outcome of the direct appeal is evident in verse 66, where many abandoned him and walked away, but some, like Peter, chose to remain. Peter's confession, 'κύριε, πρὸς τίνα ἀπελευσόμεθα; ῥήματα ζωῆς αἰωνίου ἔχεις' (Lord to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life), underscores the profound impact of the Protagonist's message.

Moreover, it can be demonstrated, as alluded to in the discussion of the perceptual facet that the cognitive component is also unrestricted in some parts of the narrative. It has been indicated that the narrator-focaliser seems to possess some knowledge about the miracle itself (v.6) and the future of Judas Iscariot (vv.64, 71).

The performative nature of the psychological facet mirrors that of the perceptual facet discussed above. In this context, the narrator-focaliser seizes the opportunity to establish a relationship of trust between themselves and the reader. This relationship is pivotal as it has the potential to sustain the reader's interest in the text and the revelation of who Jesus is, along with the expectations regarding the reader's response to the material.

The emotive component of the Protagonist is focalised as neutral. The reader would expect the Protagonist to show a possible emotional change on three occasions, but this is not the case. Firstly, in the actual event of multiplying the bread and feeding the 5000 people in verses:5-14, Jesus reveals no emotion of joy or satisfaction. The Protagonist is focalised as 'neutral' in showing emotions, but very much in control of the situation. Jesus was more focussed on the purpose, meaning and implication of the sign than the sign itself.

Secondly, the Protagonist shows no emotions when talking about Judas as the one who did not believe and would subsequently betray him (vv.64, 71). The Protagonist is focalised as calm in this potentially emotion-provoking situation, maintaining composure to the reader.

Lastly, a significant number of his disciples, likely the new converts, abandon him, complaining that his teachings are hard (v.60). In a normal situation, or the world of both the implied and real reader, this would be a considerable setback and a distressing moment for any leader of a ministry. However, Jesus remains emotionally calm. Instead of mourning the loss, he goes to enquire from the remaining 12 if they also plan to depart.

It can be illustrated here that the calmness of the Protagonist is primarily rooted in his teaching in verse 65, which asserts that those who departed never truly belonged to him, as the text reports:

διὰ τοῦτο εἴρηκα ὑμῖν ὅτι οὐδεὶς δύναται ἐλθεῖν πρός με ἐὰν μὴ ᾖ δεδομένον αὐτῷ ἐκ τοῦ πατρός (therefore I have said to you that no one can come to me unless it has been granted to him by my Father).

In this context, the Protagonist is focalised as totally in control of the situation and emotionally calm. Unless the interpreter of the text opts to overlook this clear textual evidence, the demonstration of Jesus' power and control over the situation becomes performative for the reader. It overtly invites them to believe in Jesus. The reader undergoes an encounter with a composed and measured approach to a situation, providing an opportunity to further connect with the Protagonist's teachings.

Ideological facet in John 6

The narrative's ideological facet is conveyed primarily through a singular dominant perspective - that of Jesus Christ, the Protagonist. It is crucial to acknowledge that this perspective gains particular prominence when the crowds pose inquiries in search of clarity and understanding (vv.30-31). These questions are innocently intended for seeking clarity, rather than representing an alternative ideology vying for acknowledgment or dominance within the narrative. The miracle is presented in a way that directs the reader's attention to the teaching or ideology of the Protagonist. Jesus is depicted as overseeing the proceedings and showcasing his power throughout the entire narrative. Keener (1993:279; cf. Lindars 1972:244) makes a critical ideological observation when he says that the story reveals Jesus as 'the New Passover, New Manna and one greater than Moses'. This observation is invaluable as it recognises that everything that is happening in the narrative points to Jesus and his sovereignty. A few examples from the passage in John 6 may be cited to illustrate this point:

• In verses:5-6, Jesus and his disciples encounter a challenging situation with a vast multitude following them, seemingly facing a shortage of food from the disciples' perspective. Nevertheless, Jesus manifests his divine power by orchestrating a miracle and miraculously feeding the entire crowd. Through this miracle, Jesus offers a 'new manna' to Israel, underscoring his superiority to Moses. Consequently, there is no necessity to cling to what God the Father accomplished through Moses when Jesus is bringing about an even more significant fulfilment through his person and ministry (cf. Morris 1971:363-364).

• In verse 20, when Jesus reunites with the disciples after they saw him walking on the water, he reassures them with the words: 'ἐγώ εἰμι· μὴ φοβεῖσθε' (It is I or I am, do not be afraid). Barry et al. (2016) observe that the Greek phrase used here, ἐγώ εἰμι, translated literally as 'I am', echoes the motif of Jesus' 'I am' sayings, reflecting the nuanced expression of deity found in 'I am' in Exodus 3:14; Isaiah 41:4; 43:10, 13 (Keener 1993:279; cf. Barrett 1978:281). However, Guthrie (1994:1038) cautions that 'the words "It is I, don't be afraid" (v.20) are not to be invested with the aura which other great "I am" sayings in John convey. The message here is that fear was banished in the presence of Jesus'.

• In verse 23, at least from the textual evidence at our disposal, the narrator-focaliser calls the Protagonist 'the Lord', revealing his own submission to the Lordship (κυρίος) of Jesus Christ in the text.

• In verse 29, Jesus explicitly calls people to believe in him whom God the Father has sent into the world.

• In verses 32, 38 and 41, Jesus reveals himself as the bread that came down from heaven. This was an immediate and more pragmatic application of the miracle he had just performed. Through these utterances, the Protagonist shifts the focus from the physical bread which he has just provided to them, to his physical body that will be pierced for the sins of the world (Jamieson, Fausset & Brown 1997:138).

• In verses 40, 44, Jesus confronts the audience (Galilean Jews) by affirming that he has come from heaven, sent by the Father (Kanagaraj 2005:211). This affirmation is a direct response to their earthly understanding of Jesus when they said, 'οὐχ οὗτός ἐστιν Ἰησοῦς ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωσήφ, οὗ ἡμεῖς οἴδαμεν τὸν πατέρα καὶ τὴν μητέρα; πῶς νῦν λέγει ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καταβέβηκα' (Is this not Jesus, the son of Joseph, whose father and mother we know? How is it then that he says, 'I have come down from heaven'?). The reader should be in a better position to evaluate their misunderstanding because they have already read the prologue of the Gospel. Jesus is focalised as the one who came from heaven to fulfil the Father's will (cf. Culpepper 1998:116; Malina & Rohrbaugh 1998:34; Painter 2007:328; and see Culpepper [2016:3] for insightful commentary on the prologues and coming of Jesus into the world).

• In verses 27, 53 and 62, the Protagonist explicitly calls himself the Son of Man upon whom God the Father has placed his seal (Harris 2015:130; cf. Brown 1975:261). Painter (1986:34) highlights that 'The understanding of the Son of Man as a figure to be worshipped is distinctively Johannine' (cf. Freeman & Chadwick 1998:514).

• Lastly, in 6:32, 39 and 65, Jesus speaks of God the Father as 'my Father' [ὁ πατήρ μου], thereby sharply contrasting the phrase 'οἱ πατέρες ὑμῶν' (your fathers) in reference to the Jewish opponents in the narrative (cf. v.58) and distinguishing himself as unique and having a special relationship with God the Father, even better than that of Moses (cf. Lindars 1972:258; Malina & Rohrbaugh 1998:133).

Based on the above textual references, it is comprehensible that Jesus is consistently focalised as the central figure in the narrative, displaying confidence in his ability to perform signs that beckon people, including the reader, to believe in him. His composure remains steadfast, unaffected by the knowledge of one disciple's betrayal or the departure of many others. He maintains complete control, and this revelation is transparent before the eyes of the reader.

From the pragmatic point of view, it becomes evident that the ideological facet revolves around Jesus and his teachings, presenting a convincingly plausible and dominant perspective that the reader cannot overlook while engaging with the text. The reader is guided towards accepting the Protagonist (Jesus) as the Son of God, who came for the redemption of people, including the reader. As Tolmie (1991:284; Van der Watt 2007:15) highlights, embracing this ideological facet of focalisation ensures that the intended reader attains eternal life.

Concerning Jesus' disciples, they are focalised differently from that of the Protagonist. They are positioned as objects, with Jesus being the subject. The narrator-focaliser focalises the disciples as entirely reliant on Jesus for various provisions, such as food (v.6), security (v.20), eternal life (v.68) and more. This type of focalisation can be interpreted as a deliberate invitation extended to the reader as well. In one way or another, readers, whether implied or real, are cognisant of these social needs in their lives. The revelation that they can depend on Jesus for these needs is alluring to them.

 

Summary of findings

The goal of this article was to investigate the performative nature of focalisation in the text of John 6:1-14 and 22-71. Employing the analytical approach, the focalisation in this narrative was characterised as both external and internal. External focalisation, executed by the narrator-focaliser, played a crucial role in assisting the reader's cognitive level with regard to the content of the narrative. Additionally, the dialogue between the characters emerged as a pivotal aspect of the external focalisation in the narrative. The Protagonist seizes the opportunity to promote his ideological facet in the story (John 6:32-33, 35-40). This type of focalisation directly engages the implied reader, possessing the potential to influence their decisions - whether to accept or reject Jesus. It is noteworthy that the believing reader is consistently bolstered in their faith through this focalisation.

Based on the observations and analysis of the story, certain parts of the narrative have been described as internally focalised. In this type of focalisation, the Protagonist or a character is focalised internally, with notes or asides that provide insight into their thoughts and/or feelings (v.6).

The spatial facet of focalisation was identified as fixed or limited to the specific scene of the miracle and the subsequent movements and teachings of the Protagonist, such as those occurring in the Synagogue in Capernaum (v.24). It was suggested that the reader does not have the opportunity to experience simultaneous focalisation, as discussed. The intentional exclusivity of the narrative's focus, deemed deliberative on the part of the author, ensures that the reader is not diverted by events elsewhere. The reader's thoughts are consistently directed towards the identity, work and values represented by the Protagonist in the story. This deliberate focus is seen as an effective means to persuade the reader to believe in Christ.

The temporal dimension of focalisation was largely likened to the spatial facet. In terms of the psychological facet, specifically the cognitive component, the article characterised it as involving both restricted and unrestricted knowledge on the part of the focaliser. In its restricted form, the narrative utilises the Protagonist himself, rather than the narrator-focaliser, to convey new information. However, it was observed that certain crucial information is internally focalised in John 6 through the narrator-focaliser's ability to access the minds of the characters in the story, exemplified in passages such as verses 2, 5-6, 15, 61 and 64.

The ideological facet in the narrative is presented through a solitary dominant perspective in favour of the Protagonist. The narrative is focalised in a way that the reader realises that Jesus is in control of everything from the beginning to the end of the narrative. Based on the textual references made, a conclusive argument was presented that Jesus is focalised as a central figure, displaying unwavering confidence in his power to perform miracles and remaining unfazed by the prospect of betrayal by one of his disciples or the departure of many others. The ideological facet of focalisation was aptly described as performative, given its primary aim to persuade the reader to accept Jesus, the Protagonist, as the Son of God.

Concerning Jesus' disciples, the study proposed that they are focalised as entirely reliant on Jesus, as seen in aspects such as food (v.6), security (v.20) and eternal life (v.68). This was also characterised as a purposeful invitation to the reader, as it entices both implied and real readers to believe in Jesus, ensuring that their needs can also be attended to and fulfilled in their lives.

The examination of focalisation and its facets in this article compellingly aligns, to a considerable degree, with the hypothesis presented in the article. It posits that focalisation can play a pragmatic or performative role for the reader as they engage with the text and concurrently contribute synergistically to enhancing and reinforcing the fulfilment of the central purpose of the Fourth Gospel, as stated in John 20:30-31.

 

Acknowledgements

This article forms part of a series of contributions on the theme of focalisation by the researcher and is an expanded version of Chapter 6 of R.S.H.'s recently completed PhD thesis in 2023 at the Northwest University (Potchefstroom Campus) with supervisor Prof Jan G. van der Watt.

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.

Author's contributions

R.S.H. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the North-West University Theology Research Ethics Committee and ethics consent was received on 27 November 2023. The ethics approval number is NWU-00888-23-A6.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Malina, B.J. & Rohrbaugh, R.L., 1998, Social-science commentary on the Gospel of John, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, MN.         [ Links ]

Morris, L., 1971, The new international commentary on the New Testament: The Gospel of John, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Painter, J., 1986, 'John 9 and the interpretation of the Fourth Gospel', Journal for the Study of the New Testament 9(28), 31-61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142064X8600902804        [ Links ]

Painter, J., 2007, 'The death of Jesus in John: A discussion of the tradition, history, and theology of John', in G. Belle (ed.), The death of Jesus in the Fourth Gospel, pp. 327-361, University Press, Leuven.         [ Links ]

Richards, L. & Richards, L.O., 1987, The teacher's commentary, Includes index, Victor Books, Wheaton, IL.         [ Links ]

Rimmon-Kenan, S., 1983, Narrative fiction: Contemporary poetics, Metheuen, London.         [ Links ]

Tasker, R.V.G., 1999, John (Tyndale New Testament Commentaries), Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Tolmie, D.F., 1991, 'The function of character focalisation in John 13-17', Neotestamentica 25(2), 273-287.         [ Links ]

Tovey, D., 1997, Narrative art and act in the Fourth Gospel, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield.         [ Links ]

Van der Watt, J.G., 2007, An introduction to the Johannine Gospel and letters, T & T Clark, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Van der Watt, J.G., 2009. 'Repetition and functionality in the Gospel of John: Some initial exploration', in G. Van Belle, M. Labahn & P. Maritz (eds.), Repetitions, variations in the Fourth Gospel: Style, text, interpretation, pp. 87-108, Peeters, Leuven.         [ Links ]

Van der Watt, J.G., 2010, 'Ethics through the power of language: Some exploration in the Gospel according to John', in R. Zimmerman & S. Luther (eds.), Moral language in the New Testament, pp. 421-448, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Risimati Hobyane
risimati.hobyane@nwu.ac.za

Received: 21 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 17 Apr. 2024
Published: 14 May 2024

 

 

1. In this article, the term 'reader' exclusively refers to the 'implied reader'. Consequently, the study will refrain from repeating the adjective 'implied' each time it alludes to the reader. According to Van der Watt (2009:88; cf. Jeong 2018:18-19), an implied reader can be defined as the inner-textual (personified) construction that systematically discovers what the implied author presents as the story unfolds to the end.
2. For a detailed discussion of this methodology, see Tovey (1997:68), Briggs (2001:4), Botha (2009:486), Van der Watt (2010:144) and Hobyane (2022:147-150).
3. Barry et al. (2016) mention, 'This alternative name for the Sea of Galilee also was the name of a city on its western shore. Tiberias was the largest and most important city in Galilee and was the regional capital for Herod Antipas' (see also Keener 1993:278 for further elucidation).

^rND^sBotha^nE.J.^rND^sCulpepper^nR.A.^rND^sGuthrie^nD.^rND^sHarris^nM.J.^rND^sHobyane^nR.S.^rND^sHobyane^nR.S.^rND^sLotman^nJ.M.^rND^sPainter^nJ.^rND^sPainter^nJ.^rND^sTolmie^nD.F.^rND^sVan der Watt^nJ.G.^rND^sVan der Watt^nJ.G.^rND^1A01^nWillem H.^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver^rND^1A01^nWillem H.^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver^rND^1A01^nWillem H^sOliver^rND^1A01^nErna^sOliver

CORRECTION

 

Erratum: Θεός, Father and the 'Holy Trinity' in the New Testament

 

 

Willem H. Oliver; Erna Oliver

Department of Christian Spirituality, Church History, and Missiology, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

In the published article, Oliver, W.H., 2024, 'Θεός, Father and the "Holy Trinity" in the New Testament', Verbum et Ecclesia 45(1), a3040, there was an error with author E. Oliver being omitted from the 'How to cite this article' and should instead read: Oliver, W.H. & Oliver, E., 2024, 'Θεός, Father and the "Holy Trinity" in the New Testament', Verbum et Ecclesia 45(1), a3040. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v45i1.3040

The publisher apologises for this error. The correction does not change the study's findings of significance or overall interpretation of the study's results or the scientific conclusions of the article in any way.

 

 

Correspondence:
Willem Oliver
wh.oliver@outlook.com

Published: 18 Apr. 2024

^rND^1A01^nPieter^sKruger^rND^1A01^nPieter^sKruger^rND^1A01^nPieter^sKruger

REVIEW ARTICLE

 

'n Teologie van Hoop vir die NG Kerk: 'n Vergete versugting?

 

A theology of hope for the Dutch Reformed Church. A forgotten yearning?

 

 

Pieter Kruger

Department of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

During Prof. Piet Meiring's discussion of the Dutch Reformed Church's 'Year of Hope' in 2001, he argued that the societal issues of reconciliation, poverty and moral regeneration on which the church focused that year, necessitated a theology of hope towards which theologians of different disciplines should contribute. In this article is explored whether to pursue such an endeavour more than two decades since the Year of Hope. Therefore, from a church historiographic viewpoint, aspects of Jürgen Moltmann's ideas on a theology of hope within a context of injustices are revisited to assert their current relevance. In addition, more recent theological developments concerning the horizontal dimension of Christological hope within society are considered as well. In this regard reference is made to relevant ideas of the Emergent Church movement and its historical continuance. Reflecting on the current South African context and its socio-political, economic and environmental challenges, the need for a theology of hope is considered relevant to the church in order to establish credible relationships and engage strategically with society in need of hope itself.
INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article contains reviewed material of historical relevance and is, therefore, conducted within the field of Church Historiography. In further consideration of a Theology of Hope the opportunity arises for interdisciplinary collaboration of theological disciplines such as Systematic Theology and Practical Theology

Keywords: Theology of Hope; Dutch Reformed Church; Jürgen Moltmann; emerging church; South Africa; social justice.

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Inleiding

In Kruger se artikel '2001, die NG Kerk se Jaar van Hoop. Twintig jaar later', word 'n kerkhistoriese oorsig gegee van die wyse waarop die tema van hoop in die Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk (NG Kerk) deur die Jaar van Hoop ontsluit is en in die 20 jaar daarna gerealiseer het. Die Jaar van Hoop was 'n uitvloeisel van die werksaamhede van die ad hoc-kommissie vir Versoening, Armoede en Morele Herstel (VAM) wat deur die Algemene Sinode van 1998 daargestel is. Dit is aan die VAM-kommissie opgedra om vanaf 'n kerklike perspektief die probleme van armoede, versoening en moraliteit as komplekse en kritieke maatskaplike probleme binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks aan te raak en die NG Kerk met praktiese voorstelle in dié verband te dien. Hierdie opdrag sou die ideale van die Jaar van Hoop word, wat gedurende 2001 op verskillende wyses gerealiseer het in die vorm van amptelike kerklike byeenkomste, amptelike hulpmiddels aan gemeentes, projekte en regeringsvennootskappe. Met die bespreking van die Jaar van Hoop by die opening van die Fakulteit Teologie aan die Universiteit van Pretoria op 29 Januarie 2001, het prof. Piet Meiring, voorsitter van die VAM-kommissie, in sy rede die nodigheid uitgewys van 'n Teologie van Hoop waaraan teoloë van elke dissipline moet meewerk. 'n Teologie van hoop was volgens Meiring se mening deel van die kerk se verkondigingstaak. Met verdere toeligting het Meiring verduidelik dat in die jare na die Tweede Wêreldoorlog 'n dinamiese koninkryksteologie ontwikkel het wat 'n geweldige invloed op die kerklike lewe uitgeoefen het. Hiervan was die Apostolaatsteologie oor die uitgaan van die evangelie in die wêreld deel en het dit 'n sterk invloed gehad op die ontwikkeling van 'n Teologie van Hoop. Jürgen Moltmann en etlike ander teoloë is in hierdie verband genoem (Kruger 2022:2-4).

Na afloop van die Jaar van Hoop is die bestaande doelwitte en projekte van die VAM-Kommissie oorgedra aan die NG Kerk se destydse Werkgroep Missionêre Diakonaat en ander bedieninge van die kerk, aangesien missionêre diakonaat (of diensgetuienis) die sentrum van die kerk se roeping geword het (Kruger 2022:5). Mettertyd sou die Taakspan Missionale Roeping en Taakspan Missionale Diakonaat die werksaamhede opneem en voortsit. Wat die tema van hoop per se betref, dui Kruger aan dat hoop telkens die afgelope 20 jaar in samehang met versoening, armoede en morele herstel op verskillende kerklike terreine ter sprake gekom het, veral by wyse van sinodale verslae en beleidsdokumente, projekte, werksgroepe en verhale van hoop wat verband hou met gemeentelike- en gemeenskapsprojekte. In Kruger se artikel is, buiten die behoefte aan hoop wat in 2021 ervaar is, ook die behoefte aan 'n Teologie van Hoop aangeraak, in aansluiting by Meiring se woorde van 2001, as vertrekpunt vir verdere nadenke omtrent die verwesenliking van hoop in die hedendaagse kerk en die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing (Kruger 2022:13).

Hierdie artikel neem as vertrekpunt Meiring se opmerking omtrent 'n behoefte aan 'n Teologie van Hoop in die hedendaagse milieu. Is dit 'n relevante versugting uit die verlede wat opnuut aandag behoort te geniet? Eerstens het die artikel dus ten doel om met spesifieke verwysing na Moltmann die begronding en aktualisering van 'n Teologie van Hoop te belig. Hiermee vind nie 'n kritiese of prinsipiële beoordeling van Moltmann se Teologie van Hoop plaas nie, maar word die rasionaal daarvan, wat kerkhistories van belang is, aangeroer. Tweedens word meer resente ontwikkelinge bespreek waarin die kerkhistoriese relevansie en toepassing van ('n teologie van) hoop sentraal staan. Die verskynsel van die ontluikende kerk is hier van belang. Derdens word die werklikheid van 'n behoefte aan ('n teologie van) hoop in die NG Kerk teen die agtergrond van die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks bespreek. Die artikel is aangepak met 'n oorsig van primêre en sekondêre bronne wat boeke, artikels en voordrag insluit.

Om te besin oor 'n Teologie van Hoop kan tereg aangesluit word by Bauckham (1995:32) se vraag of sodanige herbesoek nie maar net 'n oefening in nostalgie is nie. Die antwoord op hierdie vraag vind ons in Meiring se opmerking dat teoloë van elke dissipline moet meewerk aan 'n Teologie van Hoop veral omdat dit deel is van die kerk se verkondigingstaak. Dit bly vir die kerk relevant. Dit is ook nie 'n unieke, moderne onderneming nie. Uit die patristieke era is die kerkvader Augustinus bekend as denker omtrent 'n Teologie van Hoop (Yuehua 2022:1). Die oomblik waarin hoop en vrese ontmoet, is die oomblik waar tot mense gespreek word (Bauckham 1995:105). Dit skep voortdurend die geleentheid vir nadenke oor die inhoud van hoop.

 

Moltmann se ontwikkeling van 'n Teologie van Hoop

In Bauckham (1995:43, 44) se beoordeling van Moltmann se Teologie van Hoop wys hy daarop dat Moltmann benadruk dat hoop in die moderne periode grootliks migreer het van die Christelike kerk na sekulêre bewegings van menslike hoop. Moltmann se teologiese werk gedurende die 1960's was bedoel om hierdie skisma te oorbrug. Vervolgens word aandag gegee aan die gronde en aktualisering van hierdie teologie.

Gronde van 'n Teologie van Hoop

Moltmann (1975:45) dui aan dat 'n Christelike Teologie van Hoop nie 'n verskynsel is wat godsdienstig geïnterpreteer moet word nie, maar die onderwerp en motivering van die teologie op sigself is. Dit is gegrond op geloof en nie blote optimisme nie. Daarom is dit nie 'n teologie wat handel oor hoop nie, maar 'n teologie wat ontwikkel uit hoop op God, en die belofte van die komende God. 'n Teologie van Hoop interpreteer die Bybelse geskiedenis van beloftes betekenisvol binne die teenswoordige konteks van die Christendom se missie na die wêreld. Moltmann (1975:46) meen dat wanneer die Bybel gelees word as 'n boek omtrent God se hoop, die gewaarwording ontstaan dat dit 'n hoogs revolusionêre en selfs opruiende boek is. Die hoop wat ter sprake is, geld vir die hooplose en nie vir die optimis nie, vir die armlastige en nie vir die ryke nie, vir die diegene waarop neergesien word om ondanks verkleinering moedig voort te gaan, vir die onderdruktes om waardig te leef - dit alles só op die aarde soos dit sal wees in die hemel.

Bauckham (1995:30) dui aan dat in Moltmann se Teologie van Hoop die toekomstige eskatologiese teologie kontemporêr aangewend word sodat die Christelike geloof vir die moderne wêreld geloofwaardig en relevant kan wees. Bauckham meen verder dat Moltmann se interpretasie van die eskatologie sterk praktykgerig is deurdat Christelike hoop die motiverende krag agter die kerk se missionêre skakeling met die wêreld is - veral Christelike betrokkenheid by die proses van sosiale en politieke verandering. As 'n eskatologiese toekoms vir die kerk geopen word, open dit ook die kerk vir die wêreld en word die kerk die agent van eskatologiese beweging in die gemeenskap wat die wêreld rig op die komende koninkryk van God. Dit is volgens Bauckham (1995:31) die beweegrede hoekom Moltmann krities met die moderne wêreld omgaan en die kontemporêre geskiedenis beleef as 'n proses van konstante en radikale verandering waarin na 'n hoopvolle toekoms gesoek word. Dit skep die geleentheid vir die kerk om vanuit die eskatologiese Bybelse geloof deel te neem aan die moontlikhede vir verandering en te waak teen stagnasie.

'n Belangrike perspektief wat Bauckham (1995:31-32) aan die orde stel in die beoordeling van Moltmann se Teologie van Hoop is dat dit spreek tot die 1960's se algemene optimistiese ingesteldheid. Sedertdien het nadenke omtrent hoop as sulks meer problematies geword. Utopiese hoop is in die jare hierna uitgedaag deur die realiteit van weerstand en konflik in 'n wêreld waar die verwagtinge van die vooruitstrewendes ten koste van die armes is, en die hoop van die armes die welvarendes bedreig. In die oorweging van Moltmann se Teologie van Hoop is dit duidelik dat hoop allermins ingebed is in die vlak grond van optimisme, maar in die teologie van die opstanding van Christus en die eskatologie. Volgens Bauckham (1995:36-37) vind hierdie teologie vir Moltmann volle waarde waar dit op aktiewe wyse die ongeregtighede van die hede blootlê en die hoop ondersteun van dié wat honger na verandering in die soeke na geregtigheid.

Aktualisering van 'n Teologie van Hoop

Die omvang van Moltmann se nadenke omtrent die aktualisering van 'n Teologie van Hoop binne 'n konteks van ongeregtighede en die soeke na geregtigheid kan nie in die artikel hanteer word nie, maar die volgende sub-afdelings word uitgelig as relevant vir moontlike verdere nadenke binne die NG Kerk.

Die etiek van Calvinisme

Moltmann (1975:120) verwys na reformasiegeloof binne die konteks van gereformeerde kerke as geloof in die voortdurende hervormende en vernuwende aktiwiteit van God. Dit behels 'n beweging van vernuwing van die geloof. Reformasie as sulks beteken die vernuwing van die kerk deur die werk van God. God se reformasie omvat die totale mens, die individu en sy verhoudinge in die kerk en samelewing. Moltmann meen dat die reformasie van dogma of leerstellings noodwendig deur die reformasie van die lewe gevolg moet word, want God se reformasie is 'n omvattende vernuwende aangeleentheid. Moltmann meen verder dat hierdie oortuiging uitdrukking vind in die Calvinistiese idee dat die volle openbare lewe onder die gesag van God staan. Hieruit ontwikkel 'n etiek wat nie by die private moraliteit van individue volstaan nie, maar wat die kultuur en ekonomie van die dag krities beoordeel, en gereed is tot politieke weerstand teen tirannie. Die wyse waarop Calvinisme die staat en sy konstitusies teologies binne die verbond van God plaas, bied vir Moltmann (1975:129-130) die morele sanksie om weerstand te bied teen die skending van die staat se grondwet. Wanneer 'n regering sy eie wette verbreek, verordeninge uitvaardig wat die grondwet weerspreek of 'n konstitusie daarstel wat die universele verklaring omtrent menseregte misken, spreek dit duidelik van tirannie en bied die gereformeerde tradisie volgens Moltmann 'n handelswyse vir die stryd - die oproep tot legitieme weerstand. Moltmann ag legitieme weerstand as 'n pertinente verpligting van Christene in die aanskoue van hedendaagse politieke dilemmas.

Die menslikheid van lewe en sterwe

Ten opsigte van dié tema fokus Moltmann (1975:171) op die samewerking tussen verskeie terapeutiese dissiplines in die mediese en sosiale sfere in die strewe na 'n omvattende en ongekwalifiseerde gevoel van redding - soteria - shalom. Hier is by uitstek ruimte vir die kerk van die huidige dag om betrokke te raak. Wat ons van redding in hierdie lewe verstaan, kom alleen deur geloof en hoop.

Politieke teologie

As Moltmann (1975:102) besin oor 'n politieke teologie as deel van die aktualisering van 'n Teologie van Hoop, toon hy dat verantwoordelike (omsigtige) teologiese kritiek op twee vlakke beoefen behoort te word, naamlik institusionele kritiek ten opsigte van kerklike instellings se plek in die lewe van die moderne samelewing en ideologiese kritiek as die kerk se refleksie na binne. Die kerk kan nie volstaan by die eie verstaan van die sosiale en politieke realiteite nie, maar in publiek verantwoordelike teologie staan dit bewustelik tussen die Christelik eskatologiese boodskap van vryheid aan die een kant en die sosio-politieke realiteite aan die ander kant. Hierdie teologie het geen verband met burgerlike godsdiens en die ideologiese begronding daarvan in 'n politieke teologie nie. Moltmann (1975:117, 118) maak dit duidelik dat in besinning omtrent 'n politieke teologie die Christelike geloof nie deur politiek verdun mag word of deur humanisme vervang mag word nie. Binne die raamwerk van politieke teologie fokus die Christelike hoop op die toekoms van die hooploses. Vir Moltmann dring die bevrydende herinnering aan die gekruisigde Jesus die Christelike kerk tot 'n kritiese beoefening van politieke teologie. Die kruis is die hoop vir die politiek van bevryding.

Bauckham (1995:104, 105, 106) beklemtoon dat Moltmann in Christelike hoop die inisiatief vir politieke verandering vind. Moltmann reduseer Christelike hoop egter nie tot iets wat deur die menslike aktiwiteit in die verloop van die geskiedenis realiseer nie. Inteendeel, 'n sleutelaspek is antisipasie waarin hoop en gehoorsaamheid gewek word deur die toekomstige koninkryk. Die doel is nie alleen om verandering ter wille van verandering te steun nie, maar om die moderne bewussyn van openheid, met die inisiatief tot verandering, in die rigting van die koninkryk van God te rig. Christelike hoop het te doen met die manifestasie van God se geregtigheid in 'n wêreld wat geken word aan lyding en ongeregtighede. Dit bring die hoop dat reg, vryheid en vrede oor onreg, onderdrukking en konflik sal heers. Daarom is dit volgens Bauckham (1995:106, 107) geen verrassing nie dat Moltmann in die beskrywing van die praktiese politieke implikasies van 'n Teologie van Hoop by die gesprek oor revolusie arriveer, aangesien sy simpatie gelê het by die 1960's se talle bewegings van sosiale en politieke protes. Dit was bewegings wat radikale alternatiewe tot die status quo nagestreef het met klem op burgerregte en 'n anti-koloniale stryd. Op dieselfde wyse het Moltmann demokratiese sosialisme as die weg van verandering binne die Europese konteks gesien.

Wat egter deur Moltmann uitgelig word, is dat 'n Christen se solidariteit met enige politieke beweging 'n kritiese solidariteit moet wees (Bauckham 1995:111).

Hoop as 'n eksperiment

Moltmann (1975:187) is oortuig dat 'n Teologie van Hoop sistematies ontwikkel het uit die herontdekking van die Bybelse eskatologie aan die begin van die twintigste eeu. Gegrond op die Bybelse geskiedenis van beloftes en gerig op die verwagte koninkryk van God, kan die Christelike hoop sigself verantwoord te midde van die revolusies en die onderdrukking van die moderne wêreld. 'n Refleksie op hierdie verantwoordelike hoop toon nie alleen die basis van die Bybelse beloftes en verwagting nie, maar wys ook heen na die moderne geskiedenis van vryheid wat op die Reformasie gevolg het. Die tema van hoop en die toekoms is daarom nie van verbygaande aard nie. Dit is 'n essensiële tema van die Christelike geloof en liefde wat in die moderne konteks meer as ooit tevore moet uitspeel.

Moltmann (1975:187) verklaar treffend: 'Hope is an experiment with God, with oneself, and with the history'. Elke nuwe begin bevat 'n surplus van hoop, want andersins sal niks nuuts begin word nie. Waar iets met hoop aangepak word, is die vooruitsig van nuwe ervarings. Tog sluit lewe in hoop ook risiko's, gevaar en teleurstelling in. Daarom word gepraat van die eksperiment van hoop (Moltmann 1975:188). Hoop bevry die eksperiment van lewe van vooropgestelde idees en sekerhede en open dit vir die belewenis van lewe en dood. In die eksperiment van hoop, is hoop gesetel in Jesus en die evangelie en is daar 'n openheid vir die komende koninkryk en die belewenis daarvan deur die werk van die Heilige Gees. Hoe sekerder hierdie hoop word deur vertroue in die Vader, hoe meer solidariteit is daar met die versugtinge van die ongeredde wêreld. Hoop lei ons die lewe in - in die hele lewe in - waar geloof aangemoedig word en liefde versterk word. Die nodigheid om nuwe lewe en vryheid te ontsluit vir die hooplose, die onderdrukte, die sieke en die skuldige word orals erken (Moltmann 1975:188-189).

Ter afsluiting van hierdie afdeling is dit duidelik dat Moltmann 'n Teologie van Hoop sien realiseer binne 'n konteks van ongeregtighede en die soeke na geregtigheid. Verder is Christelike hoop in hierdie konteks vir Moltmann onontbeerlik omdat dit gerig is op die manifestasie van God se geregtigheid in 'n wêreld van ongeregtighede en die verwagting skep dat reg, vryheid en vrede oor onreg, onderdrukking en konflik sal heers. Die praktiese implikasie van 'n Teologie van Hoop, op Christelike hoop gegrond, is dat daar 'n praxis ontwikkel met 'n inisiatief en beweging tot verandering en bevryding in kontekste van ongeregtighede. Die Jaar van Hoop is juis in 2001 uitgeroep binne 'n konteks van armoede, sosiale spanning en morele verval. Die versugting na 'n Teologie van Hoop wat destyds uitgespreek is, het die noodsaak beklemtoon van interdissiplinêre teologiese besinning omtrent die genoemde komplekse maatskaplike probleme. Die versugting het ook die behoefte aan 'n kerklike praxis aangeroer waardeur die kerk bemagtig kon word om deel te neem aan 'n beweging van verandering en bevryding binne daardie genoemde konteks. Die relevansie van 'n Teologie van Hoop tans vir die kerk word in §4 bespreek. Die versugting daarna, asook die praxis daaromtrent, word immers deur die belewenis van die huidige lewenskonteks bepaal.

In aansluiting hierby word vervolgens oor meer resente teologiese ontwikkelinge besin waarin die relevansie en toepassing van hoop sleutelfaktore is.

 

Toepassing van 'n Teologie van Hoop in die resente verlede

Die klem op hoop binne 'n horisontale sosiale konteks het in die laaste jare veral neerslag gevind in die teologie van die sogenaamde ontluikende kerkbeweging (Emergent Church). Sowat 'n dekade gelede het dié beweging na vore gekom met die bedoeling om kerklike praktyke opnuut vanuit 'n Bybelse perspektief te omvorm of te reformeer sodat dit vir die postmoderne kultuur relevant kon wees. Alhoewel die frase Emergent Church deesdae minder gehoor word (ook in die Nederduits Gereformeerde [NG] Kerk), bestaan die impetus vir die ontluikende kerk steeds daar waar daar 'n behoefte is aan nuwe wyses waarop 'n geloofsgemeenskap uitdrukking kan gee aan hulle teenwoordigheid in gemeenskappe (De Haan 2022). Hieronder is enkele bydraes van denkers uit die beweging waarin oortuigings duidelik word wat korrespondeer met aspekte van 'n Teologie van Hoop, soos ontwikkel deur Moltmann.

Scandrette (2007:27) se bydrae tot die nadenke omtrent hoop word belig vanuit die perspektief dat Christene mense van hoop is by wie die gewaarwording is dat in die werk en boodskap van Jesus die potensiaal opgesluit is vir betekenisvolle genesing van elke dimensie van die lewe, met implikasies vir die hede en die toekoms. Denkers in die ontluikende kerk poog dus om met hulle bydrae 'n verbetering te bring tussen oortuiging en praktyk, tussen die lokale en globale, tussen die individu se private sfeer en sy of haar plek binne die plaaslike gemeenskap en kultuur. Waar teologie en praktyk beter intergreer, is hernude klem op die evangelie se sosiale dimensies en raak dit sake aan wat wissel van gemeenskapontwikkeling tot globale geregtigheid. Dit vind ook uitdrukking in horisontale strukture en netwerke in gemeenskappe wat toeganklik is vir persoonlike en kollektiewe deelname om te besin oor werksgeleenthede, bestaansmiddele en 'n volhoubare ekonomie (Scandrette 2007:28).

Volgens Scandrette (2007:29-30) is daar dus 'n uitnodiging aan die kerk tot deelname aan die realiteit van die koninkryk van God waarin die etiek, leringe en gesag van Jesus ernstig opgeneem word in persoonlike en korporatiewe gehoorsaamheid. Die ontluikende kerk beklemtoon 'n herontdekking van Jesus se sosiale etiek en tasbare omgee wat ontwikkel moet word tot 'n globale bewustheid van behoeftes en geleenthede vir erbarming, geregtigheid en verdeling van bronne. Geïnspireer deur die Gees, en gemotiveer deur liefde, soek mense van hoop geregtigheid, rekonsiliasie, heling en herstel vir diegene wat siek, honger, dors, naak en alleen is en gevange sit.

Omtrent gemeenskappe van hoop skryf Maddock en Maddock (2007:82) dat 'n gemeenskap wat uitreik na diegene op die kulturele, politieke en sosio-ekonomiese periferie, 'n gevoel van diepgaande verlossing bewerk. Hulle gaan van dié standpunt uit dat verlossing meer is as vernuwing net op persoonlike vlak - dit is 'n kollektiewe ervaring. Só verstaan, dring verlossing Christene om húlle hoop in verband te bring met die hoop van die groter gemeenskap en word evangelisering en sending ook herdefinieer. Die verlossing wat die vrede bring waarvan die Skrif praat, word ook gevind in die dade van sorg, die verwelkoming van vreemdelinge en selfs protes teen die verval van die omgewing. In aansluiting hierby word verwys na die pleidooi van die Wêreldraad van Kerke (WRK) in die International Ecumenical Peace Convocation (2011) oor die rol van plaaslike gemeentes om menseregte, gendergeregtigheid, klimaatgeregtigheid, eenheid en vrede te bevorder. Deur hierdie deelname word kerke se legitimiteit in gemeenskappe verkry en is daar motivering in die stryd om geregtigheid en vrede (Keum 2023:42).

Die ontluikende kerk se horisontale verstaan van verlossing en die kerk se sosiale taak en roeping daarmee saam, bring uit die aard van die saak spanning met die bestaande hoofstroomkerke. Vir Condor (2007:99) word hierdie ekklesiologiese spanning gekarakteriseer deur 'n reeks 'dramatic collisions' wat verband hou met etiek, epistemologieë, teologie, sendingwerk, Bybelinterpretasie, leierskap, geestelike vorming en die aard van die Christelike gemeenskap. Condor (2007:100) dui aan waarin die spanninge of botsings voorkom, byvoorbeeld: in die bestaande modernistiese kerk is etiek absoluut, maar in die ontluikende postmodernistiese kerk is etiek kontekstueel; epistemologie is abstrak en hou verband met kritieke kennisstrukture van die bonatuurlike, maar is andersins tentatief en perseptueel; leierskap is hiërargies teenoor relasioneel; die basis van die geloofsgemeenskap word bepaal deur dogma en belydenis, terwyl geloofsgemeenskap andersins deur etiese en missionale oorwegings bepaal word. Condor (2007:103) is van mening dat die bestaande hoofstroomkerke hulle weg moet vind na die ontluikende kultuur om daardeur hulle missiologiese geloofwaardigheid te behou en te bly voortbestaan. Alhoewel daar 'n behoefte is aan die waarde en teenwoordigheid van die ontluikende kerk, word die vorming daarvan juis vertraag deur die spanninge en botsings met die bestaande hoofstroomkerke. Volgens Condor kan samewerking bewerkstellig word wanneer 'n kritiese analise van die hedendaagse kultuur plaasvind en teologiese dialoog die missio Dei met kreatiwiteit omarm.

Wanneer Bolger besin oor die ontluikende kerk se hoopvolle geloof toon hy aan dat die ontluikende kerk 'n sosiale beweging is. Bolger (2007:132) verreken dus die feit dat godsdiensbeoefening deur 'n gegewe gemeenskap se kultuur beïnvloed word. Deur die geskiedenis heen het die kerk die vorms en struktuur van die omliggende kultuur aangeneem. Dit is soms moeilik vir mense om hulle eie kultuurtendense te begryp ten opsigte van die plek daarvan in die geskiedenis en die verhouding daarvan met vormende kragte in die wêreld. Alhoewel dit die geval is, kan dit egter vir Christene van waarde wees om die toksiese aspekte te ken van die kultuur waarvan hulle deel is sodat alternatiewe waar nodig bedink kan word. As die kerk enigsins die heerskappy van God wil toon, moet dit juis bereid wees om die kritiek van die koninkryk van God teenoor die geldende kultuur (ook kerklik) te verreken. Daarby, as die kerk werklik wil dien, moet daar dinamiese interaksie wees met die omliggende kultuur op 'n wyse wat sin maak vir diegene wat hulle daar bevind (Bolger 2007:132).

Onder die oorhoofse tema van 'n hoopvolle weg vorentoe vir die ontluikende kerk, lewer Friesen en Keel onderskeidelik 'n bydrae. Friesen se bydrae fokus op 'n praktyk waarin hoop verskille omarm en die gesprek omtrent etiek dit nie buite rekening laat nie dat Jesus in sý sending mense genooi het tot die volheid van lewe - die volheid van die lewe wat te vinde is in die koninkryk van God. Hy het mense nie geroep om sekere idees of oortuigings aan te hang nie. Jesus het mense genooi om Hom na te volg in 'n sekere bestaanswyse in die wêreld (Friesen 2007:205). Vir Keel (2007:230) is die verskynsel van die ontluikende kerk dus 'n toepaslike alternatiewe poging om met die werklikheid om te gaan. Dit is 'n poging om die wêrelde waarin mense leef en aanbid in Christus te versoen, ter wille van die evangelie. 'n Kerk word benodig wat sy invloed kan laat geld in gemeenskappe anders as die kerke wat ingeburger geraak het in die moderne wêreld en dit bloot nadoen (Keel 2007:233).

Dit is ook duidelik dat die toepassing van 'n Teologie van Hoop nie sonder uitdagings is nie.

Hryniewicz (2007:9) postuleer dat die gevoel van hooploosheid aanleiding gee tot nadenke omtrent die rasionele gronde van hoop en die rol daarvan in mense se lewe. Die moderne tye word gekenmerk deur die stryd om 'n toekoms waarin mense met waardigheid kan bestaan en daarom is die vraag in watter mate die teorie omtrent die praxis van hoop menswaardigheid dien en bydra tot die mensdom se toekomstige vooruitgang. In nadenke oor hierdie gronde, wys Hryniewicz (2007:9-10) daarop dat hoop nie 'n Christelike uniekheid is nie, maar in alle mense leef en vir alle mense bedoel is. Dit vra uit die aard van die saak uitklaring van die universele koninkryk van God (wat die grond is vir die Teologie van Hoop) en ander nie-Christelike visies en konsepte van hoop. Alhoewel die Christelike hoop nie in stryd is met ander projekte of pogings om die mensdom se hoop op 'n meer menswaardige toekoms te bewerkstellig nie, is die vervulling daarvan meer as net 'n humanistiese ideaal. Die Christelike hoop is nie verwyder van aardse realiteite nie, maar is in staat om menslike verwagtinge, behoeftes en drome te deursyfer. Daarom plaas Christelike hoop ook 'n konstante appèl op die realisering van hoop hier en nou. Dialoog oor religieuse hoop en sekulêre hoop, asook oor rasionele en filosofiese benaderings tot die toekoms, word al hoe belangriker. Wat nie misken kan word nie, is dat die wêreldsituasie vereis dat die Christendom aktief betrokke moet wees in die proses om die realiteit die vorm, te heel en te verander. Daar is genoeg inspirasie daarvoor in Christelike hoop (Hryniewicz 2007:11). Die dialoog oor sekulêre hoop en Christelike hoop bring op sigself uitdagings. Wat sekulêre visies vir die toekoms en historiosofiese hoop vir rekonsiliasie, geregtigheid en vryheid betref, meen Hryniewicz (2007:14), het die geskiedenis geleer dat menslike wilskrag en beskikbare middele nie die gaping tussen ideaal en realiteit kan oorbrug nie. Daar bestaan dus spanning tussen wat is en wat behoort te wees. Sodoende ontstaan 'n konstante etiese dringendheid om in hierdie verband, wat van historiese belang sal wees, sukses te behaal. Vir die Christelike Teologie van Hoop bestaan 'n hindernis egter daarin dat die teoretici van eietydse historiosofie nie daartoe geneë is om nader aan die godsdienstige hoop, met kulminasie in die koninkryk van God, te beweeg nie. Die Christendom se teologiese uitgangspunte en evangelisasiemetodes is self vir hierdie situasie verantwoordelik. Te dikwels het die kerk 'n moraliserende aanslag geneem waarvolgens die getroues gelei is na redding op 'n weg van reëls en voorskrifte. Daarby het leringe oor die eskatologiese gebeure vrees ontketen met die bedoeling om gewetens te ontroer en sondaars tot bekering te roep (Hryniewicz 2007:15).

Hoop se taak is egter om 'n persoon gedurig te dring tot 'n ongedwonge samewerking met God en om deur die aanwending van menslike talente mee te werk aan die vorming van 'n toekoms met 'n waardige bestaan. Hoop se geloofwaardigheid lê nie in teoretiese dialoog of teologiese debatte nie, maar in die alledaagse praxis van gelowiges. Is daar tekens van sodanige hoop sigbaar in ons gemeenskappe? Reflekteer teoloë sistematies oor menslike hoop, twyfel, oorwinnings en stryd? Hierdie vrae is ook vir die NG Kerk relevant en bied geleentheid tot teologiese nadenke en die ontwikkeling van volhoubare bedieninge wat hoop bring. Die lewe as sulks daag ons voortdurend uit om te besin oor vrese en lyding, broosheid en verganklikheid. Al wat die gelowiges te doen staan, is om die tekens en simbole van God se koninkryk bekend te maak en met die hoop te leef vir universele rekonsiliasie en 'n allesomvattende gemeenskap met mense. Ons glo immers dat daar 'n dag kom wanneer God álles vir alles sal wees (1 Kor 15:28). Dit is die Christelike respons op die groeiende skeptisisme en hooploosheid van die tyd (Hryniewicz 2007:15-16). Dit is juis die universaliteit van hoop wat kan bydra tot die verandering van die wêreld.

Ter afsluiting: 'n Gesprek oor hoop bly relevant, want die stryd vir 'n toekoms waarin mense met waardigheid kan bestaan, is blywend. Daarom word die kerk van die huidige dag ook uitgedaag om aktief betrokke te wees by die vorming, heling en verandering van die realiteit. In hierdie afdeling is gefokus op denkers van die ontluikende kerk se besinning oor die relevansie en toepassing van hoop. Dat Christelike hoop die sosiale dimensies van die lewe moet impakteer en sake aanraak wanneer geregtigheid moet geskied, is 'n prominente redenasie. Verder is aangedui dat daar dinamiese interaksie tussen die kerk en die omliggende kultuur moet wees as voorvereiste dat die kerk werklik diensbaar sal wees. Dit sluit in dat die kerk die heerskappy van God moet toon en daarom krities teenoor die geldende kultuur staan. Hierdie nadenke toon duidelike ooreenkomste met Moltmann se Teologie van Hoop.

Vervolgens word die situasie van die NG Kerk binne die groter Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing beskou en besin oor die noodsaak van 'n Teologie van Hoop binne hierdie konteks.

 

Relevansie van 'n Teologie van Hoop binne die NG Kerk

Die vraag is of die relevansie van die voorgaande vir die NG Kerk binne die konteks van die hedendaagse Suid-Afrika geld. Bied dit genoeg rede om aandag te gee aan Meiring se destydse versugting na 'n Teologie van Hoop binne die NG Kerk?

In antwoord op dié vrae word verwys na Roland Henwood (2023) se voordrag of referaat by die NG Kerk se Algemene Sinode van 2023 waaruit die noodsaak en relevansie van besinning omtrent 'n Teologie van Hoop opnuut blyk. Met 'n blik op die wêreld in 2023 het Henwood die vormende faktore van post-COVID 19, oorloë in die Oekraïne en die Midde-Ooste en geo-politieke verwikkelinge uitgewys. Hy het ook die wêreld se kernuitdagings gelys: fopnuus en disinformasie; kapitalisme as sisteem wat deur mislukking gekonfronteer word; die mislukking van talle regerings; vrees vir die impak van tegnologie en die era van kunsmatige intelligensie; ekologiese, omgewings-, en klimaatsverandering. Teen hierdie globale agtergrond belig Henwood Suid-Afrika se politieke situasie en wys daarop dat vertroue in die regering afgeneem het weens interne en eksterne beleidsonsekerhede, institusionele agteruitgang, swak regering en toenemende konflik in die parlement (deels weens kompeterende dominante elites in die regerende party). Henwood bespreek ook die sosio-ekonomiese faktore wat onmiddellike en toekomstige bedreiging vir Suid-Afrika inhou: die agteruitgang van die demokrasie en grondwetlikheid; vervreemding van die burgery en sosiale fragmentasie; onsekerheid oor normes en waardes; ekonomiese stagnasie en agteruitgang; stygende armoede, ongelykheid en werkloosheid; toenemende vlakke van misdaad en geweld; omgewingskrisisse. Volgens Henwood is die potensiaal vir gewelddadige konflik teen hierdie agtergrond nie uitgesluit nie. Hierdie konteks spreek van talle ongeregtighede waarbinne sake soos versoening, armoede en morele herstel steeds aandag vereis.

In nog 'n beskouing van die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks in 2024 bespreek Von Widdern (2024) die grootste risiko's wat Suid-Afrika in die gesig staar. Hy plaas politieke spanning boaan die lys en wys op die noodsaak van 'n politieke kultuur van deursigtigheid en insluiting. Dan volg die tikkende tydbom van agteruitgang by staatsbeheerde entiteite (Eskom e.a.) waarvoor 'n omkeerstrategie vereis word wat bestuurshervorming, aanspreeklikheid, finansiële volhoubaarheid en privaatsektorvennootskappe insluit. Agteruitgang is ook die geval by talle plaaslike owerhede, wat weens swak regering, dienslewering en ontwikkeling in die wiele ry. Suid-Afrika se toenemende afhanklikheid van China as 'n handelsvennoot is 'n risiko, want dit lei tot 'n gebrek aan handelsdiversifisering wat nodig is as buffer teen die invloed van die ekonomiese skommelinge in dié land. Von Widdern wys ook op klimaatsverandering as 'n wesentlike bedreiging vir Suid-Afrika en die nodigheid om pro-aktief te investeer in volhoubare landbou- en waterbesparende tegnologie, asook hernubare energiebronne.

Wat Von Widdern egter duidelik maak, is dat daar 'n dringende behoefte bestaan aan innoverende en samewerkingspogings waar belanghebbers oor alle sektore sterk vennootskappe moet smee. Om 'n holitiese benadering tot hierdie uitdagings te verseker moet die regering, private ondernemings, akademici en die burgerlike samelewing by hierdie vennootskappe betrek word. Volgens Von Widdern is dit tyd om op te tree om beleid te beïnvloed, besluitneming te rig en Suid-Afrika te stuur na volhoubare groei en stabiliteit. Hiervoor is individuele en organisatoriese stemme, wat die nodige hervormings beslissend kan voorstaan en bepleit, onontbeerlik. Dit skep dus uit die aard van die saak ruimte vir die NG Kerk om op hierdie vlakke betrokke te raak deur 'n politieke teologie wat 'n gesig van hoop na die wêreld draai en, waar nodig, vanuit die Calvinistiese verbondsbeskouing die morele sanksie vind om weerstand te bied teen die staat wat sy eie grondwet en konstitusies ondermyn.

Dit is opvallend dat in die inleidende woorde van die Algemene Sinodale Moderamen (ASM) se verslag, wat gedien het by die Algemene Sinode van 2023, dieselfde politieke en sosio-ekonomiese sake opgehaal word wat reeds, met verwysing na Henwood en Von Widdern, aan die orde gestel is. Volgens die verslag het hierdie dinge die moraal van die Suid-Afrikaanse burgers tot nuwe laagtepunte laat daal. Dit is ook opmerklik dat gevolglik verklaar word dat die NG Kerk binne ekumeniese geledere deelgeneem het aan publieke protes teen magsvergrype, swak regering en onvanpaste beleide. Die ASM is egter van mening dat die kerk 'beter as ooit' verstaan watter verskil die kerk kan maak deur getuienis te lewer omtrent Christus, die Vredevors en Koning. Daarom is die gebed vir die Algemene Sinode se sitting van 2023 en die termyn daarna dat Christus die kerk:

[H]elder en duidelik sal lei en gebruik met die oog op die aanbreek van sy koninkryk in duisende lewens en lande en wêrelde, sodat God al die eer daarvoor kan ontvang. (p. 32)

Dit is 'n gebed wat sprekend is van die versugting na 'n Teologie van hoop. Die moontlikheid om 'n Teologie van Hoop te aktualiseer bestaan juis in die NG Kerk se scenariobeplanning oor die toekomsverwagtings wat sedert 2019 se Algemene Sinode momentum gekry het en in die ASM se formulering gekulmineer het: 'Ons droom van 'n netwerk van inklusiewe gemeentes, wat op voetsoolvlak, vanuit God se liefde, diensbaar is in ons gemeenskappe' (Agenda 2023:35). Dit eggo die WRK se verklaring dat in elke geo-politieke en sosio-ekonomiese konteks die kerk geroep word tot diakonia wat niks anders is nie as om die geloof en hoop van die geloofsgemeenskap uit te leef en te getuig van wat God in Jesus Christus gedoen het (Keum 2023:43). Daarby het die ASM in 'n verklaring opnuut die waardes van menswaardigheid, geregtigheid en omgee in die huidige tydvak en konteks bevestig en 'n oproep gerig aan lidmate van die NG Kerk om hulle te verbind tot die stryd teen korrupsie en misdaad en te bid vir 'n wending ten goede in ons gemeenskappe (Agenda 2023:55-56). Sodanige oproep korreleer met Moltmann se oortuiging dat die gereformeerde tradisie ruimte vir die oproep tot legitieme weerstand bied. Met rede kan die skrille kontras beklemtoon word tussen die vele teensprake met die Suid-Afrikaanse werklikheid en die verwagtinge van die beloofde toekoms by diegene wat hulle hoop in Christus plaas. As hoop in Christus die kerk se bron is vir die realisering van geregtigheid, is die tyd sekerlik ryp vir nuwe nadenke omtrent 'n Teologie van Hoop.

Saaiman (2020:100, 101) beoordeel Moltmann se Teologie van Hoop uit vele hoeke. Toegespits op die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks vra hy ook na die verhouding wat bestaan tussen hoop wat Christologies gevorm is en sosiale uitdagings soos armoede, ongeregtigheid, swak regering en ongelykheid. Dit word uitgewys dat hoop (beliggaam deur Christus self) meer is as optimisme of fantasie, maar dat hierdie hoop spesifieke temas aktief beklemtoon in 'n poging om transformasie te weeg te bring. Hierdie temas moet interdissiplinêr hanteer word, in gesprek met die teologie, soos Von Widdern dit ook uitgewys het. Dit skep geleentheid vir die kerk.

'n Saak wat hiermee saamhang, is Moltmann se gedagte van verantwoordelike burgerskap wat die rol van Christene beklemtoon om die heerskappy van God te ondersteun. Binne die konteks van 'n demokrasie, veronderstel dit ook 'n kerk wat op 'n aktiewe en betroubare wyse betrokke is by die hele samelewing met 'n boodskap wat transformerend en bevorderend is. Dié boodskap moet ook betrekking hê op die stryd om ekonomiese geregtigheid en die uitbuiting van mense. Dit moet aandag gee aan die stryd om menswaardigheid en politieke onderdrukking. Dit moet spreek van solidariteit met mense wat vervreemd voel en met diegene wat stry teen wanhoop. Sonder sosiale geregtigheid is daar geen politieke vryheid nie en sonder politieke vryheid kan die gevoel van vervreemding nie afgeskud word nie. En sonder kulturele identiteit is daar nie persoonlike hoop nie (Saaiman 2020:106-107).

Met verdere fokus op transformasie wys Saaiman (2020:112-113) op Moltmann se beskouing dat ware transformasie handel oor die betoning van inskiklikheid teenoor God se weë en wyses, met die verwagting dat die hele wêreld omvorm sal word in die koninkryk van God. Dit is ook vervleg met God se teenwoordigheid, wat op 'n besondere wyse deur Christus geopenbaar word en deur wie 'n nuwe toekoms van hoop en transformasie ontsluit is. Wat die toepaslikheid hiervan betref, verwys Saaiman na Botman wat transformasie as 'n ekumeniese en korporatiewe proses ag om die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing te bring van verdeeldheid na eenheid en van vrees en misdaad na gemeenskaplikheid en bevryding, gestu deur die kragte van morele aanspreeklikheid, geregtigheid en menswaardigheid. Die antropologiese implikasie van transformasie, wat Christologies ingebed is, is dat dit verband hou met die morele en etiese optrede van Christus wat menslike bevryding van bindende realiteite inspireer. Saaiman vra tereg of hoop op hierdie wyse gewek kan word binne die gekompliseerde en sensitiewe konteks van Suid-Afrika. Vir Saaiman lê die plig om hoop te skep by die kerk (en gelowiges), want dit het as gemeenskap die opgelegde verantwoordelikheid om die wil van God te doen en in die voetspore van Christus te volg.

Meiring se opmerking van 2001 omtrent 'n behoefte aan 'n Teologie van Hoop is gemaak teen die agtergrond van die brandende kwessies van versoening, armoede en morele herstel wat die NG Kerk op daardie tydstip as wesentlik beskou het. Gegewe Moltmann se oortuiging dat 'n Teologie van Hoop binne 'n konteks van ongeregtighede en die soeke na geregtigheid aktualiseer, is dit duidelik dat Meiring se opmerking vir die teenswoordige 'n relevante oproep is.

 

Slot

Gemotiveer deur prof. Piet Meiring se opmerking in 2001 oor die nodigheid van 'n Teologie van Hoop vir die kerk van die dag, is in hierdie artikel besin oor die relevansie hiervan binne die huidige Suid-Afrikaanse konteks.

Met spesifieke verwysing na Moltmann is die begronding en aktualisering van 'n Teologie van Hoop belig. Wat na vore gekom het, is dat Moltmann hoop grondves op die belofte van die komende koninkryk van God. Vir Moltmann moet die toekomstige eskatologiese teologie kontemporêr aktualiseer om geloofwaardig en relevant te wees in die moderne wêreld. Daarom is op die belangrike praktiese dimensie daarvan gewys wat vir Moltmann regverdiging bied vir aktiewe Christelike betrokkenheid by die blootlegging van sosiale ongeregtighede en as alternatief die ondersteuning van sosiale verandering wat strewe na geregtigheid. Verder is die kerk by name die agent van eskatologiese beweging in die gemeenskap wat die wêreld rig op die komende koninkryk van God. Volgens Moltmann bied die Calvinistiese oortuiging dat die volle openbare lewe onder die gesag van God staan, juis hierdie geleenthede. Binne die ruimte van 'n Teologie van Hoop is plek vir verantwoordelike publieke en politieke teologie.

Die bedoeling met die artikel is ook om resente nadenke omtrent die relevansie en toepassing van ('n Teologie van) Hoop te ondersoek. In die teologie van die ontluikende kerkbeweging (Emergent Church) het hoop in die laaste jare binne 'n horisontale sosiale konteks neerslag gevind. Een aspek van hoop waaraan aandag gegee is, is die hernude belang van die werk en boodskap van Jesus vir betekenisvolle genesing van elke sosiale dimensie van die lewe - in die hede en die toekoms. Nog 'n aspek is dat verlossing ook 'n kollektiewe dimensie het waarvolgens Christene húlle hoop in verband bring met die hoop van die groter gemeenskap. Dit raak 'n verdere aspek van hoop aan in dié sin dat die omliggende kultuur (sosiaal en kerklik) krities geanaliseer word teen die maatstaf van God se koninkryk om sodoende alternatiewe vir die toksiese elemente van die geldende kultuur te bedink. Dan sluit hoop die moontlikheid in om verskille te omarm en versoening in Christus te bewerkstellig ter wille van die evangelie. Dit is duidelik dat die realisering van hoop binne die verstaanveld van die ontluikende kerkbeweging 'n immanente sosiale dimensie het waarin ongedwonge met God saamgewerk word om 'n toekoms met 'n waardige bestaan te vorm. Dit geld ook vir die kerk van die huidige dag. Hieroor moet teoloë sistematies reflekteer.

Laastens is die werklikheid van 'n behoefte aan 'n Teologie van Hoop in die NG Kerk bespreek. Om die behoefte te bepaal, is die huidige situasie in Suid-Afrika geskets. Dit is 'n problematiese konteks gekenmerk deur sosiale ongeregtighede en uitdagings op talle vlakke van die samelewing (en selfs op ekologiese vlak). Stemme uit verskillende oorde word opnuut gehoor oor 'n behoefte aan 'n holistiese benadering tot hierdie uitdagings. Hiervoor is sterk vennootskappe uit verskillende sektore nodig - onder meer uit die burgerlike samelewing waar die kerk gesetel is. Die behoefte aan hoop is 'n werklikheid in Suid-Afrika. Die aanmoediging aan die (NG) kerk is om ('n teologie van) hoop te ontwikkel terwyl spesifieke temas aangeroer word in 'n poging om by te dra tot die holistiese interdissiplinêre benadering tot transformasie in die huidige konteks. Alhoewel die nodigheid duidelik blyk, raak die artikel nie die praktiese wyse aan waarop die ideale behoort te realiseer nie. Dit verg verdere nadenke. Dat daar ook 'n duidelike oproep kom tot die kerkgemeenskap om die ideale van 'n Teologie van Hoop aktief te bevorder, word weens die fokus van die artikel nie aandag gegee aan lidmate se deelname aan pogings tot realisering daarvan nie.

Ter afsluiting: met verwysing na 'n lesing van Moltmann op 90-jarige ouderdom by die Ekumeniese Sentrum in Geneve, skryf Brown (2016) dat hoop in die koms van God vir Moltmann, 50 jaar na sy publikasie Theology of hope steeds 'n krag tot verandering van die wêreld was. Tydens die lesing het Moltmann opgemerk dat hy met Theology of Hope deelgeneem het aan die algemene herleiding van die teologie waarin hy, soos ander teoloë van sy generasie, afgewyk het van die ingekeerde teologie gerig op die kerk en 'n politieke teologie met 'n uitsig na die wêreld ontwikkel het. Brown (2016) beklemtoon opnuut Moltmann se oortuiging dat diegene wat hulle hoop in Christus plaas, ly wanneer hulle nie met die realiteit soos dit is, kan voortgaan nie. Hulle begin dit teenspreek. Vrede met God beteken konflik met die wêreld, want die verwagting van die beloofde toekoms staan in skrille kontras teenoor elke onvervulde teenswoordige oomblik. Sodanige hoop maak van die kerk die bron van voortdurende nuwe impulse tot realisering van geregtigheid, vryheid en menslikheid. Dit was die boodskap in die 1960's en dit is steeds relevant.

 

Erkenning

Mededingende belange

Die outeur verklaar dat daar geen finansiële of persoonlike verbintenisse is wat die skryf van hierdie artikel nadelig kon beïvloed nie.

Outeursbydrae

P.K. is die enigste outeur van hierdie navorsingsartikel.

Etiese oorwegings

Hierdie navorsingsartikel het alle etiese standaarde gevolg vir navorsing sonder direkte kontak met, of deelname van mense.

Befondsing

Die outeur het geen finansiële ondersteuning vir die navorsing, outeurskap en/of publikasie van hierdie navorsingsartikel ontvang nie.

Databeskikbaarheidsverklaring

Datadeling is nie van toepassing op hierdie navorsingsartikel nie omrede geen nuwe data geskep of ontleed is nie.

Vrywaring

Die menings en sienings wat hierdie navorsingsartikel bevat, is dié van die outeur en weerspieël nie noodwendig die amptelike beleid of posisie van enige geaffilieerde instelling, befondser, agentskap of dié van die uitgewer nie. Die outeur is verantwoordelik vir hierdie navorsingsartikel se inhoud.

 

Literatuurverwysings

Algemene Sinode, 2023, Agenda van die agtiende Algemene Sinode van die Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk in Boksburg, pp. 1-404, 15-20 Oktober.         [ Links ]

Bauckham, R., 1995, The theology of Jürgen Moltmann, T&T Clark Ltd., Edinburgh.         [ Links ]

Bolger, R., 2007, 'Following Jesus into culture. Emerging church as social movement', in D. Pagitt & T. Jones (eds.), Emergent manifesto of hope, pp. 131-139, Baker Books, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Brown, S., 2016, 50 years after theology of hope, Jürgen Moltmann's vision continues to inspire, 10 February 2016, viewed 23 November 2023 from https://www.oikoumene.org/news/50-years-after-theology-of-hope-jurgen-moltmanns-vision-continues-to-inspire.         [ Links ]

Condor, T., 2007, 'The existing church/emerging church matrix. Collision, credibility, missional collaboration, and generative friendship', in D. Pagitt & T. Jones (eds.), Emergent manifesto of hope, pp. 97-107, Baker Books, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

De Haan, P., 2022, What happened to the Emergent Church?, viewed 08 January 2024, from https://www.peterdehaan.com/christianity/emergent-church/?amp=1.         [ Links ]

Friesen, D.J., 2007, 'Orthoparadoxy. Emerging hope for embracing difference', in D. Pagitt & T. Jones (eds.), Emergent manifesto of hope, pp. 201-212, Baker Books, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Henwood, R., 2023, Stand van sake in Suid-Afrika: 'n Politieke ontleding, Voordrag gelewer by die Algemene Sinode van die NG Kerk se sitting op 17 Oktober 2023, Ongepubliseer, Henwood is verbonde aan die Departement Politieke Wetenskappe van die Universiteit van Pretoria, 29p, Boksburg.         [ Links ]

Hryniewicz, W., 2007, The challenge of our hope: Christian faith in dialogue: Polish philosophical studies VII, Cultural heritage and contemporary change series IVA, Eastern and Central Europe, vol. 32, The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, Washington, DC.         [ Links ]

Keel, T., 2007, 'Leading from the margins. The role of imagination in our changing context', in D. Pagitt & T. Jones (eds.), Emergent manifesto of hope, pp. 225-233, Baker Books, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Keums, J.S., 2023, 'Saam na die lewe: Sending en evangelisasie in veranderde landskappe, 'n Verklaring van die Wêreldraad van Kerke se Kommissie vir Wêreldsending en Evangelisasie', in Afrikaans vertaal deur Lourens Bosman. 'n Publikasie van die Werkgroep vir Evangelisasie van die Algemene Sinode van die NG Kerk, pp.7-57, CLF Uitgewers, Wellington.         [ Links ]

Kruger, P., 2022, '2001, Die NG Kerk se Jaar van Hoop. Twintig jaar later: 'n Kerkhistoriese oorsig', Verbum et Ecclesia 43(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v43i1.2401        [ Links ]

Maddock, S. & Maddock, G., 2007, 'An ever-renewed adventure of faith. Notes from a community', in D. Pagitt & T. Jones (eds.), Emergent manifesto of hope, pp. 79-88, Baker Books, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Moltmann, J., 1975, The experiment hope, transl. M. Douglas Meeks, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, PA.         [ Links ]

Saaiman, G.M., 2020, Hope incarnate: A systematic theological investigation in conversation with Jürgen Moltmann and Russel Botman, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, dissertation - MTh, viewed 15 January 2024, from https://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/107877.         [ Links ]

Scandrette, M., 2007, 'Growing pains. The messy and fertile process of becoming', in D. Pagitt & T. Jones (eds.), Emergent manifesto of hope, pp. 21-32, Baker Books, Grand Rapids, MI.         [ Links ]

Von Widdern, V., 2024, The top 5 risks SA faces in 2024. And various 'curve balls' where vigilance is important, 03 January 2024, viewed 15 Januarie 2024 from https://www.moneyweb.co.za/moneyweb-opinion/soapbox/the-top-5-risks-sa-faces-in-2024/.         [ Links ]

Yuehua, C., 2022, 'On Augustine's theology of hope: From the perspective of creation', HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 78(4), a7878. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v78i4.7878        [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Pieter Kruger
pkkruger@telkomsa.net

Received: 29 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 03 Apr. 2024
Published: 07 June 2024

^rND^sBolger^nR.^rND^sCondor^nT.^rND^sFriesen^nD.J.^rND^sKeel^nT.^rND^sKeums^nJ.S.^rND^sKruger^nP.^rND^sMaddock^nS.^rND^sMaddock^nG.^rND^sScandrette^nM.^rND^sYuehua^nC.^rND^1A01^nGernaida K. R.^sPakpahan^rND^1A02^nAnggi M.^sHasiholan^rND^1A01^nGernaida K. R.^sPakpahan^rND^1A02^nAnggi M.^sHasiholan^rND^1A01^nGernaida K. R^sPakpahan^rND^1A02^nAnggi M^sHasiholan

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Tertullian and Montanism: Ancient Sabbath and its implications for Pentecostalism

 

 

Gernaida K. R. Pakpahan^I; Anggi M. Hasiholan^II

^IDepartment of Theological Studies, Faculty of Theology, Sekolah Tinggi Teologi Bethel Indonesia Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
^IIDepartment of Theological Studies, Faculty of Theology, Jakarta Theological Seminary, Jakarta, Indonesia

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The Sabbath is widely observed differently among Christians, including Pentecostals. Different interpretations of the Sabbath cause this difference. According to Pentecostals, it is necessary to trace the history of the ancient Church to find the meaning of the Sabbath. This article explores Tertullian's thoughts on the Sabbath before and after joining Montanism. The research method used in this article is descriptive qualitative with a historical approach. The research results show significant differences in Tertullian's understanding of the Sabbath before and after joining Montanism. Montanism changed Tertullian's view of the Sabbath in the context of respect and the essence of honouring the Sabbath. However, both of Tertullian's understandings have contributed to the Pentecostal understanding of the Sabbath. Pentecostals understand the Sabbath as a relationship with Christ that leads to eternity because it has eschatological meaning. Towards eternity, it must be maintained while still in the world. Honouring the Sabbath changed from the seventh day to the eighth day because it aims to celebrate the Resurrection of Jesus.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The Sabbath is a time of rest and joy associated with Jesus's Resurrection. The concept of the Sabbath originates from Tertullian's thoughts before and after joining Montanism, which provides a broad dimension to the theme of the Sabbath in Creation theology. This research has implications for studying the history of Christianity and the concept of the Sabbath in the Pentecostal Church in Indonesia.

Keywords: Montanism; Pentecostal; Sabbath; Tertullian.

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Introduction

In the Christian tradition, especially in the Western Church, creation is generally presented as simply creating the heavens and the earth in 6 days. Many people focus only on the completion of creation on the sixth day and ignore the importance of the Sabbath on the seventh day. The narrative of the seventh day should be essential and should be the centre of the creation narrative (Brattston 2012:22). The neglect of the Sabbath in the creation narrative is because of anthropocentricity and the Sabbath as an unimportant part. Yonky Karman also rejects the anthropocentric view that makes the sixth day the climax of creation and forgets the Sabbath (Karman 2021:245). The Sabbath is essential to human life because God has distinguished it from other days. However, there are different views and applications. Some Christians take the Sabbath literally. According to this view, those who fail to keep the Sabbath commandments will receive eternal punishment. This group comprises Adventists who base their teachings on Torah law (Ministerial Association and General Conference of Seventh-Day Adventists 1988:263). The other extreme states that the Sabbath is no longer relevant to this era because the grace of Christ has cancelled the demands of the law. This group is called Antinomianism (Willem 2006:23). However, other Christian groups, including Pentecostals, observe the Sabbath implicitly. Different applications of the Sabbath are because of different meanings and interpretations.

The Sabbath is a day consecrated (set apart) for a particular purpose. The concept of the Sabbath is first found in Exodus 16:21-30 and parallels the 'rest' in the Creation narrative. God identified the seventh day as his day or the day of God, which humankind must remember and honour uniquely. Walter Brueggemann views the Creation narrative in Genesis 1:1-2:4, including the Sabbath, depicting a Theo-drama about God's confrontation against the chaos that occurs in the universe towards calm (rest) as peace from God (Gn 2:1-4a) (Brueggemann 2010:22). The serenity of this Sabbath raises controversy over its meaning as well. Such as understanding the serenity of the Sabbath as a great worship because of the joy of Jesus' Resurrection (Easter). On the seventh day, the celebration pattern changes and does not follow the usual sequence of divine speech, fulfilment, evaluation and conclusion from the first to the sixth day (Ross 1999:102).

In response to the polemic on understanding the Sabbath aforementioned, we aim to explore the concept of the ancient Church's Sabbath from Tertullian before and after joining Montanism and its implications for the Pentecostal Churches. We carried out this study because we found an interrelated common thread between the spirituality in Pentecostalism and the spirituality in Montanism. In his book, Studies in Ecstasy, Bernard Bresson lists (approximately) 26 Pentecostal movements since their inception in Jerusalem to the classic Pentecostal movements of 1906. Bresson gives this list because it traces the same spirituality and theology as classical Pentecostalism (Bresson 1966). One group that is considered to practice Pentecostal spirituality is Montanism. Thomsett (2011:32) directly linked the Montanism movement with Pentecostal spirituality. Jinkwang Kim succinctly states that Montanism is the precursor of Pentecostalism. However, in the historical records of Christianity, Montanism is declared as a heresy. Kim (2009:113) was bold enough on behalf of 'Pentecostal circles' to declare that he accepted Montanism as the precursor to the Pentecostalism movement. Montanism flourished from the 2nd to 8th centuries. One of the ancient church fathers who joined this school was Tertullian. Tertullian was an African lawyer who coined the Trinity to understand the relationship between God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit as the One Three. Acceptance of Tertullian's doctrine of the Trinity became a space for Pentecostals to extract and revive their thoughts regarding the Sabbath.

In this article, Tertullian's understanding of the Sabbath becomes a principle in constructing the Pentecostal Sabbath concept. This research is complex because Tertullian's views could be more precise. Tertullian underwent several phases of changing his views, which is typical for anyone. In this article, we want to differentiate Tertullian's attitudes and views into two phases: before and after Tertullian was 'influenced' by Montanism to provide a comprehensive study of Tertullian's views. He inherited the doctrine of the Trinity and the concept of the Sabbath, which Montanism heavily influenced. Although this article will discuss the concept of the Sabbath before and after Tertullian became a Montanist, there is no confusion in understanding his thoughts (Strand 2016). We argue that Pentecostals understand the Sabbath as a celebration associated with Passover, good works and rest in God. Tertullian's concept of Montanism has more influence on the meaning of the Pentecostals about the Sabbath. We correlate the Sabbath according to Montanism and Tertullian with the Pentecostal Church, especially in Indonesia, because we want to construct a Sabbath theology based on the thoughts of the church fathers, apart from the Old Testament (OT) and the New Testament (NT).

The research method used in this article is qualitative with a historical approach. The historical approach is used because researchers want to photograph historical events, problems and their effects in a specific period. We carry out five historical research stages: topic selection, heuristics, data verification, interpretation and historiography. We can construct research objectives through these five stages of historical research (Wardah 2018). The period that the researcher chooses is the life of Tertullian in the 2nd until 3rd century AD during Tertullian's life. Historical research requires clear boundaries of tempus and locus so that researchers can carry out the process of historical study in an investigative and critical manner (Bultmann 2019). The locus in this study is the concept of the Sabbath from Tertullian's perspective. The construction of his thoughts comes from his works and treatises in the form of apologetics, hortatory and writings that discuss certain polemics. Tertullian mentions the Sabbath in his various treatises covering about two decades from AD 197 to AD 218. The historical approach is capable of influencing present and future history. Lonergan (2017:24) emphasised that historical research systematically reveals the history of a theology or church school and has implications for the present (contemporary) and future. Using a historical research design has particular relevance for contemporary social and cultural issues as it enhances understanding of the present. Every contemporary issue is intrinsically tied to the social and historical environment of the past, including the Pentecostal understanding of the Sabbath.

 

Tertullian's understanding of the Sabbath before the entry to Montanism

Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus or Tertullian, as he was affectionately called (155-230 AD), was a church leader and author of many writings during the early days of Christianity. He studied literature, law, rhetoric and philosophy in Rome. He was also famous as a lawyer in Rome because of his intelligence, which surpassed those of his time (Campenhausen 1964:5). In the history of his thought, respect for the Sabbath is shown by encouraging Christians, in his time, to respect the Sabbath (Williams 1996).

The most significant Sabbath statements are found in the five works that Tertullian produced from AD 197 to 202 before adopting the concept of Montanism. The five books are: Answer to the Jews [Adversus Judaeos] (197), On Idolatry [De Idololatria],¹ Apology [Apologeticus pro-Christianis], To the Heathen [De execrandis gentium diis] and On Prayer [De Oratione]. His work's most detailed treatment of the Sabbath appears in the first part, chapters two through six. This section directly describes the 'primitive law'.² Moreover, 'the law of Moses written on the tablets of stone' concerning circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath. According to him, God has the power to change the rules according to the conditions of the times for the sake of human salvation. Furthermore, Tertullian asserts that if circumcision purified Adam, why did he not circumcise him, even after sin? Likewise, keeping the Sabbath day, why did not God strictly command Adam? God designates uncircumcised people who do not keep the Sabbath as residents of Heaven (Tertullian 1889:153). Therefore, because God created Adam uncircumcised and did not keep the Sabbath day, consequently his seed also, Abel, offering sacrifices to him, being uncircumcised and not keeping the Sabbath day, was commended by him. At the same time, he accepted what he offered humbly and rejected the sacrifice of his brother Cain, who did not rightly share what he offered (Tertullian 1889:153). Tertullian wanted to fight against Judaism's view that circumcision and the Sabbath were too crucial for salvation. Even so, he still believes in and performs the Sabbath as an essential worship that Christians must carry out.

Tertullian's early views on the Sabbath were very negative. This is understood in the context of his conflict or polemic with the Jews. Therefore, Tertullian's study of the Sabbath is in his work entitled Against the Jews [Aduersus Iudaeos]. The Sabbath referred to in this work refers to the seventh day of the Sabbath. In his writings, Tertullian stated rhetorically (Dunn 2004):

For the Jews, from the beginning, God sanctified the seventh day by resting on it from all the works that [God] made, and this was the reason Moses also said to the people, 'Remember to sanctify the sabbath day. You shall not do any servile work on it except so far as life is concerned'. From this, we understand that we ought to observe a sabbath of all servile work on every seventh day and all the time. Because of this, we ought to ask which Sabbath God wishes us to keep, for the Scriptures describe an eternal and temporal sabbath (AJ 4.1-2) (p. 52).

Christians must practice the Sabbath in two ways, namely the eternal Sabbath and the temporary Sabbath. The temporary Sabbath is performed by resting 1 day a week, while the eternal Sabbath is carried out when Christians enter the kingdom of Heaven in the future. Nonetheless, the eternal Sabbath retains practical value in today's world by continuing to work for someone's liberation from slavery or justice (Schaff 2006). The eternal Sabbath argument is built on the reading of Isaiah 58:13-14, which emphasises that the Israelites respect the Sabbath day to experience blessings and maintenance after returning from exile to Babylon for 70 years. Tertullian used Isaiah 58:13-14 as a prophecy for the restoration of the Sabbath, which was fulfilled in Jesus (Tertullian 1885a:155). Jesus is seen as the one who restored the eternal Sabbath by drawing all nations to come and worship in Jerusalem (Tertullian 1889).

The oracle delivered by the prophet Isaiah will direct the observance of the Sabbath day. Isaiah 58:13-14 mentions the Sabbath five times, namely 'the Sabbath' (twice), 'holy day' (twice) and 'that', which refers to the Sabbath (once). Furthermore, three negative clauses serve to define the 'honour' of the Sabbath, namely when the Israelites stopped from (1) doing their 'way', (2) finding or doing their 'fun' and (3) saying the 'word' (Bediako 2020). In verse 13, there is a parallelism of 'pleasure' and 'honour', explaining that honouring the Sabbath means pleasing oneself at God's pleasure. Respecting the Sabbath day, people rejoiced in God. Because the Sabbath belongs to God, honouring the Sabbath is a concrete way to honour or worship God, even into eternity (Bediako 2020:165).

Tertullian massively emphasised the importance of observing the Sabbath on the seventh day. Tertullian rebuked Christians who ignored the Sabbath in favour of following pagan religious holidays and festivals, such as the Saturnalia festival,³ new year, midwinter celebration and Matronalia.⁴ Christians did not even attend Sun, Pentecostals and other Christian services for fear of being recognised by the Romans as followers of Jesus and labelled as infidels (Tertullian 1885b:67). Tertullian condemned Christians who pretended to worship the sun with their lips turned towards the rising sun. This action was tantamount to betraying faith in Jesus by devoting oneself to the God Saturn so that he would be protected from persecution by the Roman government and some Christians even worshipped in order to get ease and luxury (a word used in the writings of the Apology).

Tertullian's book, on Prayer [De Oratione Liber], describes how North Africans kneel when praying on the Sabbath. The kneeling posture is considered a form of humility that must be observed on the Sabbath, but kneeling during the Resurrection and Pentecost services is unnecessary. However, some Christians do not want to kneel because they think it is unnecessary. This action caused such a dispute among the congregation that it had to be taken before a church court to decide the correct posture on the Sabbath. Kneeling should be maintained when praying on the Sabbath. Tertullian himself was displeased with the excessive observance of the Sabbath. He rejected kneeling on Shabbat (Tertullian 1885c:689). From this posture, Tertullian deliberately distinguished the Sabbath from the other holidays. He believes the Sabbath is still respected but does not need serious attention like other major Christian holidays.

What Tertullian wanted to convey explicitly in his polemic with the Jews was their practice of stating that the Sabbath (and also circumcision on the eighth day) must be observed as a means of salvation. Rhetorically, Tertullian actually stated that Adam, Hebel, Noah and Abraham were figures who did not observe the Sabbath and circumcision (JA 2.12-14, 3.1).

 

Montanism's understanding of the Sabbath and its impact on Tertullian

Montanism is a group initiated by Montanus in the 2nd century AD, which had much influence in the Phrygian area until it entered the Roman area. Montanus massively revived Pentecostal spirituality because, in his view, the spiritual life of Christians had declined, and they did not practice a life related to the Holy Spirit. This group emphasises the Holy Spirit's gifts to prophesy and speak in tongues. Schaff (2017) notes that Montanus had issued, 'After me, there will be no more prophecies, but the end of the world'. From his statement, it is clear that Montanus believed in and practised the gift of prophecy, even though because his prophecy was not fulfilled, he was branded a false prophet based on Deuteronomy 18:20-22. However, some of his contemporaries, such as Maximilla and Priscilla, accepted his teachings and left their husbands to follow Montanus as a prophetess (Kim 2009). Montanus taught that speaking in tongues was far more authoritative than the scriptures and the apostles' teaching. The group practised ecstasy until they fainted as a sign that the Spirit Helper or the Holy Spirit had come and spoken through their mouths. The result of this misplaced emphasis caused the Church to react critically against anyone who would attempt to use the gift of the Holy Spirit at that time. Montanus and his followers are considered martyrs of God because fellow Christians killed them for their actions. However, Eusebius, a harsh critic of Montanus, said that Montanus and his followers hanged themselves under pressure from the Church not to be called martyrs (Eusebius 2016).

Montanus's approach is a response to the dissatisfaction with the Christian life, which has begun to degenerate from the values of the Christian faith, especially concerning the manifestation of the Holy Spirit (Takaliuang 2020:132-156). On the other hand, many Christians were apostatised because of persecution from the Roman Empire. Christian communities in Phrygia and Asia Minor suffered four major persecutions during the 2nd century: under Trajan in AD 112, under Antoninus Pius in AD 155 and under Marcus Aurelius in AD 165 and 185, respectively. North Africa occurred only in 180 AD. It is a common thought that the Montanist movement arose during this first persecution around 156 AD. Therefore, Montanus emphasised that his followers practise the truths taught by the Bible, including regarding the Sabbath, to maintain purity - the Christian faith. Montanus' understanding of the Sabbath is difficult to trace, but in his commentary on Numbers 28:10, John Gill mentions Montanus strictly observing the Sabbath sacrifice. If the Sabbath sacrifice is missed, it cannot be given for the next Sabbath because each has its sacrifice (Gill 2012). From this explanation, it is clear that Montanus greatly respected the Sabbath law.

Montanus' understanding is in line with Rashi's comment, which emphasises that if a person cannot offer a burnt offering on a particular Sabbath, even if that person returns with a burnt offering on the following Sabbath and adds a second burnt offering, that must be offered on that Sabbath, then the offering is still no longer count (Yitzchaki n.d.). However, several Jewish scribes, such as Ibn Ezra, Rabbeinu Bahya and Avi Ezer, should have emphasised the same substance Montanus conveyed from this verse. Ibn Ezra even emphasises the observance of the Sabbath in this verse without giving direction to a generalisation, as did Montanus (Ibn Ezra 1999). Milgrom (2003) did state that the Sabbath could not be postponed for the following Sabbath; in this case, he agreed with Montanus, but in the larger context of this chapter, he was of the view that chapter 28 was only limited to the sacrifice calendar of the Israelites. He does not emphasise that the Sabbath in chapter 28 is absolute for God's people.

A different perspective is shown by Pekka Pitkänen, who sees this text as nothing more than a rule for Sabbath offerings. For Pitkänen (2015), the material in articles 28-30 is only a distraction because it is not directly related to the overall background of articles 22-36. Bailey also doubts that this chapter is essential because now the Israelites have a bigger goal. This section is believed to have appeared later than the earlier guidelines in Leviticus 23:3. And he believes this chapter was created to demonstrate an orderly time structure providing regular opportunities to refocus priorities, rededicate commitments and reintroduce the biblical story of God and God's people as a means of finding meaning and order amid life's chaos (Bailey 2005). This means there is limited discretion in observing this Sabbath and not as Montanus understood absolutely.

Tertullian joined Montanism in 206 AD and was considered a heretic by the Church. His choice to join Montanism meant he was never recognised as a Roman Catholic saint. Did Tertullian join a schismatic movement such as Montanism and break away from the universal Church? Of course, many observers question this (Rankin 1995:27-28). Did Montanist ideas influence Tertullian? This also becomes a conversation that cannot be continued. However, a conclusion can be drawn from several of Tertullian's treatises, which reveal that he had much in common with Montanism (Dunn 2004:4). How do you historically relate the Montanism movement to the Pentecostalism movement? This has been discussed in Jinkwang Kim's article: Is Montanism a Hertical Sect or Pentecostal Antecedent? Jinkwang Kim quite bluntly states that Montanism was a precursor to Pentecostalism; however, in Christian historical records, Montanism is heresy (Kim 2009). Additionally, Youjin Chung's article, 'Looking New at the New Prophecy: Tertullian's Montanism and Pentecostalism as Neo-Montanism,' offers a novel perspective on transitional correlation. It challenges the conventional portrayal by presenting a revised depiction in concentric circles, wherein Paganism is likened to a caterpillar, Catholicism to a chrysalis, and Montanism to a butterfly. This model suggests a transformative progression from one religious state to another. In this changed perspective, the Montanist schismatic Tertullian became a self-interested mediator of peace between two rival parties: a new prophet and a new priest (Chung 2013).

Tertullian wrote open letters Against Marcion supporting Montanism because of the essential moral teachings of his time, including those regarding the Sabbath. Tertullian joined Montanism mainly because of the Church's practices, which tended to be secular because they followed the rules of the Roman government. He opposed the rigid hierarchies practised by the Church, the bishop who had full power in formulating actions and theology in the Church, who tended to be more secular and paid no attention to the Sabbath day. In the 4th century, Roman Catholics considered themselves heretics (Thomsett 2011:32). Tertullian can be considered a significant figure who made Montanism flourish. His zeal for the purity of the Christian faith adorns his work on the Sabbath.

One of Tertullian's most complex works is Against Marcion [Adversus Marcionem], written around 208 AD and consists of five books. According to Kenneth A. Strand, the book began during the pre-Montanist period but was completed after he adopted Montanism, particularly the fourth and fifth books (Strand 2016). The topic of the Sabbath was raised not in order to explain the Sabbath 'as it should be' but in the context of his polemic with Marcion - who wanted to subordinate the OT under the NT. In Tertullian's view, the Sabbath is a statute that exists in the OT but is respected by Jesus in the records of the NT Gospels. However, rest on the Sabbath was not understood in the same way as the Pharisees (and also Marcion). The polemic between the Pharisees and Jesus did not want to corner Jesus' Sabbath. Christ kept the Sabbath by carrying out the 'work' intended by God, which was misunderstood by the Pharisees and Marcion (Strand 2016). In his book, Tertullian explains the meaning of the Sabbath as doing work that is not performed for 6 days. Tertullian (1885d) stated to Marcion that:

You reproach Him [God] with change and instability in His commandments, such as that He forbade the work to be done on the Sabbath, yet at the siege of Jericho, God commanded the ark to be carried around the walls for eight days; in other words, of course, there is work on the Sabbath. However, you do not consider the law of the Sabbath: it is truly a work of man, not of the divine, which it forbids. It is written, 'Six days you shall work, and do all your work; but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord your God; do no work on that day'. What is the job in question? Of course, you know this yourself. In conclusion, on the Sabbath, He takes away the works He did for six days, namely your work; in other words, human work in everyday life. Now, carrying around the ark was not an ordinary everyday task, nor a human task, but a work that is rare and sacred, and, as the direct teachings of God later commanded, divine… (p. 314)

The Sabbath must be observed, but not strictly observed, as the Jews adhere to the prohibition against performing the 39 melancholy labour recorded in the Talmud. Therefore, Tertullian used the story of his disciples picking ears of wheat on the Sabbath (Mk 22:23-28) as a principle that must be preserved. According to him, the Sabbath is a day free from the gloom of life, not from work. To explain the meaning of work that can be performed on the Sabbath, he goes on to write:

So Christ did not completely abrogate the Sabbath: He kept the law…He showed it in a clear light by various kinds of works while carrying out the law that had been given, except the sanctity of the Sabbath, and while He conveyed the meaning of the Sabbath itself, which it had been from the very beginning. Sanctified by the blessing of the Father, a sanctity by His beneficent act. Because He provided to this day the divine safeguards… Because, in like manner, the prophet Elisha brought back to life the son of the Sunem woman who died on the Sabbath. Do you see, oh Pharisee, and you too, oh Marcion, how befitting is the work of good works for the Creator of the Sabbath, to preserve life, not to destroy it; how Christ did not introduce anything new, which did not follow the example, tenderness, mercy, and prediction of the Creator (Tertullian 1885d).

Furthermore, Tertullian uses the example of the destruction of the walls of Jericho. For him, the Sabbath was not violated in the destruction of Jericho because of obedience to God's commandments. The Sabbath must be practised, not with the spirit of legalism, but with love in good deeds to fellow human beings, even something that has life. However, there is a different tone in his fifth book, Against Marcion; Tertullian views the Sabbath as unnecessary because the Creator has cancelled it. He used the exclamations of the prophets Isaiah and Amos, who said, ' I [God] hate your feast days, your new moons, your fasts, and your Sabbaths'. Tertullian's reading of Galatians 4:9 confirmed that God had destroyed the Sabbath (Tertullian 1885e:984). Of course, Tertullian's understanding must be seen from the context. The book Against Marcion was written to counter Marcion's heresy, which made a drastic difference between the God of the OT and the NT. The God of the OT is considered lower and evil, while the God of the NT is high and all-loving. Therefore, he tried to show the relationship between the old and new agreements, intending that Marcion would be reasonable with the old agreement. The NT only partially destroys the OT. Instead, there is harmony. A way of faith and grace was prophesied in the OT and preserved in the NT. In the context of the Sabbath, the NT continues to practice it in the form of good works that God commands. What Tertullian was against was the ceremonial Sabbath that God despised in the OT. He still paid the highest respect to the Sabbath, even saying Jesus did not break the Sabbath; he obeyed the law.

Tertullian emphasised that the Sabbath was observed on Sunday because it was related to the Deity of Jesus. The Sabbath is no longer a remembrance of creation but of Jesus' Resurrection from the dead (Schaff 2006). We agree that the Sabbath is associated with Easter and is observed every week. Thus, respect for Easter (as well as the Sabbath) is high. Andar Ismail pointed out that Easter is often neglected because it is not recorded in the calendar. However, that does not matter because Easter is not only celebrated on the week of Jesus' Resurrection, but every Sunday is Easter (Ismail 2006).

Finding traces of the Sabbath practice in Tertullian's time is difficult. As stated before, it is an interpretation of Tertullian's writings to get an overview of the concept and practice of the Sabbath at that time. Nevertheless, his book On Fasting [de Jejuniis] was written around 217 AD or 218 AD when he was old. He rebuked the Roman Catholic church's practice of remaining at work (Tertullian uses the illustration of "continuing on the journey in rest") during the Sabbath and rarely fasting (except during the Easter season). After he converted to Montanism, the emphasis on fasting and kneeling Prayer was very strong. He rejected the dispensation that Jesus taught (Tertullian 2010). Indeed, Montanism provided a more strict version of Christian views than Catholic Christianity. Tertullian's acceptance of Montanism led him to a more strict interpretation of practices relating to the seventh-day Sabbath.

 

Implications of the Sabbath for Pentecostals

In general, seven points can be learned from Tertullian's concept of the Sabbath before and after converting to Montanism, namely:

Firstly, the importance of the Holy Spirit. Montanism emphasised the importance of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, including prophecy and speaking in tongues, which are also highly emphasised in the Pentecostal Church. This reminds Pentecostal churches of the importance of openness to the work and gifts of the Holy Spirit in the congregation's life.

Secondly, loyalty to biblical teachings. Tertullian and Montanism demonstrated strong fidelity to the teachings of the Bible, including regarding the Sabbath. This invites Pentecostal churches to continue to adhere to the Bible as a source of religious teachings and practices, including respecting the principles of the Sabbath in the form of service and blessed rest.

Thirdly, caution towards church traditions. Tertullian questioned church practices that aligned with Roman rule and challenged the rigid church hierarchy. This leads Pentecostal churches to critically evaluate church traditions and structures, ensuring that they do not hinder the work of the Holy Spirit and remain faithful to core Christian teachings.

Fourthly, the importance of an authentic spiritual life. Montanism's critique of the declining Christian life reminded the Pentecostal Church of the importance of an authentic and passionate spiritual life. This is a call to maintain spiritual vitality and not rely solely on rituals or church activities as markers of faith.

Fifthly, attitudes towards persecution. Montanism arose in a context of persecution, and Tertullian himself faced repression for his beliefs. This reminds the Pentecostal Church of the importance of endurance and faithfulness in facing trials and persecution because of faith.

Sixthly, the Sabbath is a symbol of freedom and service. Tertullian saw the Sabbath as a rule regarding a rest day, symbolising freedom and an opportunity to do good. Pentecostal churches can take inspiration from this to view every worship and service opportunity as part of a more significant 'spiritual Sabbath', which celebrates deliverance and God's work in their lives.

Seventhly, rejection of legalism. Tertullian opposed the Jewish legalistic view of the Sabbath and emphasised that the Sabbath should be practised with a spirit of love and service. Pentecostal churches can learn from this to avoid legalism and place more emphasis on the spiritual essence of worship and religious activities. The purpose of giving the Sabbath is for Christians to rest with God. However, its application is not the same as 39 melancholy practised by the Jews. Rest has been fulfilled in Jesus Christ, and he is the Sabbath itself. This is God's great work for the life of Christians. According to Heidelberg's confession of the 38th week, Christians stopped doing evil deeds and accepted that God works in the hearts of Christians through his spirit so that they enter into the eternal Sabbath (Rv 7:15) (Den End 2001). Overall, the narrative about Tertullian and Montanism invites the Pentecostal Church to reflect again on the importance of a dynamic spiritual life, being loyal to the teachings of the Bible, and having a critical attitude towards church traditions that can deviate from the essence of the Christian faith. It also reminds us of the importance of appreciating the work of the Holy Spirit in ministry and congregational life.

For Pentecostals, keeping the Sabbath day holy is a time to get to know God better (Rowley 2015). The Sabbath is filled with a relationship with God. God as Creator is the primary reference for the creation of the Sabbath. God initiated, carried it out, sanctified and blessed the Sabbath day (Gn 2:1-3). There is no indication that God is tired or wants to show anthropomorphism, but rather that he wants to provide an example for humans in living their lives. Therefore, in interpreting Exodus 31:17, the phrase 'breathing again' [aš̄wayyinnāp šāḇaṯ, שָׁבַתוַיִּנָּפַשׁ] does not mean that God was exhausted. Instead, it means that He rested and was refreshed on the 7th day. This freshness is not only in the world but also in God's eternal rest, which brings to the state of God's kingdom in the world full of love, goodness, truth, peace and justice. Karman has mentioned Tertullian a little in his discussion of the Sabbath, emphasising his view of Sunday as the Lord's Day (Karman 2021:265).

Richard H. Lowery, in his book Sabbath and Jubilees, includes God's perfect reign over creation as part of his rest (Dt 3:20; Jos 1:13-15; 23:1). According to Lowery, carrying out orders is a person's decision to ensure their safety. Therefore, when the Sabbath is associated with commandments, it brings about a state of security characterized by political stability, order in the socio-economic-political world, and the well-being of humanity, among other benefits (Lowery 2000). Sabbath is a commandment that brings security, showing that Sabbath is God's Shalom for the entire universe. The eschatological spirit is also evident from the Pentecostal Sabbath. The seventh day has a beginning in time but an 'opening' (without end) into eternity. In this sense, the Sabbath speaks of the relationship between God and his creation. Pentecostals use an allegorical interpretation to connect the seventh day with 'seven', referring to a specific meaning. Groenewald explains that the number seven is prominent in the Bible, such as in Jesus' genealogy in Luke 3:23-38, and likely corresponds to its role in the apocalypse. The number seven has a symbolic meaning. The most acceptable explanation is that 7 equals 3 plus 4, which is the number of the Trinity and the number of the four points of the compass - the whole earth or humankind. Thus, 3 plus 4 refers to God's intervention in his relationship with humans (Groenewald 1989:51). This style of interpretation is very much in demand by Pentecostals. However, it should be noted that Groenewald is not implying that the doctrine of the Trinity was clearly understood in the OT or even by Luke in writing the genealogy of Christ with his prominence on the number seven. Seven denotes the strong connection between God and his creation in the apocalypse. The importance of the seven is, of course, seen in terms of the seventh day and the fact that God blessed this day and declared it holy. Since then, the number seven has played an essential role in the Bible, as seen in many examples and situations. The importance of this number, as far as the Sabbath is concerned, is that it also communicates something about the relationship between God and his creation and, therefore, corresponds to the purpose of creation. Creation should be realised by the eternal God, who finally returns to the eternity of God and his kingdom so that God can be glorified and become everything (1 Cor 15:28).

Apart from the praxis and concept of the Sabbath, Pentecostals must also have a Sabbath covenant. Exodus 31:14-17 is an eternal covenant between God and his people to keep the Sabbath holy. The Israelites were required to observe the Sabbath from generation to generation as an everlasting covenant [berīt olām]. By observing the Sabbath, the nation of Israel must truly identify with peace and tranquility as God's purpose, not only for humankind but also for all creation (Rom 8:9-23). Joy must radiate because the Sabbath celebrates the covenant between God and the Pentecostal people (Möller 2019). This concept aligns with the Sunday worship celebrations that Tertullian emphasised after his conversion to Montanism. The Sabbath is of splendour and joy as it celebrates the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Brattston warns about this: One thing is sure and was uncontroversial: the primary day of the week for early Christians to gather and worship was not the seventh-day Sabbath, but Sunday, which they sometimes called 'the first day' or 'the eighth day' or 'the Lord's Day'. We have inklings of this in apostolic times: (1) in Acts 20.7, Christians celebrated Holy Communion and listened to a sermon 'upon the first day of the week' and (2) in 1 Corinthians 16.2, they are exhorted to donate to the church 'upon the first day of the week'. In opposition to Sabbath-keeping, the Letter of Barnabas 15.9, sometime between AD 70 and 132, records Christians that 'we keep the eighth day with joyfulness, the day also on which Jesus rose again from the dead. We agree with the concept of an eternal Sabbath because Isaiah 58:13-14 has an eschatological meaning: when God creates a new heaven and earth, God will be worshiped on the Sabbath (Isa 66:23).

Jesus' Incarnation to his Resurrection restored the Sabbath message. In Christ, God and humankind can connect as eternal God and man. Only in Christ, who became flesh, died, and was raised from the dead, can believers receive eternal life again. Only in Christ can God's Sabbath be fulfilled. He is the Creator of the Sabbath that connected Adam and Eve before their fall into sin. As the promised Messiah, he is the Sabbath covenant given to humankind in the OT that brings hope in realising salvation.

 

Conclusion

Tertullian's concept of the Sabbath before and after joining Montanism impacted Pentecostals. Tertullian helped to provide the basis for Pentecostal Sabbath spirituality and theology. The Sabbath is not only a day of rest but is connected to the day of Christ's Resurrection, so the Sabbath is not only the seventh day but the eighth day. The Sabbath commandment was not cancelled; instead, it replaced the work prohibition by doing work in the form of good deeds, such as seeking justice, peace and harmony. The Sabbath brings two dimensions to Pentecostals. First is the vertical dimension because it celebrates the covenant between God and man, leading to eternal salvation (eschatological meaning). The second is the horizontal dimension because you must maintain relationships with other believers, family and others. Jesus is Lord of the Sabbath, which does not cancel but gives a new meaning for Pentecostal people to do. He was resting on the Sabbath and will be resting in eternity.

 

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the respondents from Tanjungpura University friends, the church community and village communities living in the West Kalimantan area who have given their time to achieve this research.

Competing interests

The authors declared that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors' contributions

G.K.R.P. was involved in conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, validation, data curation and writing of this article. A.M.H. was responsible for methodology, the writing of the original draft, visualisation, software, project administration, the writing, review, and editing, supervision, funding acquisition and resources of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Gernaida Pakpahan
gernaidapakpahan@sttbi.ac.id

Received: 12 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 16 Apr. 2024
Published: 30 May 2024

 

 

1 . Hingga saat ini risalah On Idolatry masih mengalami perdebatan tentang waktu penulisannya. Frank Leslie Cross memberikan penanggalan terhadap lima risalah awal Tertullian sebagai berikut: De execrandis gentium diis in A.D. 197; De Oratione between 198 and 204; Adversus Judaeos between 200 and 206; and De Idololatria perhaps c. 212 (Cross 1960:137, 138, 143-145). Tetapi, kami memilih penanggalan dari E. J. Goodspeed yang memberikan penanggalan sebagai berikut: De execrandis gentium diis and Apologeticus pro Christianis (AD 197); A Adversus Judaeos, De Oratione, and De Idololatria between AD 198 and 202. F.L (Goodspeed 1960:160, 163).
2 . Tertullian used this term to refer to God's law before Moses.
3 . Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival and holiday honouring the God Saturn, which was held on December 17 in the Julian calendar and extended to December 23 (Miller 2010).
4 . Matronalia was a 'festival of women' dominated by the matron rite to Juno Lucina (wife of the god Jupiter and chief goddess of the Roman pantheon. Juno Lucina was believed to be the goddess of fertility and childbirth, and she had been worshipped since early ancient times in a grove on the Esquiline Hills) in Rome (Dokansky 2011).

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Promoting family well-being: A practical and eco-theological engagement

 

 

Fazel E. Freeks

Unit for Reformational Theology and Development of the South African Society, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

The importance of family well-being relates to the eco-theological discourse, ecology and family. Father absence, gender-based violence (GBV), and moral and values quandaries are social ills in society and are linked with eco-theology by shared values. Ecological issues are pressing concerns in the modern world. This article asserts that eco-theology, a form of constructive theology, focuses on the intricate connections among religion, nature, society, the church, and, notably, the 'family' as a vital social unit. From a theological perspective, human beings and the relationships in which they function, are grounded in the very Being of God. However, societal perspectives often depict families as afflicted, fractured entities marred by violence. Disruptions in family life reverberate throughout society, undermining its foundational moral fabric. Amid significant shifts in family structures, South Africa is observing a growing prevalence of fractured relationships, further exacerbating societal challenges. Scriptural teachings, part of the intervention, offer guidance for navigating life's complexities, including within the family, faith communities and broader society (2 Tim 3:16). Thus, this article aims to contribute insights to this critical discourse.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article underscores the role of pastoral care within practical theology, particularly in addressing prevalent social challenges encountered by families. These challenges encompass issues such as father absence, divorce, erosion of values and immoral behaviour. The imperative for developing pastoral care strategies to tackle these issues is evident. These strategies may involve equipping families with necessary skills and support.

Keywords: eco-theology; practical theology; family; wellbeing; fatherhood; father absence; gender-based violence; moral values.

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Background

The Christian doctrine that promoted the manipulation and exploitation of nature for human benefit was known as the 'theology of human responsibility over nature', or stewardship. For a considerable period, eco-theology primarily focused on exploring the relationship between humanity and the natural world (Conradie 2020:2). The term eco-theology gained traction in the late 20th century, particularly among Christians, as it became intertwined with the burgeoning field of ecology. Eco-theology, a theological discourse, accentuates the interconnectedness of God's creation, particularly the natural world. The term 'eco' originates from the Greek word 'oikos', meaning household (Santmire 2019).

Eco-theology achieved full recognition in the 1960s, marked by the seminal contributions of the Protestant eco-theologian Joseph Sittler. Sittler's groundbreaking work, drawing from Paul's letter to the Colossians, advocated for a reimagined notion of grace that embraced rather than shunned nature. Engaging in dialogues with ecologists such as Aldo Leopold and reinterpreting Christian poets like Gerard Manley Hopkins through an ecological lens, Sittler pioneered the incorporation of ecology into theological discourse. In response to escalating eco-theological concerns, Christian eco-theology emerged as a formal academic field in the 1970s (Conradie 2020:1).

The Africa We Want, also known as Agenda 2063, embodies the vision of the African Union (AU) for the year 2063 (AU 2015), envisioning a continent where Africans have actualised their collective aspirations for prosperity, well-being, and the full empowerment of women, youth, boys and girls. A peaceful Africa, driven by its own people, hinges upon the realisation of the seven aspirations delineated in the vision for 2063. Of particular relevance to this discussion is the sixth aspiration, which underscores the importance of Africa's development being driven by its people. This entails unlocking the potential of all Africans, including women and youth, and ensuring the well-being of children. This aspiration aligns closely with the promotion of family well-being (AU 2015).

As the 20th century approached, the world found itself at a critical juncture, propelled by a confluence of factors including rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. The widespread adoption of technologies, especially in mining and agriculture, coupled with the pervasive pollution of land, sea and air across the globe, underscored the severity of the challenges facing humanity. Concerns regarding human survival on Earth were compounded by a growing recognition of the interconnected challenges posed by extreme poverty, the depletion of non-renewable natural resources, and rapid population expansion. Communities worldwide found themselves grappling with unprecedented difficulties amid this global crisis. As a consequence of the myriad issues stemming from human activity on the planet, the Christian concept of human dominion over nature faced scrutiny from both proponents and detractors of the faith. By the end of the 20th century, many people considered the idea of human dominance over nature to be scandalous. Nevertheless, certain prominent Christian figures in public policy and theology persisted in championing this perspective, advocating for business-as-usual approaches despite mounting evidence to the contrary.

According to Vorster (2023:117), humans should understand first and foremost that the Creator 'owned' the created world, and God gave humans the responsibility of 'ruling' it. Rather than being a permit for exploitation, the 'dominion' was understood to be a return to Adam and Eve's role as caregivers. Moreover, God's creational order serves as the basis for understanding families (Vorster 2023:117). Numerous principles derived from the creation narrative hold significance for the establishment of family life (Vorster 2023:117).

 

Introduction

Recently, the Society for Practical Theology in South Africa (SPTSA) organised a conference focused on Practical Theology and Eco-theology, held from 23-25 January 2024. One of the presentations addressed the imperative of enhancing family well-being amid the challenges of a society plagued by destructive social ills. The central premise of this article is that family well-being is deteriorating within the South African context, influenced by a multitude of factors.

Thus, it is deliberate to apply eco-theology to South African families (fathers, mothers and children) because it enhances family well-being. Certain families are involved in the community engagement intervention for family well-being. Numerous families have a limited theological understanding of the social issues discussed in this paper because of the emphasis placed on eco-theology. As a result, families are concerned, confused and outraged. The support system for families helps a family cope with the stresses of societal ills like father absence, gender-based violence, and moral and ethical dilemmas.

 

Family well-being

According to Yaxley, Gill and McManus (2012):

positive mental health is defined as … a state of wellness in which a person is aware of their own talents, is able to handle daily stressors, works effectively and efficiently, and is able to give back to the community. (pp. 13-14)

The term 'well-being' is commonly used for a variety of meanings depending on the situation (Yaxley et al. 2012:13-14).

Family well-being in South African society is undermined by various social ills and destructive forces, notably the absence of fathers, gender-based violence (GBV), and a deficiency of moral values, especially prevalent among the youth. These three challenges will be examined in the subsequent sections of the article.

South Africa, marked by a lengthy history of conflict, stands as one of the world's many unequal nations (Gouws 2022). Startling statistics depict the nation grappling with alarmingly high levels of violence, cementing its status among the most violent globally, a distressing reality often normalised by various researchers and authors (Gouws 2022). Moreover, the country is witnessing significant transformations in family composition, leading to a proliferation of broken relationships. According to DuBois and Miley (2010), recalibrations in the parent-child dynamic become imperative. Henceforth, the discourse on father absence becomes pertinent.

 

Father absence as a destructive social ill in society

The aforementioned has notably led to the prevalence of father absence (Kesebonye & P'Olak 2020:1). According to Molongoana (2016), '[F]ather absence' refers to the physical, social, financial, and psychological absence of a biological father from the life of his child. Meyer (2018:4) identifies these aspects as contributing factors to the breakdown of parental relationships. While Meyer suggests these aspects as reasons for father absence, Mabusela categorises them as factors. These include fathering children outside of marriage, abandonment, divorce, emotional unavailability despite physical presence, employment or social dislocation (where the father resides separately from the family), and death, all of which contribute to father absence (Mabusela 2014:13).

Father absence also encompasses situations where fathers lack regular interaction with their children and fail to significantly influence their development (Makofane 2015:22, 24). According to Eddy, Thomson-de Boor and Mphaka (2013:7), fathers who do not reside with their children, refrain from communicating with them, and fail to provide financial support are deemed absent fathers. Although the absence of fathers is acknowledged as detrimental, it is important to recognise that fathers who are present in their families can also have a negative impact on the family's well-being (Meyer 2018:2).

The impact of father absence hinders children from both receiving and expressing love, leading to the manifestation of consistent behavioural issues among them (Freeks 2022b:1). Consequently, father absence must be recognised as a social factor capable of exacerbating the challenges and difficulties encountered by many South African families (Department of Social Development 2021). In the absence of a father, weakened relationships become more prevalent, resulting in an increase in dysfunctional family dynamics and a deficiency of affection (Ellis et al. 2012).

In situations where there is a deficiency of affection, the emotional toll of a father's absence tends to be more severe (Morse 2016:14). Furthermore, children raised in families without a father figure not only have limited access to health, education and other forms of support but are also more susceptible to emotional and mood disturbances (Holborn & Eddy 2011:4). Thus, it becomes evident that the emotional availability and engagement of a father are just as crucial as his physical presence (Holborn & Eddy 2011:4).

Father absence persists as a pervasive issue in post-apartheid South Africa (Khan 2018:18). While this phenomenon is not unique to South Africa, it remains a significant hurdle confronting the nation's citizens (McGee 1993:19). Father absence is a global challenge and a substantial social issue with profound implications for families, society and the economy as a whole. Moreover, it often thrusts numerous households into a cycle of poverty (Mutegi 2015:xiv). The widespread absence of fathers exerts a negative impact on all facets of life for both families and society (Mutegi 2015:2). Carstens (2014) asserts that the absence of fathers largely contributes to dysfunctional family dynamics. This phenomenon of father absence transcends individual nations and extends to continents such as Africa, America and Europe (Mutegi 2015:2).

 

Gender-based violence

Another destructive social ill affecting the well-being of families in South Africa is GBV. According to Finchilescu and Dugard (2018:3), GBV is defined as any act of violence against women (or mothers) that causes or is likely to cause physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering, including threats, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life. This definition corresponds with the terminology employed by the United Nations General Assembly meeting convened in 1993. The term 'gender-based violence' covers a range of behaviours, including rape, assault and sexual harassment (Finchilescu & Dugard 2018:3). Sexual harassment is defined as any form of harm, unlawful conduct or physical attack perpetrated by one individual against another; it is not gender-specific and can occur anywhere (Finchilescu & Dugard 2018:3).

Gender-based violence and sexual violence are serious concerns for girls in South African schools, as highlighted by Mayeza and Bhana (2021). The numerous cases of GBV reported during the strict coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown, which confined families to their homes, were especially concerning. Interestingly, amid the lockdown, greater emphasis was placed on addressing abusive relationships and the psychological trauma they induce, rather than on the tangible impacts of COVID-19 affecting people worldwide (Mahlangu et al. 2022).

Gender-based violence is also a major cause of unstable, disrupted and broken families, representing a form of warfare against women and children and exerting a destructive force on family life (Freeks 2023:1). It presents a grave threat to health and safety. Despite 29 years of democracy, South Africa continues to grapple with numerous human rights violations (Mashau 2022:1), indicating that GBV is on the rise, with adverse consequences for families residing in the country.

Furthermore, the high statistics of GBV brings the matter to the forefront of political, social, economic, educational and governmental agendas. These statistics underscore the gravity of the issue. According to Mahlangu et al. (2022), one in four adult women in South Africa experiences GBV. Their research further reveals that one in three children will endure sexual and physical abuse before reaching the age of 18. Motene (cited by Mile 2020:4) argues that because some crimes remain unreported and perpetrators go unpunished, statistics only reveal half of the story. According to Mile (2020:4), two out of every five women will suffer physical abuse at the hands of their spouses, and one out of every three women will experience sexual assault. Lekabe (cited by Mile 2020:4) further highlights that between 2019 and 2020, a staggering 380 rapes were reported in educational institutions, underscoring the pervasive nature of GBV. Additionally, Vallabh (2022) notes that African American women in the United States face a 35% higher likelihood of experiencing abuse compared to their white counterparts, despite comprising only 20.8% of the population.

Based on these statistical data, South Africa has the highest global rates of femicide, with an average of one woman killed every 4 h (Frieslaar & Masango 2021:3). Gender-based violence affects one-third of women globally, which calls for it to be regarded as abnormal (Kabongo 2021:1).

It is unsurprising that families are perceived as abused, broken, divorced and fractured units where violence occurs, considering they are the primordial and most fundamental form of relationship in the world (Carstens 2014:9-11).

 

Moral decay and the lack of values

Moral decay and a lack of moral values are identified as the third social ill and destructive force examined in this article, greatly compromising family well-being within South African society. The discussion around values is not new in South Africa. It often arises when educators and policymakers confront issues related to human rights abuses, societal moral decline and a lack of discipline in schools (Van der Merwe 2011:1). According to Gumede (2022), the moral values of South African society, whether shaped by democracy, culture or religion, significantly impact people's behaviour, personal spaces, daily interactions, and the functioning of business, politics and government. However, it is noteworthy that these values have frequently been compromised.

Moral values determine what individuals consider appropriate behaviour for themselves, how they believe others will perceive their actions, and what society deems acceptable or unacceptable conduct. Morality provides the framework for guiding behaviour, choices, and actions to prevent misuse, theft, and harm to others. When the fundamental moral principles that should govern behaviour are violated, people in South Africa either engage in widespread corruption or turn a blind eye to it.

Consequently, families are confronted with a moral quandary, necessitating the immediate integration of faith-based principles to tackle this predicament within society. Contemporary society finds itself amid a precarious state of moral deterioration. Families and educational institutions encounter numerous hurdles and grapple with pervasive behavioural issues, particularly among the younger generation (Sekhaulelo 2021:1). The disruption of family life carries far-reaching implications for society as a whole, as it infringes upon the fundamental social morals of the community (Vorster 2023:114).

It is of utmost importance that children are raised in families that offer them sufficient education grounded in moral principles, including discipline and respect (Neufeld & Davis 2010:94-95). The family plays a crucial role as the primary educational institution for young children, imparting values through both instructional methods and, more significantly, by setting an example. Children learn from observing their parents' conduct and can anticipate their behaviours from an early age, thereby shaping their own actions and responses accordingly.

A society's core social values are jeopardised when stable family relationships experience disruption, subsequently affecting the entire society. It is inevitable that any society characterised by broken families will also have compromised moral standards. South Africa, known for its diverse family structures, has historically held various moral codes that accommodate these structures. For instance, tribal traditions upheld patriarchal, heterosexual and predominantly polygamous family units, which placed emphasis on authoritative relationships as a means to raise children in alignment with the tribe's beliefs and practices. The well-being of the tribe hinged upon the establishment of authority structures between parents and children at different stages of development (Vorster 2023:114).

In a context where moral ambiguity prevails, the violation of human dignity within familial settings, including instances of domestic abuse such as GBV, and other destructive practices, can be mitigated through the cultivation of spiritual and religious values. By imparting knowledge pertaining to the moral foundations of family life, parenthood, and responsible family planning, it becomes possible to address the pervasive issue of homelessness among South Africa's street children. Moral values should be accorded a central role in initiatives such as family counselling and youth sexual education. By promoting the fundamental principles of the family unit, all moral agents engaged in human development and education could help to mend the broken family (Vorster 2023:122).

The moral deficit in society requires recovering the forgotten mandate of character formation (Magezi & Madimutsa 2023:3). Morals and values play a crucial role in character formation and, by extension, in the well-being of families. Consequently, family well-being cannot be effectively achieved in society without character formation. Building character within families involves the integration of values and beliefs (Magezi & Madimutsa 2023:3). If character development is prioritised in terms of family well-being, it can greatly contribute to Christian formation (Magezi & Madimutsa 2023:3). Character development is a collaborative activity among various community institutions, such as the church, educational institutions and even the family (Magezi & Madimutsa 2023:3).

 

Empirical investigation

The empirical part of the investigation centres around the following research question:

Research question

From the above problem statement, the research question arises: How can families be restored in terms of well-being and flourishing in society?

Sub-questions arising from the main research question include:

• What guidelines can be identified for fostering flourishing and well-being in families in the Community Engagement (CE) Project on Family Well-being: A Practical Theological Engagement?

• How can families be trained, equipped and empowered to deal with father absence, GBV, and moral and value dilemmas in society, with the aim of effecting transformative and positive change in society?

Research objectives

The research objectives were to:

• Explore what guidelines are available for promoting the well-being and flourishing of families within the CE Project on Family Well-being: A Practical Theological Engagement.

• Facilitate the training, equipping and empowerment of families, with the aim of fostering transformative and positive change within society.

 

Research method and design

This article utilises an exploratory design and a qualitative approach to investigate the experiences, challenges and feedback of families with absent fathers, GBV, and the values and moral dilemmas that arise in society. The researcher utilised structured interviews and naïve sketches as the primary methods for data collection from families (Botma et al. 2010:204-206).

Measuring instrument

Using structured interviews and naïve sketches, the researcher attempted to investigate the experiences, challenges and feedback of families. Although it is typically employed in quantitative research, descriptive research can also be used in qualitative research (Vhymeister 2008).

Participants

The participants consisted of families comprising adult fathers and mothers, with a total of 30 participants (N = 30), drawn from local communities, churches and congregations in the Ikageng Township, Potchefstroom District, with the assistance of Mosaic Community Developments. Mr Mzwandile Vice, the site administrator of Mosaic Community Developments, was the gatekeeper for this research project.

Sampling

Families were chosen based on their engagement in the CE project on Family Well-being: A Practical Theological Assessment, where they received training, resources and support. A total of 30 families were selected for participation in the qualitative research, comprising structured interviews and naïve sketches.

Data gathering

The researcher and the Mosaic Community Developments identified the participants (families) from the local communities, churches and congregations in the Ikageng Township, Potchefstroom District, and contacted them by telephone to schedule appointments for the structured interviews and naïve sketches. These sessions took place in the training room of the Mosaic Community Developments, chosen for its privacy, conducive environment, pleasant ambiance, comfort and minimal distractions (Pinkoane 2005).

Data analysis

The researcher analysed the qualitative data obtained from the structured interviews and naïve sketches, ensuring that any raw information was transformed into generally relevant and comprehensible data. The results section discusses the data further.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the Theology Research Ethics Committee (TREC) and ethics consent was received on 1 November 2023. The ethics approval number is NWU-00881-23-A6.

Mosaic Community Developments, operating as both a non-governmental organisation (NGO) and a non-profit organisation (NPO), works closely with families across various societal and community contexts. The researcher and Mosaic Community Developments conducted the intervention in adherence to their ethical agreement. During the initial stages of family training, equipping and empowerment, written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants. They were assured of their freedom to withdraw from the study at any point if they felt uncomfortable. In terms of probability, magnitude or seriousness of harm or discomfort, the research project and study posed minimal risk to the participants.

 

Research and the intervention programme

Research foundation

The primary focus of the research project was the well-being of families, guided by the pastoral-theological paradigm. Pastoral theology, characterised by its grounding in Scripture, practical application and empirical reality, emphasises the role of the church and other faith communities. Situated within the broader world, it offers guidance for supporting, equipping, empowering, educating and preparing families.

The aim of the intervention

The purpose of the intervention (which is based on the research project) was to train, equip, educate and empower South African families to fulfil their crucial role in society and in church.

The planning and implementing of the intervention

To address the aforementioned issues, the researcher partnered with Mosaic Community Developments, as well as churches and congregations in Ikageng Township, Extension 11, Potchefstroom District, to devise an intervention grounded in the research on family well-being, fatherhood, father absence, GBV, and moral and values dilemmas. The intervention engaged faith-based families from the local community over a 6-month period, during which thorough discussions took place to critically address every aspect of implementing a timely, effective and relevant response to pressing social issues, including father absence, GBV and decline in moral values within families and society. Subsequently, the Family Well-being Convention was launched to carry out the intervention, featuring presentations, training sessions and empowerment initiatives tailored to South African families. Families participated in the convention out of genuine interest and concern for the issues and challenges that impact families and society, as outlined earlier. Invitations were extended to families from neighbouring communities, as well as churches and congregations in Ikageng, Potchefstroom, to attend a presentation dedicated to family well-being during the convention held between 2023 and the beginning of 2024. A group of 30 family members attended the presentation on that specific day.

Training of families

Following the presentation on the fundamentals of family well-being, a support group of 30 family members was formed and trained using a family well-being training manual with the fatherhood programme. The 30 families are single-parent families, consisting of mothers and children (N = 26). The biological father is absent, and in other cases deceased (N = 4). During the training sessions, families shared and deliberated on certain family issues and social ills within their own family. Workbooks and training manuals served as the assessment criteria for the families that were trained. The training manual included seven practical and relevant sessions, which were as follows: the prevalence of father absence; the issue of gender-based violence (GBV); fathering and mothering concepts; family well-being; pastoral counselling; family values; and character-building components.

 

Findings

The findings obtained from the families who participated in the structured interviews and naïve sketches are discussed, utilising verbatim quotes and support from literature to enrich and validate the research findings. The literature review aims to compare the results with prior research and draw conclusions. The following six themes emerged from the structured interviews and naïve sketches:

Theme 1: Family well-being matters

For the participants, family holds immense significance and is highly esteemed in society. Participants expressed their views as follows:

'Family well-being is where father and mother are both present and available in the lives of children.' (Participant 1, female, housewife)

'There is a void or vacuum or gap when one parent is present. This is difficult sometimes.' (Participant 2, female, housewife)

'Peace and happiness in the family brings well-being.' (Participant 3, female, housewife)

'These elements can eliminate conflict in the family.' (Participant 4, female, housewife)

Barnard (2018:6) corroborated the findings by suggesting that family well-being can be understood within an ecological framework, which enables families to flourish despite adversities. Existing research indicates that children who lack affection and nurturing from one or both parents often encounter difficulties in acquiring fundamental life skills such as emotional regulation, trust-building, maintaining relationships and self-awareness. These challenges may ultimately precipitate risky behaviour (Louw & Louw 2014:360; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman 2016:335). The primary caregivers responsible for nurturing family well-being are typically mothers and fathers. However, in situations where mothers and fathers are absent due to various circumstances, other primary caregivers such as aunts, uncles, grandparents and community members may step in to contribute to the well-being of the children. Additionally, the active engagement of parents or caregivers fosters the adoption of healthy habits and the development of constructive coping mechanisms (Yogman & Eppel 2022:15). Strong early bonds are crucial for children to mature into content and self-sufficient adults. This profound connection between parent and child significantly contributes to personal resilience (Freeks & Simeon De Jager 2023:3-4).

Theme 2: The importance of Christian values

According to the participants, family well-being is influenced by Christian values such as respect, love, prayer and faith. In this regard, the participants indicated the following:

'Values [or virtues] serve as rules and guidelines for how children should act and behave.' (Participant 5, male, gardener)

'Today's youth and children have no longer respect for their parents and other authority figures such as teachers.' (Participant 6, male, cleaner)

'It is important to go back to biblical or Christian values.' (Participant 7, male, unemployed)

'They are lacking values.' (Participant 8, male, unemployed)

Karakas and Lee (2004:57) assert that effective parenting is rooted in values like love, unity, peace and harmony, which form the bedrock of family well-being. Children acquire faith-based values from their home, church and community. Values such as Christ's love, forgiveness and compassion can significantly contribute to the spiritual development of children (Freeks 2022a:1-2).

Theme 3: Stronger families are needed in the current society

The participants believe that pastoral counselling strengthens family bonds. They posit that a strong family can resiliently navigate life's challenges. The participants expressed the following views:

'Pastoral Counselling works well because families are emotionally stable.' (Participant 9, female, cleaner)

'When a family is weak, children have the tendency to leave home when there is conflict.' (Participant 10, female, domestic worker)

According to Patton (2005), pastoral care and counselling are deeply rooted in Christian philosophy and behaviour, and a set of guiding principles directs the pastoral response to various societal issues. However, pastoral care and counselling encompass more than just offering spiritual guidance; it also means taking practical action to assist families, individuals and communities in need (Mk 12:31) (Lartey 2003).

Theme 4: Father absence is a destructive social ill

Furthermore, the participants indicated that father absence is detrimental to families and society. The following excerpts capture their views:

'Many fathers abandon their families when their wives are still pregnant with their children.' (Participant 11, male, learner)

'Family members are at risk and vulnerable because of father absence.' (Participant 12, female, learner)

Existing research suggests that children who experience father absence may face heightened vulnerability to various challenges, including substance abuse, sexual abuse, violence, crime, suicide, as well as emotional and behavioural issues (Reuven-Krispin et al. 2021:453; Thompson 2018:6). While father absence is not unique to South Africa, it remains one of the country's most significant social and destructive ills (Dobbs 2013:2). According to Albert et al. (2021:2), the pervasive and persistent nature of father absence in South Africa is exacerbated by unreported fatherhood, denial of paternal responsibilities, household dissolution and divorce. Psychologically, children affected by father absence often experience low self-esteem and subpar academic performance (Magqamfana & Bazana 2020:169).

Theme 5: Gender-based violence breaks families and society

The participants emphasised that GBV has severe consequences for South African society and families. They underscored the fact that the media extensively reports on the effects of GBV in our country, as noted below:

'Gender-based violence is a monster.' (Participant 13, female, housewife)

'Gender-based violence strip[s] women and mothers from their dignity.' (Participant 14, female, domestic worker)

'Gender-based violence is caused by men and fathers who are supposed to protect families.' (Participant 15, female, cleaner)

In South Africa, GBV has become a prevalent phenomenon. It is defined as the expression of power and dominance through physical and verbal acts, as well as violence against an individual based on their gender (Banda 2020:2). Most of the killings and acts of violence against women and children are committed by men (Finchilescu & Dugard 2018:3).

Freeks (2023:3) highlights that husbands, fathers, grandfathers, uncles, male siblings, family members and even women perpetrate violence against women and children. The most vulnerable and likely victims of GBV in South Africa are young black women from impoverished neighbourhoods (Vallabh 2022).

Theme 6: Church attendance is paramount for the well-being of families

The participants expressed concerns about the youth's lack of interest and involvement in church life, which is a source of worry for the community's Christian pastors. They firmly believe that regular church attendance is crucial for families to experience spiritual growth and formation, particularly among the youth. These sentiments are echoed in the following excerpts:

'Low church attendance is the norm in the community.' (Participant 16, female, housewife)

'Young people refuse to go to church.' (Participant 17, female, housewife)

'Some parents are no more willing to go to church.' (Participant 18, female, housewife)

Jansen (2015:104) highlights a concerning trend regarding the lack of youth participation in church activities. It is noted that extremely low church attendance among the youth is prevalent, with many outright refusing to attend. Furthermore, there is a notable indifference among young people towards engaging in church-related activities. Political motivations often influence the youth, leading to conflicts and disruptions within some churches. Additionally, churches often lack trained youth leaders and relevant youth programmes that could help them reach out to the local youth. While the church could potentially serve as a refuge for young people facing challenges, this is not always the case, as it has become disconnected from the struggles of the youth.

Many young people who are active in church life often do not feel loved or cared for, as most churches are often more interested in the passion of youth than in their complexity as human beings (Root 2015:30).

 

Conclusion

Families encounter a myriad of challenges, and pastoral care stands poised to play a pivotal role in nurturing their faith and spirituality, fostering character development, and instilling a moral compass aligned with the precepts of their faith. Through pastoral care, families' wounds and problems can be addressed, while a sense of belonging within a faith community can significantly contribute to their well-being. We recognise the presence of societal ills and destructive forces, yet remain steadfast in our belief that God possesses the power to mend and restore. Moreover, families grapple with internal strife alongside societal and ecclesiastical challenges. Nevertheless, through pastoral care and counselling, our aim is to imbue families with the conviction that God can restore and heal, enabling them to thrive and flourish within society. The intervention will be fully described in a subsequent article.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

F.E.F. is the sole author of this research article.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study and project.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Fazel Freeks
fazel.freeks@nwu.ac.za

Received: 27 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 10 May 2024
Published: 30 May 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

A holistic ubuntu artificial intelligence ethics approach in South Africa

 

 

Katleho K. Mokoena

Department of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the most spoken-about topics in the media, academia, government and other platforms. One of the aspects that is often discussed is the ethical implications of AI and approaches to mitigate the risks. Artificial intelligence has an undeniable impact on industries as well as socio-economic structures; however, this article focusses on the impact of AI on three concerns mainly, humanity, spirituality and the environment. This article is an interdisciplinary study of African theological ethics and the philosophy of technology. It discusses the theological implications (doctrinal issues) of emerging technologies, particularly AI. It discusses technology as power which has impacted Africa since the first industrial revolution and emphasises the importance of African ethics in the context of AI in Africa. This article critically discusses ubuntu ethics and its critique. It focuses on AI and its impact on humanity, spirituality and the environment, and proposes a holistic ubuntu AI ethics approach in South Africa.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article is an interdisciplinary study of African theological ethics and the philosophy of technology. Ubuntu ethics in this article derives from African Theology and African Philosophy. Ubuntu AI ethics is important for various disciplines such as theology, law, social sciences, computer sciences and information technology (especially designers and developers).

Keywords: African theological ethics; ubuntu ethics; philosophy of technology; artificial intelligence; fourth industrial revolution; systematic theology; AI ethics.

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Introduction

According to Arakpogun et al. (2021:375), artificial intelligence (AI) has become an important topic of discussion for academics and the public, since it is disrupting industries as well as daily life. Governments and experts are trying to understand the effects of AI and also how to promote its development. Artificial intelligence has many definitions but, in this article, it will be referred to as the ability of machines to imitate human intelligence, capable of self-learning, and able to accomplish complicated tasks with minimal to no human control (Fourie 2020:13). Common benefits of AI include quicker responses, increased productivity, medical breakthroughs, automation, improved learning and customer experience (Gaffley, Adams & Shyllon 2022). Okolo, Aruleba and Obaido (2023) argue that Africa may not be an AI superpower or it may take considerable effort to be one, but it should capitalise on their capabilities in software creation and research, investing in infrastructure and ensuring that potential benefits outweigh the risks. Ruttkamp-Bloem (2023) argues that understanding the potential benefits of AI necessitates an epistemic just framework of AI ethics and both are inextricably linked. Artificial intelligence technologies have the potential to bring about significant change for many Africans. However to benefit from AI in the African context, Africans require AI ethics awareness, sensitivity and literacy. In the context of smart cities, AI has numerous useful applications, such as leveraging its predictive powers to explore new development paths, water and risk management, assisting with fire detection, boosting security and being employed in historic places. What remains critical is that there is equality in AI opportunities, and that the services delivered are inclusive (Gaffley et al. 2022).

While there are significant benefits to be gained from AI in Africa, there are also multiple barriers and unforeseen risks that policymakers must address. These problems vary from socioeconomic inequalities caused by the digital divide and a lack of digital skills across a big part of Africa's population to the risks of automation and job losses that could affect multiple sectors (Arakpogun et al. 2021; Gaffley et al. 2022). In the global landscape of AI, there is uneven development and deployment of AI in the Global South and Global North. The Global North is more resourced than the Global South, and it could lead to further inequalities (Arakpogun et al. 2021). Brokensha, Kotzé and Senekal (2023) argue that the challenge with the monopoly of tech companies such as Facebook, Google, Microsoft and Amazon is that they can hamper African countries' efforts to create and implement their own AI technologies. If you cannot develop your technologies, you are at risk of being deployed technologies that are not contextual and there are also risks of exploitation. Artificial intelligence tech, mainly developed in the Global North, can lead to 'allocative harms' in African contexts, such as decisions on bank loans or credit. Furthermore, facial recognition algorithms may disproportionately target or exclude people of colour (Gwagwa et al. 2020).

This article firstly discusses the theological implications (doctrinal issues) of emerging technologies such as AI. Secondly, it discusses technology as power which has impacted Africa since the first industrial revolution. Thirdly, it deliberates on the importance of African ethics in the context of AI in Africa. Fourthly, it critically discusses ubuntu ethics and its critique as well as focusses on AI and its impact on humanity, spirituality and the environment from the perspective of ubuntu ethics. This article is an interdisciplinary study of African theological ethics and emerging technologies, specifically AI.

 

Theological (doctrinal) implications of artificial intelligence

The rapid growth and power of technology have posed questions if human beings are becoming God. Historically, many things have been attributed to God, but the same attributes can be achieved by humans through technology to a certain extent (Harari 2016). People used to pray to God for rain, but through the power of technology, they now have the ability to create rain. God has given life to human beings, nature and animals on earth. Life, however, is limited. The fragility of human beings to become sick, injured, get old and eventually die is an integral part of life. Inevitably, humans die either by natural or unnatural causes (Matheson 2017).

Mullins (2021:99) states that the assurance that one will be saved from pain and death is a key component of the Christian notion of salvation. The doctrine of salvation in Christianity is known as soteriology. Ryrie (1999) broadly defines soteriology as:

… the doctrine of salvation, must be the grandest theme in the Scriptures. It embraces all of time as well as eternity past and future. It relates in one way or another to all of mankind, without exception. It even has ramifications in the sphere of the angels. It is the theme of both the Old and New Testaments. It is personal, national, and cosmic. And it centres on the greatest Person, our Lord Jesus Christ. (p. 453)

The theological implication of the doctrine of salvation vis-à-vis technology is that humans would no longer need God for their salvation. The more technology develops, the more the world becomes secular as technology becomes a 'replacement' for God. Salvation is the act of God to save humanity and the cosmos from death and destruction. Jan G. Van Der Watt edited the book Salvation in the New Testament: Perspectives on Soteriology (2005) which indicates that there are varying perspectives of soteriology in New Testament studies but when it is located from the 'master story', it is summarised as follows:

There seems to be general agreement on the anthropological perspective that humans are in trouble in their relation to God. People are separated from God and a relationship between them is absent. They cannot restore the relationship on their own, because they are not in a position to do that … God, however, comes into action and opens real possibilities for the restoration of this relationship. His motivation for doing this, for instance, is described in terms of grace or love. (pp. 519-520)

The premise is that humans cannot save themselves and reconcile themselves with God but need God for salvation. Humans cannot eradicate sin and death by themselves. Jesus Christ is therefore the agent of salvation.

Radical human enhancement poses a question if human beings are taking salvation into their own hands. This has been advocated by the transhumanist movement which aspires to a life that is prolonged differently, one that is free from illness and pain and one that has enhanced cognitive powers to escape the fatalities and limitations of humanity through technology (Fourie 2020). This is encapsulated in the three 'supers': super longevity, superintelligence and super wellbeing (Peters 2018). Super longevity focusses on radical life extension to achieve physical immortality. Mercer and Trothen (2021:22) mention some of the possible technologies for radical enhancement such as genetic engineering and therapy (i.e. CRISPR) which strives to identify and manipulate the genes that cause ageing and other diseases. Another aspect is 'designer babies' which is genetic engineering in the embryo to enhance a baby to have specific traits and eliminate diseases before they are born. Super intelligence focusses on the use of computers to develop intelligence that is on par with, then surpasses, that of humans (Ross 2020). Think of robots, AI and supercomputers. Super wellbeing focusses on using pharmaceuticals and genetic engineering to maintain a constant state of subjective happiness above all else (Ross 2020). This is for the elimination of pain and suffering from unpleasant experiences. It may take a couple of decades for radical human enhancement to be functional but in the meantime, there are technologies such as cryonics that can preserve the human body indefinitely or bridge a gap between death and the future until technologies are more advanced (Mercer & Trothen 2021). The theological implications include the doctrine of humanity (anthropology) which views humanity as made in the image of God [imago Dei]. When humanity technologically alters (enhances) their bodies beyond human limitations, would humans still be considered in the image of God? Would it be a sin to technologically enhance our bodies? This question would be posed from hamartiology (the doctrine of sin). Another theological implication is eschatology (study of the end times). Post-Christian ideologies such as transhumanism hold an eschatological view that the current dysfunctional world will be replaced by a technologically perfect world (Fourie 2020).

According to Fuller and Lipinska (2014:46), the term 'theomimesis' (which means 'God-playing' in Greek) refers to our desire to 'enter into the mind of God', which is to say, 'play God', with the former word still having resonance in physics and the latter in biology. The aspiration for radical human enhancement is regarded as 'playing God' which is in contrast with human beings as the imago Dei. Radical human enhancement thus poses various doctrinal challenges to Christian theology. It is therefore important for theologians to engage on the impact of emerging technologies such as AI as we are entering an era that is technologically fast-paced and challenges our way of life.

This section has discussed the theological implications of emerging technologies such as AI. Transhumanism poses challenges to Christian doctrines such as theological anthropology, hamartiology, soteriology and eschatology. The following section will critically discuss technology as power which has impacted Africa since the first industrial revolution.

 

Technology as power: Impact in Africa

Artificial intelligence did not appear in a vacuum, but it is the continuation of history when we analyse the impact of Western technology in the African context. Benyera (2022:1) asserts that emerging technologies are a continuation of the exploitation of Africa by the West through tech companies that date back to the first industrial revolution. The impact that the three previous industrial revolutions had on Africa and Africans: the transatlantic slave trade where Africans were reduced to commodity; colonisation and dispossession; and globalisation, where African countries in most cases lack or have no control or ownership of their media and finance among other industries (Benyera 2021:1; Moll 2020). There is a growing literature that AI can contribute to the recolonisation of Africa which warrants calls for decolonising AI or decolonial AI (Mhlambi & Tiribelli 2023; Onwughalu & Ojakorotu 2020; Zembylas 2023).

Adams (2021:180) in the article Can artificial intelligence be decolonized? explains that decolonial thought challenges the racial and colonial biases in AI, aiming to dismantle the power dynamics and exclusionary practices that prioritise Western reason, while advocating for alternative ways of knowing, living and resisting. We are at another critical point in history with the development of emerging technologies in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR or industry 4.0) such as AI. The essential concerns of AI in Africa are whether it will continue to entrench Western hegemony in the development and deployment of AI on the one hand, and the continued dominance of Western epistemologies on AI ethics on the other hand. Adams (2021:179) refers to coloniality as the 'Janus-face' which is a Greek deity with two faces, one looking backwards and another one looking forward. In this context, coloniality denotes the Janus-face of modernity and capitalism: colonialism is the driving force behind the interconnected ambitions of modernity and capitalism.

Technology as power influences decisions, behaviour and connections are determined by data analysis using sophisticated statistics and forecasting models. At the centre of the power of AI is data. Milan and Treré (2019:320) assert that these data are informed by Western modernity and subsequently, global capitalism which are both continued historical processes that suppress and devalue knowledge as well as the distinctive methods of knowing of the Global South. Ricaurte (2019:351) states that epistemologies which focus on data can be seen as an expression of colonial power, involving the forceful imposition of ways of living, thinking and feeling which results in people being excluded from society, while negating the possibility of alternate perspectives and endangering life on the planet. The implementation of AI in predictive policing, algorithmic sentencing, facial recognition, resource allocation, surveillance and hiring, all demonstrate a racialising and colonial perspective (Benjamin 2019:63; Zembylas 2023:25). Research in this domain has coined terms such as 'data colonialism' and 'data capitalism'; data can be regarded as a commodity, with its history of colonialism and capitalism. This notion emphasises the continuous presence of data throughout history and its utilisation for economic growth (Thatcher, O'Sullivan & Mahmoudi 2016:993; Zuboff 2019:5). Mohamed, Png and Isaac (2020:665) further developed the concept of 'data colonialism' into 'algorithmic coloniality' which describes how algorithms affect resource allocation, human behaviour and discriminatory systems across societies. It also looks at how coloniality is manifested in algorithmic decision-making, such as the creation of labour markets and the alteration of geopolitical power dynamics and ethics discourse.

This section has deliberated on technology as power and its impact in Africa since the first industrial revolution. Next, we will deliberate on the importance of African ethics in the context of AI in Africa.

 

African ethics in the context of artificial intelligence

Gaffley et al. (2022) state that the incorporation of AI in African society necessitates a distinct African stance that considers African contexts, experiences and values. This is necessary to avert potential damage to African communities. To do this, interdisciplinary knowledge creation and comprehension of AI with ethical values and human rights in Africa is vital. There is a gap between those with the development and deployment power of AI and those without, which could lead to more inequality between Global North and Global South countries. It is not only the development and deployment of AI but also a gap regarding the development of AI ethics and regulations globally (Gwagwa et al. 2020:4).

The influence of developed countries in developing AI policies and strategies may be the continuation of Western hegemony. This is in part because the majority of the AI policies and strategies that are considered global emanate from the Global North. Brokensha et al. (2023:6) argue that it is not only the presence of the Global South that is excluded but also their indigenous knowledge systems and values. These include indigenous ethical perspectives from the Global South. Hogarth (2018) suggests that AI superpowers are controlling AI-related policies and regulations without taking into account the specific circumstances of African nations. He refers to this phenomenon as 'AI nationalism'. A point in case is that the government of France held an international meeting, the Global Forum of AI for Humanity, in late 2019. Unfortunately, the event lacked the voices of the Global South such as Africa, Latin America and Asia (except Japan) (Gwagwa et al. 2020:16).

This article focusses on the African context and when it comes to AI ethics, African epistemologies should take precedence. Another important aspect is for African ethics to take into consideration the impact of technology in Africa historically. However, there are challenges when it comes to AI ethics in Africa. Brokensha et al. (2023) argue that Africa is home to 54 countries, about 1.4 billion people, 3000 ethnic groups and 2000 languages, making it a highly diverse continent. A single, unified AI strategy would be both impractical and presumptuous because of this diversity. Additionally, a standard set of ethics guidelines would fail to recognise the importance of diverse voices in tackling the risks and benefits of AI. It would also ignore the ever-changing complex correlations of the continent. Metz (2011) problematises it further that he disagrees that the values governing technology must be those held by society's majority. Everyone in a society may not share the same values. Another aspect of values is that values based on the majority in society are how history has shown us that the majority can be wrong, such as with slavery in the 19th century. Instead, Metz believes we can learn from the African ethical perspectives, as any philosophical tradition likely has something to offer. Eke and Ogoh (2022) assert that many cultures exist in Africa, but it is frequently oversimplified and treated as homogenous. This overlooks the various AI ethics and governance questions that come up.

Although AI has an impact on different industries in society, the section 'Ubuntu ethics and artificial intelligence' focuses on the ethical implications of Al on humanity, spirituality, and the environment in South Africa specifically and African in general.

 

Ubuntu ethics and artificial intelligence

South Africa currently does not have a specific national AI regulation in place. It was only in January 2020 that the Presidential Commission on the Fourth Industrial Revolution (PC4IR) released its Summary Report and Recommendations, offering insight into the 4IR, its potential consequences for South Africa and suggested actions to take in the future. This report includes a strategy for AI (CAIDP 2022; PC4IR 2020). The importance of the PC4IR report is that it focusses on regulation, ethics and cultural aspects of the Internet, as well as technological developments such as sense-making, AI, robotics, autonomous systems, the Internet of Things, and cloud computing. It provides a strategy for industrial development, aiming to ensure ethical and transparent use of these new technologies (PC4IR 2020). At the behest of the context of South Africa lies structural challenges such as unemployment, poverty, inequality and the digital divide. Should these structural challenges not be addressed, AI may exacerbate these challenges. Although the PC4IR mentions ethics, it does not provide the epistemology of the said ethics or its approach. There is thus a need to foreground ubuntu ethics to mitigate the risks of AI holistically for humanity, spirituality and the environment in the South African context.

The holistic ubuntu ethics approach includes (1) humanity, which comprises our relations as human beings rooted in human dignity; (2) spirituality, which comprises the relation of the Supreme Being (God), the living, and the living dead (ancestors); and (3) the environment, which comprises our relations with the land, sea, sky, nature and animals. The premise of the holistic ubuntu ethics approach is that the human is not the centre of the universe but is part of the universe and everything in the universe is in relation and significant. Ramose (2005:56) attests that in African philosophy, individual identity is seen as part of a larger whole, rather than being defined by a single characteristic. This belief does not reject the reality of a person's limited existence but instead stresses the value of community in helping to comprehend one's own identity and the environment. Ubuntu ideals are being re-evaluated as Africa seeks ethical principles and values to aid in the formulation of models of development and wealth creation within a neoliberal and globalising framework (Dolamo 2013:1).

The concept of ubuntu is thus not static but its essence of humanity is at the core. Ramose (2005:36) argues that it is the process of being which signifies motion. It implies that ubuntu cannot be 'fully attained' but it is a process of becoming more humane. The emphasis on 'humane' may imply that ubuntu is anthropocentric. LenkaBula (2008:378) argues that ubuntu should be understood as beyond anthropocentric because humans have an ontological, socio-political, economic, ecological and religious relationship with themselves and the environment. This connection highlights the inseparability of human life and ecological life, proving that humans cannot exist without ecological systems. This indicates that ubuntu is more holistic than it has been previously presumed.

As much as ubuntu is argued to be an appropriate ethic in this article, it has several critiques that view it as indigenous, utopian, romanticist, idealistic, universalistic and even vague (Marx 2002; Metz 2011; Richardson 2008; Van Binsbergen 2001). These critiques of ubuntu are warranted. However, it has to be reiterated that ubuntu is not static or a concept that is stuck in the past (Letseka 2012). The essence of ubuntu in this article is human dignity, ecological conservation and spiritual freedom. It must be stated that although ubuntu is indigenous in Southern Africa, it regards that all people have inherent human dignity (Dolamo 2013). The communality of ubuntu takes into cognisance the diversity of individuals within the community and the wellbeing of the community is essentially the wellbeing of the individual. Nation-building is complex, especially in the South African context, where there is a history of colonisation and apartheid. A process of learning to treat each other with human dignity and unlearning all forms of subjugation, injustice and inequality is required to uphold ubuntu. Ubuntu's acknowledgement of plurality and diversity prevents it from being universalistic. In other words, despite cultural, racial and religious backgrounds, ubuntu takes into cognisance the inherent human dignity and a way of life that regards human dignity. This does not imply that ubuntu is utopian, but that justice, solidarity and equality are essential to ubuntu. At the centre of ubuntu is justice for the dehumanised, excluded, vulnerable, abused, poor and discriminated. This also responds to the notion of ubuntu being vague and inadequate to modern society as it is aligned with human rights and the Bill of Rights in the constitution of South Africa (Metz 2011). The most essential thing that is recommended is for ubuntu to self-critique to overcome its shortcomings and to be more impactful. Emerging technologies such as AI have not only impacted on our socioeconomic structures but also our humanity, spirituality and the environment. Therefore, it requires a holistic ethical approach to emerging technologies. Although ubuntu ethics and AI in humanity, spirituality and the environment will be discussed separately in this section, it should be understood that they are interconnected and holistic in African life and ethical epistemology.

Ubuntu ethics and artificial intelligence in humanity

The historical context of South Africa which includes colonialism and apartheid reduced Africans to cheap labour and exploitation (Moll 2020). Africans were thus regarded as 'sub-human' which justified the conquest. Ubuntu ethics recognises the past and analyses patterns of the past in how they impact the present. The main tenet that ubuntu ethics asks is the question of human dignity. There is no use for advancements in technology if they are developed to disregard human dignity. The previous industrial revolutions came at the cost of human dignity as modernity with capitalism exploited and dehumanised Africans. The 4IR may either be a curse of the previous industrial revolutions or it can address the problems that face South Africa (Benyera 2022:1). Although the benefits of AI may be there, it may widen the inequality gap even wider as South African economy is still based on farming, mining and the informal sector (Sutherland 2020:234). It is essential for South African companies and policymakers to not just contemplate technical solutions but also pay attention to the social and economic implications of AI (Ormond 2023). The premise of ubuntu ethics is that human beings are more important than AI technologies.

Post-1994, in a democratic South Africa, the majority of Black Africans are still living in poverty and faced with challenges of unemployment, violence and the digital divide. When it comes to the digital divide, there is a lack of information and communications technology (ICT) skills as also fundamental skills such as reading, writing and comprehension (Sutherland 2020:235). Apart from that, those with access to the Internet and digital devices may be considered more human than those without as most things in today's life are digital. Internet data are expensive in South Africa and there have been public calls such as #DataMustFall to reduce prices as well as advocating for Internet data to become a basic human right (Moyo & Munoriyarwa 2021). There are also digital infrastructure challenges as there are marginalised areas with a lack of or no network coverage. Ubuntu ethics take into cognisance the digital divide and seek to uplift marginalised communities to be connected to the Internet. Ubuntu advocates for initiatives that can benefit the community and promote community development to address individual and communal needs (Chigangaidze 2022:291). As AI is incorporated into the South African context, it poses a unique challenge as automated decision-making can reinforce historic stereotypes, discrimination and exclusion in hiring processes, healthcare, insurance, surveillance and creditworthiness (Erastus 2021).

Ubuntu ethics and artificial intelligence in spirituality

As mentioned earlier, spirituality in African theology comprises the communal relationship of the Supreme Being (God), the living, and the living-dead (ancestors) (Mangena 2016:68). According to Mbiti (1991:19-30), African spirituality can be found in art and symbolism, music and dance, proverbs and riddles, names of individuals and places, myths and legends, beliefs and practices. It should be noted that African spirituality is plural, diverse and depends on ethnicity (Chiorazzi 2015). Ramose (2005:56) attests that African spirituality is a lived experience of the reality of the feelings of immanence and transcendence in the lives of African people. Masango (2006:942) expands it further that African spirituality is holistic in the life of Africans and encompasses all facets of life in society, economics and politics. An African spiritualist's growth is shaped by ubuntu, or humanness, which creates an intimate relationship between their identity and actions. This process of ubuntu is fostered in the community (Masango 2006:930). African spirituality is what shapes ubuntu ethics as it influences behaviour and activities which may be difficult for those outside of this spirituality to understand (Kobe 2021:6).

African spirituality in the South African context has been disrupted and suppressed by Christianisation wrapped in colonialism (Kobe 2021:4). Colonists, traders and missionaries had a major impact on the African people and their concept of ubuntu or humanness. These changes included both positive and negative elements, such as the introduction of Western science and technology, but also the alteration of African self-perception (Dolamo 2013:5). Vellem (2015:3) argues that there are three models of the church in South Africa namely the settler, missionary and struggle churches. The settler model is related to churches that catered to European settlers in South Africa, while the missionary model includes churches established by missionaries in African communities. The struggle model comprises churches established by African people in response to the deficiencies of the settler and missionary models, such as the Ethiopian Movement and African Initiated Churches (AICs) (Vellem 2015:3). Steve Biko's critique of the missionary church in African communities was that it fostered division between those who adopted Christianity and those who did not. It introduced a rigid Christian culture that was incompatible with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to contempt and suspicion for those who did not convert to Christianity. This in turn created a playground for colonialists to exploit (Biko 1978; Kobe 2021:3). The AICs became the foundation of African theology and subsequently South African Black Theology of Liberation (BTL) and African women's theologies. In African theology, cultural liberation is a key focus, while BTL prioritises political and economic liberation. However, this dichotomy has been challenged, as it fails to encompass the continent's diverse and rich theological history. Both theologies are concerned with culture and socio-economic politics as it is interlinked (Maluleke 2005:486). African women's theologies on the other hand are concerned with how African women reinterpret culture and religion to empower women (Fiedler 2017:10). African women's theology was catalysed in 1989 by Mercy Oduyoye, Letty Russel and Brigalia Bam. These three established the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians (CIRCLE), which has since been a major force in the field (Maluleke 2022:4). Kobo (2018:3) argues that South African Black women 'have suffered triple oppression of race, class and gender, and their struggle to challenge the patriarchal culture of subordination'. This triple oppression is continuing in the current times. At the heart of African theology, BTL and African women's theologies are the advocacy for the liberation of African spirituality vis-à-vis African Christianity. African spirituality as a field of study has laboured to challenge the misconceptions of African spirituality from the colonial past and redefine it in their own way (Aderigbe 2022:30).

The impact of AI on spirituality would be the over-reliance on AI to solve problems. The practices of technology, which are tied to materialism and the rejection of altruism, are the fastest-growing religion, with humans placing indefensible trust in it, believing it can solve all problems (Fourie 2020:35). Waters' (2015) Is technology the new religion? asserts that trust in technology disrupts our relationship with God and the community. We may be in awe of technology but must not commit idolatry or put our faith solely on technology and shift our focus from the complex and wonderful creation of God (Fourie 2020:36). African spirituality emphasises human relations to be present in the lives of others to recognise the poor, marginalised and discriminated, and to show compassion. African spirituality cannot place trust in what is AI as it is only an imitation of what is human but cannot embody humanness. Trust in African spirituality is placed on God, healthy relations in the community and taking care of the environment. Humanness is developed within a community (Masango 2006:938). This is more illustrated in the phrase 'it takes a village to raise a child' which emphasises that relationships are essential in the development of spirituality in the community (Masango 2006:939).

Ubuntu ethics and artificial intelligence in the environment

It has already been argued that ubuntu is not anthropocentric but extends to spirituality and the environment (ecology) as well (Chibvongodze 2016; LenkaBula 2008:375). LenkaBula (2008:390) explains that ecology generally refers to the various values and activities of a thriving natural system, be it local, global or cosmic. It is often used interchangeably with the term 'environment'. Ramose (2005:108) asserts that wholeness includes human beings and the environment; taking care of nature implies taking care of ourselves. Human beings cannot exist outside of nature, we depend on nature and that dependence requires us to take care of nature. Du Plessis (2012:15) concurs that humans are 'an integral part of nature and partners in the processes of co-creation and co-evolution instead of being merely users or clients of various ecosystem services'. Humans must recognise their interconnectedness with the environment and other beings. This will lead to a greater understanding of the importance of reducing environmental problems and preserving the lives of both humans and animals. It is essential to realise that our individual lives are inextricably linked with others and the environment. Consequently, we should strive to protect and preserve the habitats of both humans and animals (Samuel 2023:14). Ubuntu thus emphasises the relationship between humans, spirituality and the environment. In African culture, there is a deep respect for nature, viewing it as a symbol of the Supreme Being. This understanding prompted Africans to nurture nature, rather than subjugate it. Before a tree was cut down or an animal was to be slaughtered, for example, rituals were often performed. This connection to the earth was seen as essential, forming part of their spiritual practices (Masango 2006:941). Samuel (2023) asserts that:

When humans treat the habitats of nonhuman beings as something detached from them, especially when people exclude their habitats from the conception of what counts morally, this might prompt the exploitation of water, rivers, forests, and trees that are constitutive of their belonging in the world. (p. 13)

Although AI is improving in terms of learning and generating language, training AI models such as Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT-2) and Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) requires large finances and has environmental impacts. The computational hardware emits about 284 000 kilograms of carbon dioxide, nearly five times the carbon footprint of the average automobile, including its manufacture. Artificial intelligence models also require a substantial amount of electricity to train them (Hamilton 2023; Hao 2019; Strubell, Ganesh & McCallum 2019). Since then, AI models such as Big-Ass-Roaming-Database (BARD) or GPT-3 and GPT-4 which have improved drastically have made more use of electricity and increased the carbon footprint. Another environmental issue with AI models is the large use of water to keep data centres and servers cool. All the data that is required to train AI models is stored in data centres, therefore the 'cloud' as we know it is a physical place (Hamilton 2023). According to Li et al. (2023), freshwater scarcity is a major issue because of population growth, dwindling water resources and ageing water systems. Artificial intelligence models should lead by example and take responsibility for reducing their water footprint. Data centres make use of massive land, water and electricity to store data and train AI models while land, water and electricity are fundamental challenges for many people in the world. The notion of ubuntu ethics and AI for the environment requires a rethinking of AI models to be beneficial for society and not cause harm to the environment on the other hand.

 

Conclusion

Although this article has deliberated on ubuntu ethics and the impact of AI on humanity, spirituality and the environment, it was done from a broad sense; there is still more to be explored regarding the impact of AI in South Africa specifically and Africa in general. Theological doctrines are being challenged by the rise of emerging technologies such as AI which necessitates theological reflections. It has been deliberated that ubuntu ethics need to emphasise the historical impact of technology in Africa to have a better understanding of the impact of AI on humanity, spirituality and the environment. Ubuntu ethics does have limitations, but it is necessary to self-critique for it to develop in a fast-evolving AI world.

 

Acknowledgements

This article is partially based on K.K.M.'s thesis entitled 'Towards an Ubuntu/Botho ethics of technology' towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, September 2023, with supervisor Prof Veldsman. Thesis not published.

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.

Author's contributions

K.K.M. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Katleho Mokoena
mokoenology@gmail.com

Received: 01 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 12 Apr. 2024
Published: 31 May 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

A political theology for the Ghanaian context from Christ's perspective

 

 

Isaac Boaheng^{I, II}

^IDepartment of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Theology, Faculty of Humanities, Christian Service University College, Kumasi, Ghana

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

One of the key challenges facing contemporary Ghana is ineffective political structures and leadership. Leadership failure is the main reason why Ghana continues to experience socio-economic challenges such as poverty, hunger, poor education system, poor road networks, injustice, high unemployment rate, human right abuse, and local currency depreciation despite the country's vast natural resources. Ghana's socio-economic problems continue to attract scholarly attention and yet, the problems persist. As a predominantly Christian nation, the church has a major responsibility to engage the country's political space by analysing and scrutinising political structures with the effect of chatting a new path of socio-economic and political developments. This research was, therefore, conducted to contribute to the ongoing discussion by exploring how a contextual application of political and leadership lessons embedded in Jesus's teaching in Mark 10:35-45 might address the Ghana's political needs. The article is a qualitative research that analysed data collected from books, Bible commentaries, journal articles, and dissertations.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This research involves systematic and/or political theology, New Testament studies, and leadership and/or governance. It argues that for Ghana to overcome her political challenges, leadership must be seen as a position of service rather than an opportunity to amass wealth at the expense of others. The article contributes to the field of political theology in the Ghanaian setting.

Keywords: Ghana; corruption; Christianity; political theology; servant-leadership.

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Introduction

The fact that Ghana continues to experience poverty, high unemployment rate, corruption and many other socio-political challenges in spite of her abundant resources is worrying. Ghana's problems started many decades ago. After independence, the country started well but later failed woefully. In 2002, Ghana joined The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) because of her inability to successfully manage her economy. Ghana received debt relief amounting to US$275.2 million in 2002, US$290.8m in 2003, and US$318.3m in 2004 (Bank of Ghana 2005:3). In spite of these reliefs, the country continues to face huge economic crises because of corruption, mismanagement of the economy, and other factors. Contemporary Ghana is characterised by poverty, hunger, diseases outbreak, poor education system, environmental degradation, poor governance, bribery and corruption, injustice, human right abuse, high inflation, high budget deficit, frequent power outages (referred to as dumsor), frequent labour unrests, and local currency depreciation. Ghana's dependence on external loans and grants keeps increasing, and this affects the country's attempts to be economically self-sufficient (cf. Ofori-Atta 2022:19-20).

The task of addressing the problems facing the country is the responsibility of all regardless of one's religious affiliation. However, Christianity, being the dominant religion, has a major role to play in providing solutions to life challenges confronting the general Ghanaian public. This article, therefore, contributes to the quest for a solution to Ghana's political challenges by drawing leadership lessons from Jesus' teaching in Mark 10:35-45 for contemporary Ghana. The choice of this text is motivated by the fact that the context that Jesus address compares well with the Ghanaian situation and the author's desire to give a Christological dimension to leadership. The article used a literary-based research approach to critically analyse secondary data - such as journal articles, Bible commentaries and books - in order to formulate a theology to address Ghana's needs.

Before delving into the issues, it is important to explain the expression 'political theology'. According to Cavanaugh and Scott (eds. 2007:2) political theology refers to 'the analysis and criticism of political arrangements (including cultural-psychological, social and economic aspects) from the perspective of differing interpretations of God's ways with the world'. Political theology simply refers to the ways in which theological concepts relate to politics or the religious thought about politically related questions. Key features of political theology are that it is biblically based, interdisciplinary, politically oriented, and contextually informed, among others (eds. Cavanaugh & Scott 2007:2; Forster 2020:19; Pears 2010:7-8).

With these introductory notes, I proceed to provide the biblical basis for the entire article. Detailed exegetical and background (historical and literary) discussions have been avoided to give room for a more detailed discussion of the socio-political issues in the text.

 

Political-theological reading of Mark 10:35-45

Misplaced leadership priority (vv. 35-37)

Mark 10:35-45 is meant to give a picture of leadership from a Christian perspective. In this account, two brothers - James and John - selfishly approached Jesus privately (v.35) and asked for places of highest authority and honour in his messianic kingdom (cf. 8:38; 9:1-2; 13:26) (Evans 2003:1088; Musiyambiri 2015:6-7). Given Jesus' teachings on renunciation of social power, one can feel his weariness as he listened to the two brothers. James and John were seeking selfishly to occupy such a position and use it in a similar way as leaders in their society used political power. James and John could be likened to leaders in the Ghanaian society who struggle for power not for the benefit of the community but for their own benefits. The leadership model that focusses on power rather than serve (as I point out later) contradicts Jesus' philosophy of leadership, which is based on dialogue, selflessness, servitude, and justice, among others. James and John mistakenly defined leadership in terms of prestige and acquisition of positions of honour and fame. It seems that their view of leadership was that of attaining higher rank and/or position.

Jesus' decline of request (vv. 38-40)

In verse 38 Jesus clearly states that James and John have no clue what they are ambitiously seeking for. Jesus indicates that the positions they requested are reserved 'those for whom it is prepared' (v. 40). God the Father is the one to assign those positions to those for who he has prepared these places. God's reservation of seats for those intended for is mentioned in Exodus 23:20; Matthew 25:34; 1 Corinthians 2:9; Hebrews 11:16; those worthy of occupying these seats are probably those who serve with humility (Mk 10:42-44). Jesus' assertion that the places of honour are reserved for those intended underscores that 'in the kingdom of God, knowing who can pull strings is not what determine honor' (Cole 2006:1216). The two brothers were close associates of Jesus; yet they would not get the places of honour if these places were not intended for them. In the light of verses 45, these places are intended for those who qualify, the qualification being one's willingness to serve others rather than being served by others. Jesus' statement was not repudiating the vocation of leadership; rather, he was only insisting that leadership is transferred executively to those who are ready to serve rather than to dominate.

Those worthy of occupying these positions are those who are determined 'to build an egalitarian community that embraces the poor and honors them in God's kingdom' (Ajambo 2012:189). To some extent, Jesus refused them the places they asked for because he wanted them to appreciate what true leadership is and be willing to lead others according to godly principles before they could be given key leadership roles. He wanted them to understand that leadership means 'decoding the old social order of society and constructing an egalitarian community as opposed to a faction or patronage group' (Ajambo 2012:189). Thus, Jesus' failure to grant John's and James' request was partly because of their wrong perception about leadership.

Competition among the disciples (v. 41)

When the news of the private request got to the other 10 disciples, they became indignant with the two brothers (v. 41). The other 10 disciples also had selfish ambitions. They worried because they knew that if the two got the two positions of honour, then the others were going to lose out and become servants. They failed to realise that it is through servitude that one becomes great in God's kingdom. They had equally failed to understand and apply Jesus' teachings about the proper view of power and honour. The indignant reaction by the other 10 disciples prompted Jesus' third teaching about discipleship - he first exhorted his disciples to take up their crosses and follow him (8:34-37) and later taught them the value of servanthood in true discipleship (9:35-37). Verses 42-45 focus on Jesus' teaching about the true meaning of leadership and power.

The true meaning of leadership and authority (vv. 42-45)

In the midst of confusion about the right approach to leadership, Jesus taught his disciples the differences between kingdoms ruled by unbelievers (pagan) and the kingdom of God (vv. 42-44). Gentile-leadership is characterised by lording it over others (throwing their weight around) and the exercise of authority (playing the tyrant) (v. 42). By contrast, those who want to be great in the kingdom of God must be servants and those who want to be first among others be slave to all (vv. 43-44). Jesus concludes that the Son of Man did not come to have servants but to give himself to be a servant. He voluntarily veiled his greatness and glory (cf. 8:38; 13:26), and then incarnated as God's servant (Ps 49:5-7; Is 52:13-53:12; Phil. 2:6-8) not to be served by others but to be the servant of all (Mk 2:17; 10:46-52; Lk 22:27) (Lane 1974:383) and to give his life as a ransom for many.

The leadership style and philosophy of Jesus disciples are to be substantially different from those of leaders in the secular world in at least three respects. Firstly, greatness in leadership is expressed in service to God and humanity. Humility, evidenced in one's willingness to serve others, is the mark of those who desire to be first (Gruenler 2008:786; Matagora 2022:25). Greenleaf (2002:27) asserts that: 'The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead'. An illustration of this fact is Jesus' act of taking a little child in his arm and encouraging his disciples to serve 'little children', that is, the helpless and by doing so welcoming Jesus and the Father who sent him (9:36-37). Jesus is the epitome of greatness because he lived his life in humble service to humanity.

Secondly, leadership requires sacrifice for the benefit of others. In the Good-Shepherd pericope of John 10, Jesus speaks five times about laying down his life for the sheep (10:11, 15, 17-18). He made this great sacrifice on the cross for the benefit of sinful humanity. He committed no sin to deserve death but as a great leader, he willingly died so that humankind will live (cf. v. 45). Similarly, he requires his disciples to prioritise the welfare of their followers and demonstrate genuine care (Adeyemo 2006:546).

Thirdly, kingdom leaders are not to consider themselves as having supreme power; they are to realise that their authority to rule comes from God (Rm 13:1-2), therefore, they must rule as servants of God. Such leadership is dialogical, allowing people of all social classes to express their views and to participate in the governing process. Leadership of this kind upholds justice, respect for human rights and human dignity, and opposes exploitation of the weak in the society.

Having presented the aforesaid political-theological study of Mark 10:35-45, I now proceed to examine the political situation in contemporary Ghana.

 

The contemporary Ghanaian religio-political setting

Contemporary Ghana faces a lot of religio-political issues. However, for the sake of this work, I focus on corruption and religious issues.

Corruption

Corruption is a global problem. It is one of the main reasons for Ghana's chronic underdevelopment and backwardness. Like other terminologies, 'corruption' defies a single definition. From the Latin expression 'cur-rumpo' - which means 'to break completely; to destroy, annihilate, ruin, spoil, waste; to falsify, adulterate, pervert, degrade, seduce, mislead; to gain by gift; to bribe' (Christian Council of Ghana 2002:8-9), - corruption denotes any human act that destroys social harmony and prevents people from experiencing the fullness of life. The National Anti-Corruption Coalition (NACC) (2011:23) defines corruption as 'the misuse of entrusted power for private gain'. Corruption is injustice, antisocial and inhuman.

In Ghana, corruption in its varied forms takes place in both the private and public spheres. However, the effects are particularly horrible within the public sector where people in authority use their power in immoral ways for their benefits. The probability of detecting and punishing corruption in the private sector is higher than in the public sector. Consequently, the incidence of corruption (i.e., cases of corruption detected) is not as much in the private sector as in the public sector. Those in the private sector seem to be more law-abiding because they know that they can be easily found and punished if they act in a corrupt manner. Corruption in its varied forms takes place in both the private and public spheres; including bribery, fraud, nepotism, extortion, and embezzlement (Kunhiyop 2008:165). Corruption perpetuates poverty of the nation by diverting state resources intended for development and thus incapacitating the government of providing basic services to the people (Annan 2004:iii). Because of corruption 'state expenses are not used effectively or even efficiently, but according to individual and corporate profit interests of high-ranking politicians, influential middlemen and big international businesses' (Koechlin 2008:16).

In the next section, I present some of the cases of corruption in Ghana in the past three decades.

Selected recent cases of corruption in Ghana

Corruption remains a major challenge in Ghana despite various attempts to curb it. Since Ghana returned to democratic rule in 1993 to begin the Fourth Republic, the country has remained relatively peaceful under different constitutionally established governments. Christianity has also 'flourished' in these years with the Christian population reaching 71.3% in 2021 as indicated in the last national population and housing census (Ghana Statistical Service 2021:58). Paradoxically, the politically stable and religiously flourishing Ghana is characterised by corruption in various sectors of the economy as shown in the following survey.

All the former presidents in the Fourth Republic have had corruption allegations levelled against them. Former President J.J. Rawlings, for instance, was said to have abused his office. To be specific, it was alleged that a whopping amount of US$7m cash got missing from a total of US$10m that was allocated for the refurbishment of the Tema Food Processing Factory (Andoh 2021:32). Rawlings was also accused of not making the sale of most of the state-owned companies transparent. The purchase of Nsawam Cannery Company (a state-own company) by Rawlings' wife was cited to support the alleged political prebendalism and patrimonialism in his government. In addition, a number of Rawlings' appointees were jailed for political corruption that resulted in financial loss to the state (Andoh 2021:32).

Rawlings' successor, President John Agyekum Kuffour was also not free from corruption allegations. People levelled charges of abuse of political power against him. The purchase of the African Regent Hotel by Kuffour's son at a cost of US$3.5m became a major issue in the country (Andoh 2021:33). The President declared the uncompleted hotel building, which was close to his private residence, as posing security threats to him and so had to be sold to be completed and used. The hotel project was funded by Prudential Bank, a Bank part-owned by Social Security and National Insurance Trust (SSNIT), a state-owned enterprise, and by the National Investment Bank (NIB), another state-owned bank, and by the ECOWAS Regional Investment Bank (ERIB), which advanced US$1m to the hotel. Given that President Kufuor was the Chairman of ECOWAS and Mr. J.S. Addo, Chairman of the Board of Directors of Prudential Bank, was his representative on the ERIB and the Chairman of the Board of Directors of ERIB at the time that his son purchased the hotel, one sees a clear conflict of interest, prebends, and patrimonialism in this case (Andoh 2021:33). Nonetheless, an investigation in the issue cleared the president of corruption.

The John Dramani Mahama's government was not corruption-free either. It was also charged with a number of high-ranking and highly-publicised cases of corruption (Rahman 2018:5). In November 2013, a former deputy communication minister, Honorable Victoria Hammah, was dismissed after she was recorded allegedly saying that she would stay in politics until she made $1m (Andoh 2021:34-35; Odartey-Wellington 2014:2). In December 2015, a former Minister for Transport, Honorable Dzifa Attivor, resigned after she was investigated for winning and executing a contract that made her spend GH¢3.6m on rebranding 116 buses (Andoh 2021:35). The incidence prompted many Ghanaians to question how that outrageous budget could be approved by the President.

In 2016, President Mahama was also alleged to have received a bribe in the form of a Ford Expedition from a Burkinabe contractor to help him secure a road-building contract in Ghana (Kpodonu 2020:10; Laary 2016:Online article). The president denied the corruption allegations and claimed that the vehicle was a gift, which he received and added to the Presidential car pool as a state property (Kpodonu 2020:10; Laary 2016:Online article). The incident was considered by some public personalities as a breach of the provisions of Ghana's laws, a conflict of interest, and a shameful act that merited impeachment (Laary 2016:Online article). Although the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) later cleared the president of bribery, he was found guilty of breaching government rules regarding the acceptance of gifts (Andoh 2021:34; Quayson 2016:74).

Nana Akuffo-Addo's government took over from Mr. Mahama on 07 January 2017 and has ruled till date (June 2023). In 2017, the internal audit of the National Youth Employment Agency identified approximately GHc 50m (US$11.1m) payroll fraud in the agency (Rahman 2018:5). The year ended without any evidence of the government holding anyone responsible for this fraud (Andoh 2021:34; Hawkson 2018:Graphic Online). In the same year (2017), the Electoral Commission (EC) of Ghana was entangled in a corruption scandal, as some high-ranking members of the commission accused each other of fraud and maladministration, including awarding contracts illegally, embezzlement of funds, and perceived political nepotism (Andoh 2021:34). After a thorough investigation conducted by the EOCO probing the allegations, the chairperson of the Commission, Mrs. Charlotte Osei, and her two deputies were charged with corruption and incompetence, and subsequently dismissed (Andoh 2021:34; Rahman 2018:6).

In February 2018, a former National Coordinator of the defunct Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Development Agency (GYEEDA), Mr. Abuga Pele, and a businessman, Mr. Philip Akpeena Assibit were convicted and charged with to a total of 18 years in prison for wilfully causing a loss of GH¢4.1m (i.e., about $332356.00 in March 2022) to the state of Ghana (Andoh 2021:34; Hawkson 2018:Graphic Online). In September 2019, the acting Board chairperson of Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA), Adelaide Ahwireng, was tied in a conflict of interest scandal involving the rental of two of her buildings to the GRA at an exorbitant amount of GH₵ 1.4m per annum (Andoh 2021:35). In November 2022, President Nana Akufo-Addo sacked Mr. Charles Adu Boahen, the minister of state for finance, after an expose alleged that the minister had taken bribes from some mine investors. The President referred the issue to the Special Prosecutor for further investigations.

Ghana's judiciary service is the third arm of government; its key responsibility is the interpretation of the law. Despite the constitutional and legal protection given to this arm of government to enhance its services and to be independent, the judicial service is also plagued with the menace of corruption and bribery (Ofori 2018:29). A 2007 study within selected courts in Accra, Tema, and Kumasi had more than 52.0% of the judges and magistrates, 64.2% of lawyers, and 51.3% of litigants perceiving judicial corruption as a reality (Ghana Integrity initiative cited in Amankwah, Bonsu & Peter 2017:3). Later (in 2011) three lawyers of the Ghana Bar Association also asserted that the judicial service is corrupt (Amankwah et al. 2017:3). Several allegations of corruption were levelled against the judiciary service, but they were considered as mere perception (probably because of lack of empirical evidence to back the claims).

In 2015, Ghana's undercover investigative journalist Anas Aremeyaw Anas, released a documentary accusing 180 judicial officers, 34 judges, and hundreds of prosecutors and prosecutors of bribery for favourable rulings between 2013 and 2014 (Kpodonu 2020:11; Rahman 2018:8). Consequent to the expose, 22 circuit court judges and magistrates were suspended, 12 Supreme Court judges were investigated while 20 magistrates and judges were dismissed (Kpodonu 2020:11). However, no criminal charges were filed against any of the judicial officers found to be corrupt (Rahman 2018:8). Anas's exposure served to confirm some previous allegations that were levelled against the judiciary.

Corruption is also present in the sporting sector. In June 2009, the then President John Evans Atta Mills asked a Member of Parliament and Minister of Youth and Sports, Honorable Mubarak Muntaka, to step down following investigations into a number of allegations of financial negligence and abuse of power that were levelled against him. Honorable Muntaka was asked to refund the embezzled funds (Andoh 2021:34). The 2014 FIFA World Cup tournament was marred with a lot of corruption allegations against the then Minister of Education, Youth and Sport, Mr. Elvis Afriyie Ankrah, and the then President of the Ghana Football Association (GFA), Mr. Kwesi Nyantakyi. Ghana performed poorly in this competition as compared to their performance in the 2010 World Cup in South Africa in which they reached the quarter-final stage. In Brazil 2014, the Black Stars only picked a point with Germany and lost by two goals: one to United States of America and another to Portugal. After the competition, pictures of Mr. Elvis Afriyie Ankrah eating coconut with some other Ministers of State popped up on the social media. Mr. Afriyie Ankrah is alleged to have said, during interrogation, that the cost of a coconut in Brazil was about $200. The issue of airlifting about 3m dollars as estimated bonus for players also popped up. A committee was formed to investigate the matter but no one was prosecuted (Powell 2021:Opera News).

In 2018, Anas aired an investigative documentary titled 'Number 12', which uncovered extensive corruption in Ghana's football industry (Allotey 2018:np; Rahman 2018:6). The documentary showed match referees bribed to favour particular clubs and match officials and football administrators involved in match-fixing businesses (Allotey 2018:np). It was also alleged that the selection of players into the Ghana national team involves the payment of bribe. In all, 77 Ghanaian referees and 14 GFA executives were caught up in a slew of corruption allegations (Oteng 2018:np; Rahman 2018:6).

In the video, the then president of the GFA, Kwesi Nyantakyi, claimed to have huge influence on many sectors of the Ghanaian economy. He also claimed that a bribe was required to facilitate business transactions involving Ghana's president and vice president (Rahman 2018:6). In addition to banning him from all football-related activities for life, Fédération internationale de football association (FIFA) also fined Mr. Nyantakyi an amount of about GHS 2.4m.

Causes of corruption

A number of socio-economic and political factors account for the rise in the rate of corruption. This section outlines some of these factors. Firstly, corruption may be the result of low salaries of public administration employees (state officials), which makes people look for illegal ways of earning additional means (Asante 2014:101; NACC 2011:28). In a developing country such as Ghana, the salaries of public-sector workers are not able to meet the demands of the rising cost of living. In such a context, some people use every available opportunity to make extra money without considering the ethical issues associated with the means. One may resort to asking for bribes when rendering services to people. Those who do not give bribe suffer from 'The Go-come-go-come' approach, that is a situation whereby the service to be rendered to a person is delayed unduly. For example, the worker may deliberately refuse to work on the file of those who fail to offer monetary gifts and work on those who offer him and/or her gifts irrespective of who deserves to be served first. To avoid this, some people pay bribe and have their requests granted as early as possible.

Secondly, corruption may also happen because of weak democratic values and ineffective state institutions (Transparency International 2019:1). More often than not, corruption flourishes in societies that have weak democratic foundations, which makes it possible for selfish politicians to capture and use state institutions for their personal gain. Even though Ghana has practised democracy for a relatively long time, her democratic institutions are still weak and non-transparent, and hence unable to support anti-corruption efforts. Thus, the Ghanaian environment makes it possible for the politically powerful to pay their way through. Institutional weakness makes it difficult to implement laws and policies that would otherwise ensure transparency, probity and accountability (Transparency International 2019:27). More so, the weakness in state institutions makes it difficult to detect and caught corrupt people.

Thirdly, corruption in Ghana remains a problem to the nation because of extreme acquisitive greed and avarice of some people (Asante 2014:104). According to the Christian Council of Ghana (2002:2), the human predisposition for greed that yields certain corrupt activities 'is what in the human being could be baser and more bestial than even the beast'. Carnivorous animals usually kill to satisfy their hunger and/or to protect themselves. Once they are full and are not threatened by anyone, a lot of their preys may pass around unharmed. On the contrary, greedy people are never satisfied no matter how much wealth they accumulate. Such people are self-centred and show no love for their neighbours (Asante 2014:104). Most Ghanaians respect and adore wealthy people without questioning where they got their riches from. Consequently, there is pressure on people to get rich no matter how they make it. This is part of the reasons why many Ghanaian youth have developed the get-rich-quick attitude and are engaged in all sorts of activities for make it in life. This situation promotes corruption in the society as people see it as a means of getting rich quickly and enjoying societal acceptance and prestige.

Fourthly, the seeming immunity of persons in authority from prosecution is also another contributor to the rise in corruption in Ghana (Asante 2014:103). Oftentimes, people involved in corrupt practices are suspended or dismissed rather than being prosecuted. In the few cases where corrupt persons are prosecuted, their sentences do not serve as deterrent for others. Their sentences are of lower standards as compared to what ordinary persons receive for the same or similar crime. The reason is that corrupt people are usually persons with political power of one form or the other. Even though on paper, the law is no respecter of persons, in reality, senior public officials and politicians seem to enjoy some immunity from prosecution. Therefore, although occasionally one or two politicians may be made scapegoats, in most cases, corrupt senior public officials use their political power, fame and wealth to manipulate the judicial system and get away with high-level corruption (Asante 2014:103).

Fifthly, corruption persists in Ghana because of the lack of commitment to society (Adei 2018:13; Asante 2014:103). Most Ghanaians consider the government as detached from their personal actions. The fact that everyone is part and parcel of the government and hence needs to protect the public purse is not popular among the citizenry. Hence, they consider such actions as pilfering, stealing, under invoicing, over invoicing, and smuggling as affecting the government but not them. People undertake all sorts of corrupt activities and think 'after all it is government's money'. Because of their failure to recognise the overall effect of their action on the general well-being of the nation, they keep on undertaking corrupt activities.

The high levels of economic and political monopolisation also makes corruption perpetuate in the Ghanaian society (Asante 2014:103). In Ghana, certain economic activities are regulated, limited, and monopolised. For example, only a few people (usually people who have been loyal to the ruling party) are allowed to import certain commodities. Contracts are given to party members at inflated costs so that they can save money to help the party during the campaign season. The restrictions placed on certain areas of the Ghanaian economy encourages people to offer money to those in higher authority in order to avoid these restrictions. Politically, Ghana's fourth Republic has been dominated by two political parties, namely the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and the New Patriotic Party (NPP). The political dominance of these two parties also serves as a motivation for corruption. This is because when one of these parties is in power, it does not (seriously) prosecute members of the opposition who might have been involved in corruption. The ruling party knows that in the near future, it will also be in opposition and may be paid in its own coin.

Religious issues

Leadership crisis in Ghana is not limited to the political sphere; it is also found in the religious sector. The church, which is expected to be the salt of the world, also finds itself in leadership crisis. Many church leaders are characterised by the exploitation of the vulnerable, the commercialisation of the gospel, arrogance, and others. Many ministers of God take advantage of people's situation and charge them huge sums of money before even attempting to address the problems (Umoh 2013:663). Obeng (2014:32) rightly observes that deliverance practices in Ghanaian churches are characterised by 'the demand for monetary support from the vulnerable in exchange for blessing….' The signal these religious leaders send to their audience is that God's 'blessings can be bought or earned' (Obeng 2014:37). These leaders buy airtime to advertise themselves not to preach the gospel. They prioritise money rather than the salvation of their followers (Obeng 2014:37; Umoh 2013:663).

Aside from the commercialisation of the gospel, the current Ghana religious landscape is also characterised by the human right violations. Healing and deliverance meetings abound where worshippers' human rights are blatantly violated. There is also a high level of arrogance among some religious leaders in Ghana. Some religious leaders project themselves as if they were Christ. Large billboards are erected for projecting founders of various churches rather than projecting Christ. The misuse of the social media by some Christian leaders has prompted the Methodist Church Ghana to ban the use of photographs (of minsters, speakers or any other church official) in publicising church activities. Clearly, there is a shift of focus from Christ and his gospel to human leaders and their gifts. There is a shift in focus from pursuit of God's kingdom and his righteousness to the accumulation of wealth and the fixation on earthly gratification. One therefore, agrees with Asamoah-Gyadu (2012) that today's church is:

[C]ommitted not to the core business of mission or the things of the Spirit as defined by the Cross, but carnality that manifests in foolish jesting, ecclesiastical pomposity, and the exploitation of the Gospel for economic gain. (p. 140)

Consequent to the aforesaid situation, the church in Ghana has not had much impact on the public space, considering the fact that 72.1% of the populace profess to be Christians. Atiemo's (2016:7) description of contemporary Ghana Christianity as 'clouds that gather without giving rains' is on the basis that the large Christian gatherings that take place in the country frequently fail to cause the required change in the socio-political lives of worshippers.

Using the Ghanaian political situation outlined here and the theological exposition on Mark 10:35-45 as contextual frameworks, I move to the section to formulate a theology of leadership for contemporary Ghana.

 

Towards a theology of leadership

Leadership and service

Power in Ghanaian politics is usually associated with the negative exercise of authority by individuals who take advantage of the vulnerability of some citizens to exploit and oppress them. Politicians seem to forget their promises to the electorate, the moment they assume power. Many politicians easily become corrupted by power as evident in the numerous cases of political corruption in the country as well as various cases of abuse of political power where leaders exert dominance over their subjects (Boyo 2021:182). Because of the advantage and privileges they enjoy as leaders, most Ghanaian politicians do all they can to retain their power. Our political leaders refuse to serve; they actually wait to be served by others. This model of leadership is not biblical and normally results in leadership crisis. To remedy this situation, there is the need to project and promote servant leadership model at all levels of leadership.

Contrary to the worldly leadership model of the leader waiting to be served, Christian leadership is about service to God and humanity. Given this understanding, both religious and political leaders ought to demonstrate their preparedness to live in this city (of God) eternally by leading selflessly in humility and service. The political-theology data gleaned from Mark 10:35-45 also underline that a leader's status is a measure of the magnitude of service rendered to the society. Jesus epitomised this principle by exercising power in meekness and death on the cross, to reveal his 'power as constructive power, self-giving and service that bring others into being'. Authority, from Jesus example, is simply selfless, other-centred and sacrificial service to God and humanity. Greenleaf (2002:27) asserts that: 'The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead'. Thus, leadership is not about position, titles and lordship, but rather about service in humility.

Ghanaian political leaders must learn from Jesus's paradigm, seeing their position as a privilege to serve rather than an opportunity to exploit their subjects. Like Jesus, who condescended, incarnated and lived among humans, serving them and not letting them serve him, political leaders must come to the level of the ordinary Ghanaian and serve the society. The service perspective of leadership is not new to the traditional Ghanaian worldview. The Akan word for 'minister' is soafoɔ [literally, the one who carries something]. The designation of the leader as soafoɔ underscores the responsibilities that the leader carries on their shoulder to address the needs of their subjects, a concept that echoes the Messiah's concern for the burdens of his subjects (cf. Is 9:6). The expression 'the government will be on his shoulders' (in Is 9:6) is a Hebrew idiom meaning 'to carry the burdens of the people in the kingdom'. The climax of this burden-carrying activity was his crucifixion on the cross, an event that made him carry the sin of the world. Leadership must, therefore, not be perceived as a position of prestige and privileges but as a position of responsibility that requires one to show genuine care and compassion for their followers through service. By accepting leadership positions, a person becomes the primary bearer of the society's burdens. This does not mean that only the leader must care for the needs of the society. Rather, it means the leader must lead the crusade for improved living standard in the society.

Finally, servant leadership is 'supportive, with authority at the bottom of the pyramid and followers being served by the leader and subject to the nurturing oversight of the leader', as opposed to worldly leadership that is 'suppressive with authority [concentrated] at the top of the hierarchy and followers being lorded over and dictated to by those in authority' (Estep 2005:46; cf. Figure 1). This principle derives from Jesus' teaching about leadership in Mark 10:35-45.

 

 

This servant model of leadership (Figure 2) checks the abuse of power because it prevents the leader from dictating to the subjects. In Ghana, the servant leadership model has the potential of making the ordinary person have the greatest possible benefit from the political activities that go on.

 

 

Leadership and moral integrity

Leadership failure can also be checked by maintaining moral integrity (Aboagye-Mensah 2020:50; Estep 2005:50). The cases of corruption in the society and the religious abuses outlined earlier suggest moral failure as one of the key failures in leadership in contemporary Ghana. The lack of moral integrity is a major cause of political problems in many societies (Augustine 2019:143). Integrity can elevate or demote a leader. A leader with charisma without integrity is bound to fail. In the text, analysed here, Jesus was not so much interested in people' charisma but in their integrity. On the issue of integrity in leadership Clinton (cited in Ayandokun 2021) writes:

At the heart of any assessment of biblical qualification for leadership lies the concept of integrity, that is, uncompromising adherence to [a] code of moral, artistic, or other values that reveals itself in sincerity, honesty, and candor and avoids deception or artificiality. The God-given capacity to lead has two parts: giftedness and character. Integrity is at the heart of character. (p. 62)

In my opinion such social cankers as corruption, bribery, exploitation and oppression can be dealt with if leaders in Ghana act with integrity. Yet, it must be said that character alone is not enough; one has to combine other requirements for successful leadership to be able to succeed. For example, character cannot be a substitute for competence.

Going forward, there is the need to deliberately and consistently make efforts to change the attitude, behaviour and thinking of leaders towards their followers and the state. The Ghanaian leadership culture needs to be changed 'through a combination of leadership modelling, civic education (formal and informal), rewarding good behavior, strict enforcement of laws and sanctions against deviants, all aimed at creating patriotism, non-xenophobic nationalism' (Adei 2018:13). To attain a holistic growth, the appointment of leaders in Ghana (both for the society and for the church) should be guided by the prospective leader's level of integrity, and competence, rather than mere charisma, and commitment to the ruling party. By doing so, Ghana can win the fight against ungodly leadership. Ghanaian traditional teachings about integrity need to be promoted.

The lack of accountability will yield political crises. Therefore, the next section examines the issue of accountability in leadership.

Leadership and service

The principle of accountability is an effective antidote to most of Ghana's political challenges, especially those fuelled by bad governance. Fundamentally, leaders are granted power by followers (the electorates). The concept of accountability requires judicious, frank and honest use of power. It is important that leaders give accounts of the leadership to their subjects on regular basis. In the traditional political setting, this is normally performed at traditional festivals. The leaders also make projections for the ensuing year after accounting for their stewardship of power. The accountability regarding traditional leadership is meant to establish a relationship of trust between leader and followers and to avoid the wrath of the supernatural. It also fosters interpersonal relationships and encourages the subjects to work harder to increase their productivity.

In Ghana's centralised democratic setting, accountability of one's power comes during the State of the Nation's Address (in the case of the President) and during some social gatherings (in the case of parliamentarians), during speech and prize-given days (in the case of heads of primary and secondary education), and others. While this is a good practice, it does not allow the subjects to ask questions and to probe issues that they find unclear. Also, the leaders chose to speak about what they want their subjects to know. They do not give account of every aspects of their activities. Going forward, leaders must set special days aside to meet their subjects on the issue of accountability alone. On that occasion they should give accounts of every aspect of their leadership and give adequate time for interactions with their subjects. The principle of accountability reminds leaders that they are leaders because there are subjects under them. Leadership exists only in the context of a group of people. Without followers, there is no leader. Therefore, leaders must consider their followers as an important part of their lives and hence treat their followers as people who have given them the power to rule over them. If that is the case, then there should be broad consultation during decision making. This will help to facilitate grassroots participation in the process, make things clearer to the subjects, and then restore and enhance public trust and patriotism.

Therefore, political leaders are encouraged to stop the use of political authority for private gains, the exploitation and oppression of people by political leaders, the mismanagement and misappropriation of state funds by those in authority, the use of human sacrifice to retain political power. These do not show proper stewardship of power and do not in any way contribute to the development of the nation. Ghanaian leaders are further encouraged to use their power in accordance with the purpose for which they have been given their positions so that they may not be found wanting on the day of accountability.

 

Conclusion

This article has discussed how Jesus's teaching in Mark 10:35-45 may be applied to the Ghanaian context to address the religio-political issues of corruption and ungodly Christian leadership. The article noticed that for leadership to be beneficial to the society, there is the need to consider it as a privilege to serve rather than an opportunity to satisfy one's personal interests at the expense of the society's interest. The leader is required to serve with integrity and be accountable to the followers. This way, leadership will liberate, and not put people in bondage. Finally, it can be concluded that Jesus introduced a radical and countercultural principles of leadership that has no room for selfishness and domineering conduct, about rather promotes greatness through humility demonstrated through servanthood. Such leadership inevitably yield a flourishing society in which economic equality, interdependence, interconnectedness, respect of human rights, and equity are the core values.

 

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges the support received from Prof. Daniel P. Veldsman and the staff of Verbum Et ecclesia.

Competing interests

The author has declared that no competing interest exists.

Author's contributions

I.B. has declared sole authorship of this research article.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the University of Pretoria's research ethics committee and ethics consent was received on 16 March 2022. The ethics approval number is T005/22.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Isaac Boaheng
revisaacboaheng@gmail.com

Received: 31 Aug. 2023
Accepted: 29 Dec. 2023
Published: 31 May 2024

^rND^sAboagye-Mensah^nR.K.^rND^sAdei^nS^rND^sAdeyemo^nT.^rND^sAmankwah^nA.S.^rND^sBonsu^nG.A.^rND^sWhite^nP.^rND^sAndoh^nR.^rND^sAtiemo^nA.O.^rND^sAyandokun^nE.O.^rED^sCavanaugh^nW.T^rED^sScott^nP.^rND^sCole^nV.B.^rND^sEstep Jnr.^nJ.^rND^sEvans^nC.A.^rND^sForster^nD.A.^rND^sGruenler^nR.G.^rND^sHawkson^nE.E.^rND^sLane^nW.L.^rND^sObeng^nP.^rND^sOdartey-Wellington^nF.^rND^sOfori^nF.N.K^rND^sOteng^nE^rND^sRahman^nK.^rND^sUmoh^nD.^rND^1A01 A02^nMichael W.^sDroege^rND^1A01^nMalan^sNel^rND^1A01 A02^nMichael W.^sDroege^rND^1A01^nMalan^sNel^rND^1A01 A02^nMichael W^sDroege^rND^1A01^nMalan^sNel

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Inclusivity in youth ministry praxis and the challenge of mainline church attrition

 

 

Michael W. Droege^{I, II}; Malan Nel^I

^IDepartment of Practical Theology and Mission, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
^IIDepartment of Religious Education, Theological School, Drew University, Madison, United States of America

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Despite a century of professional development in youth ministry, the American church continues to face generational attrition. This article explores this paradox, employing practical theology to scrutinise the historical praxis and philosophies shaping 20th-century youth ministry. I have taken Nel's work on inclusive missional ecclesiology as my basic point of departure, analysing four interconnected 'texts': Ecclesiological perspective, a historical review of youth ministry evolution, adolescents' developmental locus within congregations, and a qualitative study featuring interviews with members from seven American churches involved in youth ministry. The investigation highlights the necessity for a paradigm shift in youth ministry from an exclusive programme to a more inclusive missional approach. It urges recognising adolescents as equals in congregational life, fostering an environment that not only retains but also nurtures them as indispensable community members. By adhering to this reformed vision, the church can address the persistent crisis of generational attrition effectively, encouraging the collaborative growth of the American church with the active participation of its adolescent members. It suggests a path forward that sees youth not as future church, but active contributors to the contemporary church ecosystem.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This research guides churches in considering the theological, sociological, and developmental implications of adolescent inclusion through the lens of missional ecclesiology, suggesting adolescent inclusion is critical to contextual missional praxis.

Keywords: youth; inclusion; missional; attrition; belonging; kinship; United States of America; youth group.

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Introduction

This article seeks to answer a critical question: Despite a century of efforts in terms of research, training, and resource allocation directed towards youth ministry, why is the American church currently facing a generational crisis of attrition? This core inquiry stems from the longstanding issue of declining youth participation, a situation brought into sharper focus during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.

Contrary to common perception, recent research conducted by the University of Chicago establishes that the pandemic has not substantially impacted religious affiliations. Instead, it has transformed the modalities through which individuals interact with religious services, pivoting largely towards online platforms (cf. Witt-Swanson, Benz & Cox 2023). This revelation negates the assumption that the pandemic has been a principal factor in reducing church engagement.

Further scrutiny unveils that the alterations in engagement patterns observed in the post-pandemic period are not anomalous but part of an ongoing generational trend. This beckons a deeper exploration of the underlying causes, transcending the immediate impacts of the pandemic, to understand the continuous decline in youth participation within the American church landscape.

The American church in transition

Long before the pandemic, the American church was grappling with crucial transitions described by Olsen (2008:37) as moving from Christian to post-Christian, modern to postmodern, and monoethnic to multi-ethnic. In truth, the decrease in engagement has been unravelling slowly since the mid-20th century, with efforts to revise methodologies falling short in halting the progressive attrition. Root (2021:5) insightfully terms the prevalent mood as 'congregational depression', highlighting a general loss of youthful vigour and an overwhelming feeling of despondency hampering the church's mission and pace. The goal of this research is to address the question of why, after decades of research, training, and resource development, is the American church continuing this slow attrition? I believe this study provides ample argument that the factors are not external or pedagogical, and that practical theology offers a path forward through an inclusive missional ecclesiology that invites adolescent participation as equals while recognising their contextual uniqueness and integrating that uniqueness into a local congregational ecclesial life.

Inclusive and missional as point of departure

What is suggested in the research presented in this article is that churches that have practised an exclusivism as programmatic segregated youth ministry require a reconsideration of its foundational theology through a missional lens. As a point of departure, this research finds its rooting in the work of Nel (2015:8) and his work in developing an inclusive missional framework for ministry. With the inclusive missional framework as one influential text, I have identified three other 'texts' to draw upon for this study.

The adolescent text

While I affirm that this research has implications far beyond a single age group, I have chosen adolescence as the predominant lens. As a focal point, the developmental period of adolescence is chosen for two primary reasons.

The first is the locus of adolescence as the hinge point of affiliation (or non-affiliation) within faith as a matter of self-identification. In other words, the developmental characteristic of identity formation in adolescence makes this a point of decision for how a person is going to relate to faith and a faith community. That locus is often relegated to preparation for 'joining' the church that keeps them disconnected from greater church life. However, Nel (2018:195) with reference to Little (1968:15), names this as the 'future church heresy'. From the vast amount of resource allocation and professional training given to the reaching and discipleship of teenagers reflected in the research question, it would be false to suggest that the church does not consider the teenage years as valuable and worthy of attention. Yet, the pattern of attrition begins in the younger generations. A Hartford Seminary study on Faith Communities Today (2021) noted that while senior citizens (65 and over) make up only 17% of the United States of America (US) population, they make up 33% of the churches. Conversely, 18-24-year-olds make up 24% of the population but only 14% of the churches. Considering the locus of adolescence in identity-making, it is impossible to divorce the experience of attrition from the youth population.

The second reason to offer adolescence as a focal point is the nature of identity formation in the developmental stage of adolescence. The nature of identity formation in the liminal experience of human development has much to teach the church. Nel (2018:3) has rightly argued for the placement of youth ministry firmly as practical theology as well as for the church to consider the process of identity formation as foundational to a missional orientation. He refers to it as 'being' instead of 'doing' missions because we 'do because we are' (Nel 2015:11). Adolescents are in a process of identity formation that often requires communal bonds. The formation of identity within the isolated subculture of 'teenage' life does not allow identity formation within the embodied wisdom of a mature congregation (cf. Wimberly & Parker 2011).

The historical text

The history of youth ministry in the US context is considered in this research as the second text. The interpretive work of practical theology (Osmer 2008:4) requires a consideration of the historical development of hegemonic youth ministry. Through a historical lens, not only do the theological building blocks become visible, but so does the cultural imagination and ethnographic influences that formed these blocks. For this reason, the focus is narrowed to the US context, and further to the US hegemony. The US has been the geographical and cultural forge that has given rise to a large percentage of these resources yet continues a pattern of attrition. The answer cannot be more or improved resources from this same source. The research suggests a theological misapplication of adolescent theory that resulted in the institutionalisation of the liminal period of human development. It is believed that a critique of youth ministry from the soil of US hegemonic imagination will provide a valuable tool for the global church to consider its own praxis.

The empirical text

The final text will be an empirical sampling of US churches who have experienced youth ministry for more than two generations. The sampling is not large enough to be considered an exhaustive study on its own, but combined with the theoretical work done, it provides a corroboration of the theoretical findings.

The argument will follow a path from the intrinsic conceptualisations of youth ministry considering 19th and 20th century understandings and compare the application of these conceptualisations to an inclusive missional ecclesiological framework. The empirical results are introduced to corroborate the theoretical findings. The intent of this study is to invite a realignment of adolescents into the corporate identity of congregational life.

These four texts, namely the theoretical framework of inclusive missional ecclesiology, the historical framework of US hegemonic youth ministry, the locus of adolescents, and the discoveries of the empirical research, present evidence for a reformation in the church's adolescent ministry that attends to the question at hand.

Defining what is meant by 'crisis'

Before beginning the argument, what is meant by crisis of attrition in the research question should be clarified. I use it to amend the stated crisis, namely a loss in membership, with what would constitute an appropriate crisis, a loss of ecclesial identity. I align with Guder (2015:20-21) who suggests that 'For the long established churches of Western Christendom, this movement from normativity to theological and cultural pluralism has been a difficult readjustment'. Consideration of this viewpoint suggests that the felt 'crisis' that the American church is facing is one of influence and placement within American society. Guder (2015:30) further points out that the 'cultural and legal privileging of churches is rapidly disappearing (e.g., repeal of blue laws, increasingly restrictive zoning regulation of churches, loss of the "protected Sunday morning")'. Guder (2015:30) also points out that the growing significance of the 'so-called evangelical' Christianity in the United States, and especially of its political influence, complicates the discussion of the 'end of Christendom'; however, the very fact that the argument of crisis stems from cultural or political influence suggests a misalignment with mission. There is clearly a reduction of presence in the pews and increased competition for American attention and dollars. In other words, it is Christendom that is in a season of crisis, but that should have little effect on ecclesial identity. Nel (2015:14) highlights the 'building up' orientation of the people of God vs. the numerical growth or influence of the local parish. If the hierarchal power structures and cultural influence of Christendom are not considered to be synonymous with ecclesia, then the call to the church is not the restoration of influence or place within American society, but a re-engagement and reformation within the prime motivator of divine mission. This clarification lays the foundation for inclusion of adolescents as participants in that mission.

Defining adolescence

By way of foundation, it is important to note how the concept of adolescence is used in this article. Adolescence as a liminal stage existing between childhood and adulthood is not a new concept. For a well-considered argument towards this, I offer Kirgiss (2015). The framework of adolescence here is reflected by Chinn (2009:13) who suggests that industrialisation and subsequent immigration were the seeds of the creation and identification of teenagers as a separate cultural cohort. She argues that adolescence is not a universal, biologically determined phenomenon but rather a socially constructed concept that has evolved over time. When we speak of the development of adolescence, it is not a stage of human development that we are critiquing but the systematic shaping of the adolescent cohort within and after the industrial revolution. If the growing concept of adolescence itself is connected to industrialisation, Nel's (2018:20) observation that 'youth ministry did not really exist before the industrial revolution' draws us into a consideration of youth ministry within the context of economic and cultural factors rather than the theological factors that should drive the formation of praxis.

Adolescent identity formation

The inclusion of adolescent development within this research is vital. The sense of belonging, experienced within communal structures, coupled with a clear sense of purpose (mission) is critical to pass through liminality with a mature identity. This movement towards maturity is mirrored in the communal life of the church. Nel (2015:19) provides a reminder 'that spiritual maturity is not a state, but a way of growing in faith, hope, and love' noting that being in this state of fluidity is essential to revealing 'the real nature of the only true God'. There is a humility that is required in this process that 'breaks down the self-sufficiency of groups of believers' which Nel (2015:20) identifies as a common characteristic of middle-class communities that often play host to youth ministries. This study will argue in the following sections that it was an ingrained cultural self-sufficiency that served as the laboratory that gave birth to much of what became understood as youth ministry in the US.

 

A short walk through history

The text of history is vital to understanding the development of youth ministry as both a praxis and a theological laboratory. More comprehensive work has already been done on the history of youth ministry in the 19th and 20th century (See Kett 1977; Senter 2010) as well as the impact of relational youth ministry as an orthopraxis (Root 2007). This section offers only a brief consideration to frame contemporary praxis as an interpretive task by highlighting the ecclesiological impact ministry developed predominantly in 20th century US.

Hall and the moral panic

This cultural orientation towards protecting adolescents roots back to Hall (1904) and the emotional tension (strum and drang) that puts the adolescent in conflict with themselves. This pendulum of emotions will eventually result in adulthood, but an unaddressed (or unprotected) adolescence can lead to crime or other negative social conditions. Danger to the adolescent arises when 'home, school, church, fail to recognize its nature and needs and, perhaps most of all, its perils' (Hall 1904:xiv). Recognising that in 1904, high school attendance was still rare (Senter 2010:13) and that 'home' among the immigrant poor flooding to industrialised cities did not reflect the homelife of Hall's imagination, it becomes clear that Hall's call was for the protection of a particular privileged class of youth. As Chinn (2009:18) points out, 'Like his eugenicist peers, Hall was deeply alarmed by the promiscuous mixing of ethnic groups …' which would create 'instability' within the race of Hall (1904:322). This 'urban hothouse life' (Hall 1904:322) that Hall described came across the middle-class and upper-class imagination like a clarion. This fuelled the emerging belief that there was what Senter (2010:96) refers to as a 'youth problem' or what Foster (2001:93) calls the 'moral panic' that needed to be addressed. This panic or problem is far more than an identification of the unique characteristics of adolescence. A liminal stage of human development was understood before the field of psychology (Kirgiss 2015), but the xenophobia brought on by urbanisation and immigration resulted in a very different application of adolescent theory among the middle and upper class. Hall (1904:89) suggested that youth 'should have its fling' but with 'careful supervision and wise direction'. Kett (1977:211) sees this influence as thread emerging through developing youth organisations, particularly churches, in the late 19th century. This is prior to Hall demonstrating how these ideas were already part of the cultural imagination. This article argues that this moral panic is the soil that influenced the ecclesial posture towards youth in the 20th century.

Rise of youth ministry

Kett (1977:210) also correlates the rise of modern youth ministry with the sociological anxieties of the early 20th century. He indicts Christian youth ministry as a factor in the invention of adolescence where 'prolonged immaturity could sustain itself' and where one could 'shield young people from contamination by the alien culture of big cities and immigrants'. Root (2000:60) considers contemporary youth ministry praxis in a similar fashion as the 'slowing down' of adolescent development. Early attempts at youth ministry can trace its roots to Hall and the hegemonic fears related to the cultural changes of industrialisation and immigration. Hall had given name to the youth problem that became identifiable in a changing social climate. Hall (1924:136) himself had a conversion experience in what he would describe to be his teenage years. In his watershed work, he cites anecdotal evidence from evangelist D.L. Moody and others suggesting that because of the turbulence of this period of life, the young are more open to crisis conversions, the hallmark of youth ministry in the 20th century (Hall 1905:288; cf. Senter 2010:44). Senter (2010:85) also reminds us that the earliest evangelistic efforts of Moody was 'Mr. Moody's Sunday School' in Chicago. The Sunday School epitomised directed ministry towards children that has been a hallmark of modern society. This lives in sharp contrast to Bushnell's (1876) work that the young are nurtured in Christian families. Bushnell's perspective became overshadowed by the 'crisis' posture of Christian conversion and growth that grew from cultural renegotiation regarding adolescence. Kett (1977:114) suggests that Bushnell's Christian Nurture existed as a critique of the popular revival-style conversion. Though Kett (1977:84) considers Bushnell's approach as 'utopian', he does suggest that it is only an option for the middle class who can have a present family life. In the popular evangelical viewpoint of the day, the streets were crawling with urban dangers and youth on the edge rather than caring families. Bushnell's suggestion that true conversion is of a gradual nature is overshadowed by the more popular idea of radical change, something that flows from Moody and other revivalists and is clearly tied to the urban fear mongering popular at the time. Nel (2018:30) considers that this 'decision making' approach to salvation 'is backfiring on the church in a serious way.' Conversion of the teenager in a crisis experience became the driving theology of American Protestant youth ministry, eclipsing the work of Bushnell and paving the way for a unique new approach to reaching the newly forming adolescent cohort.

While Hall's work may have given language to cultural fears, it was in this environment that movements such as the Clark's Young People's Society for Christian Endeavor that popularised a 'pledge' style approach to encourage a protestant ethical construct flourished (Senter 2010:158). The growing emergence of an adolescent cohort in urban areas had already resulted in a growing panic among church leaders as this new cohort found new places to grow their identity. To counter this, pledge movements became popular ways to ensure 'Christian' practice, patterned after popular 'temperance pledges' (Senter 2010:58). After the initial pledge was published, Clark was forced to write a new pledge that included supporting the local church and attending all regular Sunday and mid-week services because of the fears that Clark's pledge would take the young from church (Senter 2010:58). While the pledge approach went out of vogue in the early 20th century, replaced by the new movement of relational ministry, Christian Endeavor demonstrates a growing orientation to more cohort-specific programming for youth.

Youth ministry and 'The self-chosen relationship'

The roots of modern youth ministry grew very distinctly from an ecclesial body. By the early 20th century, suburban adolescents had made the transition from factory or farm life to public high school where the cultural cohort became so strong that they could be identifiable by the term 'teenager' and all could form a picture in their mind. Efforts to reach the members of this sub-culture were not based within churches, but by entrepreneurs that utilised the culture of teenagers to draw them to an evangelistic message of a relational Christ. Young Life and its founder Jim Rayburn are arguably the innovators of this new approach to ministry and require focussed consideration; but as Root (2007:49) points out, they did not arrive on the scene alone. Mediums such as radio and the pep rally were adopted by the Youth for Christ (YFC) movement (Senter 2010:261) with massive success. The movement's founder Jack Wyrtzen's conversion provides a foundation for the praxis that drove the movement. Wyrtzen's conversion was not in a church, but among a group of friends that did not seek out a church post-conversion, but formed their own group which they named Chi Beta Alpha (Senter 2010:261). Without the need for a church, Wyrtzen was free to capitalise on the new medium of radio patterned after Percy Crawford's 'Young People of the Air' (Senter 2010:260). The success of Wyrtzen's YFC movement cannot be argued from a quantitative standpoint as thousands would attend the live broadcasts known as Youth for Christ rallies that could fill large stadiums such as Madison Square Garden and Chicago's Soldier Field. Youth for Christ rallies sprang up independently across the country, eventually nationalising the movement under the leadership of Torrey Johnson and with Billy Graham as the first staff evangelist. Graham's message was simple and, as Root (2007:46-47) points out, struck a distinct nationalistic message of triumph over atheistic communism and the need for a personal (individual) relationship with Jesus Christ. This message laid the foundation for a distinctly American theological construct that would shape ecclesial life into the 21st century. Local YFC chapters across the country had begun to form a new model of ministry work that bypassed the church and provided support for staff from independent contributors who had a vested interest in the youth problem. These entrepreneurial youth staff will eventually form the foundation youth group and/or youth pastor movement in the latter half of the 20th century (Senter 2010:250). But it was Rayburn's Young Life Campaign, formed before the YFC movement, that would shape an orthopraxy of ministry that would define not only the exercise of age-specific youth ministry, but a theological foundation of imbedded incarnational relational theology (Root 2007:48-49; Tanis & Ward 2016:23).

Emerging from a strict fundamentalism that may have found more comfort with the pledge movement of the earlier generation, Rayburn became captured with the soteriological construct of Lewis Sperry Chafer (Rayburn III 1999:27) who taught a finality to the work of Christ that offered liberative freedom to Rayburn. Pahl (2000:68) offers that this is in contrast to the Youth for Christ movement that while using modern methods, it still promoted strict doctrines and moral standards in a person's standing before God. Rayburn chose a relational approach that involved striking up conversations with teenagers about what interested them and then inviting them to participate in clubs (Cailliet 1963:13; Root 2007:52). Root (2007:53) suggests that Rayburn himself had to 'accrue a currency of cool' to do this incarnate work. These popular students lent their social capital to Rayburn. It was the capitalisation on the 'self-chosen relationship' that met the adolescent at their most vulnerable (Root 2007:53). Adolescents were in historically uncharted waters with the creation of public high schools and the subsequent development of a youth culture. Rather than forming an identity within a broader intergenerational culture, adolescents were now in cohorts with specific cultural demands and structures. The relational (or friendship) approach not only met adolescents at a unique pain point, but the promise of 'club' gave them a place to belong. Root (2007:54) again highlights that prior to 1940, this type of ministry strategy would not be needed, but with the 'modernizing of family, local community, and society', self-chosen relationships 'become the only location for intimacy'. This created a dramatic shift theologically. With the 1960s emergence of the youth group, fuelled by resources from former YFC staff, relational ministry not only became the dominant youth ministry style, but with generations raised within this message, the gospel became a relational gospel and the mission of the church simply relational.

Within the relational framework, adolescents are often given a great deal of activities, and receive enthusiastic support from a congregation, but they have limited agency in the contributive life of a congregation. The practice of this form of youth ministry remains largely uncritiqued and is still the normative practice of many hegemonic churches, even in the face of statistical loss. However, allowing youth ministry to exist as a vital branch of practical theology allows a critical critique of ministry with youth through an inclusive missional lens.

 

Identity-driven churches

Nel (2015:205) argued adeptly for a reformation that begins with a collective discovery of, or reconnection with, a missional identity. Through this lens, the American church is indeed in a crisis, but not one of membership but of identity. Or maybe it is better said, the crisis stems from how members form identity as the community of Christ. To be rightly aligned, there must be a recognition or realignment with the central nature of the church. Nel (2015:41) argues that the nature of the church is as a creation of God that continues the mission of God in the world. Bosch (1995:33) puts it this way: 'Mission is more and different from recruitment to our brand of religion; it is the alerting people to the universal reign of God through Christ'. While this strikes as Christendom language, I believe a proper reading of Bosch would lead to a reflection of the presence of God already at work in the world and the church getting in sync with that liberative and healing work. This simple statement has powerful implications to how church members see themselves in relation to the ecclesia and how they see each of the other members. A characteristic of middle-class Americans is to see themselves as the 'clients' or 'customers' of the church to accomplish personal or cultural goals (Mercer 2005:120; Nel 2015:20). Nel (2015:14) provides a comprehensive consideration of the question of identity as he sees the thru-line of God's 'building up' of a community throughout the scriptures. There is ample example of God's 'tearing down' of the community, but it is always with an 'orientation toward the future' that suggests the building of the people of God (Nel 2015:14; cf. Jr 31:31-35).

It is the orientation towards hope that does not require mere human agency; 'No longer will a man say to his neighbour 'Know the LORD'. The reformation is God's as God's people accesses the movement of God's presence among and within; 'I will put my law in their minds and write it on their heart'. We cannot help but note that sense of belonging critically involves every age from 'the least of them to the greatest' in contributing to the theological life of the congregation. Nel (2015:15) further points out, for it to be a movement of God, a missional aspect is required. Nel (2015:15) argues this line of building (oikodomein) is drawn from the Old Testament into the New Testament. Within the messianic concept, God continues to be the subject and builder. God uniquely exists within God's people in the person of Jesus and through his death and life is the builder of his ecclesia, being built to withstand even the gates of hell (Mt 16:17). Paul continues the building motif, comparing the ecclesia to a body with vast diversity that is vitalised by the head which is Christ (Col 1:18) and the writer of Hebrews compares the ecclesia to a building 'whose maker and builder is God' (Heb 11:10), also continuing the future orientation. Even the gifts received are given 'for the building up of the congregation' (Nel 2015:17; cf. 1 Cor 12:1-11) which has both the aspect of belonging and mission. Both are critical to identity formation and orient us towards an inclusive and missional ecclesiology that provides a critical departure point for ministry with adolescents.

A willingness to serve, driven by love

Nel (2015:20) also restates the missional aspect as he reminds us that a departure from this middle-class self-sufficiency 'entails a willingness to serve' that is 'driven by love' and challenges a 'sick self-righteousness' and transforms the disciple from consumer to a disciple committed to 'the building of the body as a whole' of which everyone is a vital and living part.

This research intends to make vital connections between the identity formation that is vital to the maturity of the body of Christ and the characteristics of maturity that are vital to the formation of people in the liminal stage of adolescence. In both the cases, we should not understand maturity as a terminus, but as a locus of maturity that continues to build with achieved characteristics of vital belonging (inclusion) and mission (purpose). This transforms the idea of building from the strategies of 'church growth' to an ever-deepening sense of identity. Church growth strategies have marketplace or power implications within them, whereas maturity focusses on the aspect of becoming as the predominant driving force. Rather than strategies of success, we begin to consider the uniqueness of adolescence and our ministry with them in terms of belonging and mission. In other words, how do we include their uniqueness (gifts, context, person) into the constantly developing ecclesial mission? Referring to the future church heresy, Nel (2015:28) sees the misalignment of these ideas in many churches' approach to youth ministry as 'an investment for the sake of the future of the given institution.' Resources are seen to be 'banked' in the adolescent cohort so that members have confidence that the institution will continue much in its present form. Framed in this manner, it is obvious that both the institution and the adolescent are being set up for inevitable failure. It is no longer building that is the goal, but preservation. Within a preservationist framework, it is entirely possible that the church can lose its sense of purpose (Nel 2015:28).

This framing does require us to consider if there is a distinction between the congregation (ecclesia) and the institution (church/kirche). Nel (2015:41) argues, and rightly so, that the nature of the church as an expression of God does require us to consider this distinction and rethink our ecclesiology, though it does not flow that we must abandon the institution. I would affirm this perspective for fear that this research is used to argue the abandonment of adolescent education or socialisation. It is more of a matter of what we consider ourselves partners in building.

The distinction does not require an ecclesial binary (ecclesia OR kirche) any more than it requires us to choose between including adolescents in congregational life or a distinctive youth ministry that exists in parallel. I affirm the 'included but differentiated' posture of youth ministry suggested by Nel (2018:13). This research demonstrates the vital nature of developing a distinctive engagement with the adolescent cohort that recognises their uniqueness and seeks to recognise that uniqueness as one of the informative 'texts' that forms and reforms the mission of a local congregation.

 

Qualitative research sample

To test the theoretical insights, I conducted interviews with seven churches that span a diverse ethnic and economic range to discern any common traits that align with an inclusive missional blueprint. The central indicators of growth in these congregations were a palpable sense of belonging and a clearly defined mission. It is important to clarify that 'growth' in this study does not pertain to numerical expansion, a metric often employed in marketplace contexts that potentially complicates the comprehensive understanding of an inclusive missional framework. Instead, the term 'growth' is utilised to denote the development of emerging adults who are actively engaged with a local congregation where sustainability is a demonstrable factor.

The criteria for growth encompassed active participation in congregational activities and a manifest enthusiasm towards fostering a sense of belonging within the congregation. The questions probed the theoretical premise advocating for a church to be both inclusive and mission-oriented to uphold its true function. This is drawn from Nel (2015:11), who argues that the absence of a missional characteristic essentially undermines the very essence of 'being' church.

Methodology

Following the preliminary interviews with the seven churches, an impartial research assistant was engaged, and ATLAS.ti (Scientific Software Development GmbH, Berlin, Germany)software was employed to facilitate unbiased analytical processing. Variables such as adolescent involvement in the congregation, the congregation's responsiveness to adolescents' needs, and the pervading sense of the church's mission were analysed in correlation with perceived growth or decline of the church.

The research investigated a correlation between an inclusive missional stance and a robust engagement of the youth in church life.

An application for full ethical approval was made to the University of Pretoria review board and ethics consent was received on 12 November 2018. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee, and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study. Presented here is a brief articulation of the findings with examples from interviewed churches.

A sense of inclusive belonging

In analysing churches with a pronounced culture of youth engagement, a recurring attribute is the fostering of an environment characterised by youth inclusion and belonging. An exemplary instance is observed in an African American congregation situated north of New York City. Distinctively, this congregation stood out not merely for the inclusion of youth representatives during the interview, but for the evident desire to have their viewpoints. Family engagement within this church correlated with superior youth retention, embodying mutual familial reinforcement. A poignant illustration of this reciprocal ethos emerged from a nonagenarian member who recently acquired an iPad, aiming to connect with younger congregants.

Congregations maintaining an active youth ministry invariably highlighted a sense of belonging - either intrinsic or purposefully nurtured. A prevalent culture of kinship, especially within African American communities, appeared to facilitate this inclusion instinctively. Notwithstanding, churches instilling a sense of belonging through deliberate strategies similarly reported youth engagement. For instance, a Maryland-based church indicated youth participation in worship, a trend consistent across congregations with notable youth populations.

In stark contrast, congregations registering minimal youth engagement typically endorsed an operational approach that compartmentalised the youth demographic. A church from the Midwest expressed their confusion over the decline in young people's church engagement. For instance, it was shocking to hear that Sunday school was no longer offered to young people (at a well-known church), as it was once a fundamental component of the Baptist faith and church.

Their bewilderment seemed to revolve around why youth-centric programmes are no longer populated. Such congregations exhibited a tendency to ascribe this disparity to external factors, such as sports or social media.

A missional orientation

Churches that reported significant youth engagement frequently demonstrated a discernible sense of mission and purpose. Such institutions not only recognised the needs of their youth but actively responded to the broader community. A case in point is a predominantly African American church in Washington D.C. located in an area with a considerable homeless population. Addressing this issue has become a unified church mission. Elderly women collaborate with younger counterparts to craft blankets, while children and youth team up with adults to prepare sandwiches. Subsequently, all capable members distribute these provisions among the unhoused individuals in the community.

It is worth noting that even churches lacking an ingrained intergenerational culture, but reporting expansive youth ministries, prioritise mission and service. For instance, a Connecticut-based church finds its annual mission trip and year-round service projects to be the predominant catalysts for youth participation within the community. However, because of the absence of holistic church involvement, such institutions face challenges retaining youth post-high school. Nonetheless, the distinct sense of purpose manifested by their youth ministry remains notable for this article.

Inclusive belonging and mission limited to youth ministry

Within this research, a particularly enlightening discovery emerged from churches demonstrating attributes of belonging and mission, yet these traits are not shared across the entire congregation. It should be clarified that this does not insinuate the absence of belonging or mission in the broader church context; such an examination lay outside the scope of this study. The central insight is the observed deficiency in a shared congregational experience of belonging and mission across the generational spectrum which influences youth retention.

A church culture that perceives both its members and the extended community as 'kin' ostensibly demonstrates enhanced generational retention in comparison to churches where the sense of mission and belonging is predominantly confined to youth groups. A case in point is a Korean church in New Jersey, characterised by bifurcated ministries: one predominantly adult-oriented where the Korean language is spoken and the other primarily youth-focussed in English. While Korean adults partake in the English ministry, notably by preparing meals and offering leadership, linguistic impediments considerably hinder intergenerational engagement. Despite their nurturing efforts, this congregation recorded a notably diminished continuation rate post-high school. While they grapple with a profound challenge, their situation underscores the paramount importance of adopting an intergenerational stance within an inclusive missional framework.

Summary of findings

The empirical research substantiates the pivotal role of intergenerational involvement in fostering growth within a congregation's participatory life. Congregations that nurture inclusivity across all age groups evidently maintain a more successful trajectory in cultivating an environment conducive to growth compared to those that do not. This is also a notable discovery in Seibel and Nel (2010:1) who found congregations with a clear sense of mission and generational inclusion were key to the ongoing traditioning of a congregation.

Moreover, it has been observed that the growing churches' mission exhibits contextual variations, also noted by Seibel and Nel (2010:1). These were influenced substantially by location. Congregations that find defining an overarching mission to be a complex endeavour, particularly those that perceive missionary work predominantly as financial outreach to external endeavours, seem to struggle in membership cohesion. In contrast, congregations attuned to the pressing concerns of young individuals and the wider community, appear to have a profound engagement with their purpose, thereby nurturing a more enriched sense of mission.

Furthermore, ethnographic elements considerably influence the potential for fostering environments of belonging. In this regard, cultures with an established tradition of kinship are seemingly at an advantage, creating a sense of belonging more organically compared to hegemonic groups. This observation is not to undermine the capacity of hegemonic churches to foster belonging; rather, it underscores the necessity for such entities to conscientiously develop counter-cultural ecosystems that challenge the prevailing tendencies towards hyper-individualisation. This holistic approach calls for a reflective critique and possible reconfiguration of existing structures to foster inclusivity and connectedness, central to nurturing growth and a deepened sense of purpose within a congregational setting.

 

A way forward

The research presented in this article has drawn the four texts into conversation with a way forward that challenges the cultural locus of adolescents as institutionally isolated to an identity forming orientation that includes adolescents in divine mission. The missional framework articulated by Nel is corroborated by the empirical findings contained in this study. Within the framework of a missional identity, this research argues that there is a critical component of the voice of the young missing from the ecclesial conversation. This research argues that hegemonic agreements on the nature and dangers facing liminal adults resulted in a segregation of adolescents into institutionalised cohorts. These absent cohorts not only arrested the missional nature of ecclesial life, but in turn the church participated in the institutionalisation of the adolescent cohort in the larger American society. While steps towards renegotiation must be left for another study, reformation around how the church includes adolescents is critical to a renewal in ecclesial identity and energy. The church must provide counter-cultural orientations towards adolescents that invite them as unique but equal participants in divine mission.

 

Acknowledgements

Michael Droege wishes to express particular gratitude to Prof Malan Nel for his guidance and contribution to the foundation of this work. This article is partially based on the author's thesis entitled 'Growing together: inclusivity in youth ministry praxis and the challenge of mainline church attrition' towards the degree of PhD in the Department of Practical Theology, University of Pretoria, South Africa on 27 September 2023, with supervisor Prof Malan Nel. It is available here: http://hdl.handle.net/2263/94527.

Competing interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Authors' contributions

The article reflects the original research of M.W.D., who completed all of the research and all of the writing in the document. M.N. provided supervision, editing, and content, advice during the writing process.

Ethical considerations

An application for full ethical approval was made to the University of Pretoria review board, and ethics consent was received on 12 November 2018. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee, and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, M.N., on request.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Malan Nel
malannelup@gmail.com

Received: 03 Oct. 2023
Accepted: 09 Dec. 2023
Published: 04 June 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Examining corruption in biblical texts through deontological and virtue ethical codes

 

 

Mlamli Diko

Department of African Languages, College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

In contemporary contexts, the understanding of corruption is different from what is illustrated in biblical narratives. Conversely, some of the ways in which corruption is contested and addressed in biblical narratives prove to be applicable in contemporary contexts, particularly in the jurisdictions of leadership and governance, politics and community service. Therefore, this article aims to critique how corruption is (re)produced in the Bible. The objective is to underline that whereas the Bible is a primordial narrative, it mirrors some challenges that adversely affect the contemporary contexts, with special reference to corruption. To advance the aim of this article, deontological and virtue ethical codes are applied as theoretical frameworks to uncover corruption within the Bible. This article makes three notable findings. Firstly, corruption undermines public trust, while it erodes self-reliance in the rule of law. Secondly, corruption is depicted as a moral and spiritual decomposition that erodes the foundational values of morality and conformity to God. Thirdly, the Bible depicts corruption as a transgression of the commandments and moral ethos. Nevertheless, in response to corruption, there are instances in which God pronounces verdicts and imposes retribution. The conclusion underlines that the comprehension of corruption is intricately interwoven and requires scholarly dialogues to unmask any covert denotations.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article is interdisciplinary as it elicits discernments from the theological discipline and ethical codes that are interlaced in social, economic and political dimensions. The integration of perceptions from philosophy, ethics and literary critique warrants a worthy discourse that forms juxtaposition.

Keywords: biblical text; commandments; corruption; critique; ethics.

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Introduction

The depiction of corruption in biblical narratives raises significant challenges and complexities that demand meticulous consideration and nuanced scholarly scrutiny. One fundamental challenge lies in the exposition and contextualisation of ancient biblical narratives within a modern ethical framework. Biblical accounts, composed of vastly different ethnological and historical contexts, introduce the challenge of unifying ancient moral sensibilities with contemporary perspectives on corruption. The evolving nature of societal ethos prompts questions about the applicability and pertinence of biblical dogmas to the current debates on ethical codes and governance. In the process, the multiplicity of literary genres in the Bible complicates its critique of corruption as a pertinent subject (Diko 2023:614). This is made clear by Punt (2006:890), who indicates that the Bible includes historical narratives, biblical poetry, prophecy, legal codes and letters among other genres. Each genre has its own conventions, purposes and rhetorical style, making it essential to consider a specific context and literary form when unmasking instances of corruption. For instance, historical narratives provide an account of episodes without explicitly stating moral judgements, thus requiring readers and critics to infer ethical implications (MacIntyre 2013). Legal codes establish rules and consequences, offering a deontological framework for understanding conscience (Masenya & Ramantswana 2015). Nevertheless, biblical poetry and prophetic literature use metaphorical language, which requires a multifaceted approach to uncover the underlying moral lessons (Jonker 1997). It is on this basis that differentiating between prescriptive legal frameworks, descriptive biblical narratives and poetic expressions is crucial, as it impacts the comprehension of purposive moral messages. The complexities of language, cultural norms and rhetorical aims of biblical authors further obscure the task of explicating passages related to corruption. For example, the Bible was constructed and assembled in ancient languages such as Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, which contain nuances, idiomatic expressions and cultural references that are challenging to expansively grasp without historical and linguistic expertise. By the same token, biblical narratives employ various rhetorical techniques, including metaphorical expressions, allegories and symbolic language to convey moral and spiritual realities. In consideration of this fact, deciphering the rhetorical aims of biblical authors requires careful scrutinisation of literary styles, thematic patterns and theological frameworks.

Over and above this reality, the inherent tension between supernatural intervention and human agency adds another layer of intricacy. While biblical texts attribute consequences to corrupt actions, scholars and theologians face challenges in discerning a consistent pattern of supernatural responses (Kowalski 2014:223; Louw 2020). That is the reason Polka (2015) is of the view that this inherent tension raises questions about the theological implications of corruption - whether it is regarded as a manifestation of human free will, a test of faith or a reflection of divine judgement. Contradictions and varying perspectives on corruption across different biblical narratives necessitate a holistic approach to uncovering the overarching biblical stance towards this phenomenon. Nevertheless, the Bible, as a foundational narrative for various religious traditions, provides an affluent tapestry of voices and teachings that elucidate the complexities of human behaviour, morality and spirituality. One prominent subject that is interwoven throughout the biblical narrative is corruption, which is a moral and ethical deviation from what is deemed ethical and just (Kretzschmar 1999; Whittingham 2011:209). This overarching theme resonates in numerous biblical narratives, depicting instances in which individuals or societies stray from the ethical principles set forth by the supernatural kingdom. Beyond this theme, it is important to appreciate that the understanding of corruption in the Bible could potentially differ from how the term is conceptualised in contemporary contexts. As a matter of reality, in Hebrew, the term corruption, often translated as 'מחילה'[mechilah], is conceptualised within the context of moral decomposition, dishonesty and perversion of justice, continually associated with actions that betray conviction, misuse power or engage in unethical behaviour, whether in the arenas of government, business or personal conduct (Werner 1983). It carries significant weight within Hebrew culture, emphasising the importance of integrity, morality and accountability in both individual and societal life. This suggests that in Hebrew culture, the concept of corruption, encapsulated by the term 'מחילה' [mechilah], is not solely regarded through a secular perspective but is also intertwined with religious belief systems. In consideration of this assertion, corruption is not just a matter of societal or legal transgression but is also seen as a moral violation against godly principles. As such, addressing corruption involves not only repairing societal injustices but also seeking forgiveness and spiritual redemption for one's moral transgressions. This reflects the profoundly ingrained connection between ethical codes, morality and spirituality within Hebrew culture.

In modern terms, corruption generally refers to the abuse of entrusted power for personal gain, typically involving dishonest or unethical behaviour (Lodge 1998:161; Ngcamu & Mantzaris 2023). It entails a wide range of actions and practices that undermine the principles of integrity, transparency and fairness in various institutions and sectors of society (Averbeck 2006:11). The central features of corruption include bribery, fraud, embezzlement, nepotism, extortion and other forms of misconduct. In the process, corruption could occur at different levels, ranging from individual actions to systemic challenges within the governmental, political, business and social structures. For example, on the African continent, corruption predominantly involves government officials, private sector entities and individuals (Jungo, Madaleno & Botelho 2023:766). This suggests that corruption manifests in both the public and private sectors. It adversely affects the proper functioning of institutions and obstructs economic advancement, social justice and the rule of law. A prominent example of corruption in the South African context is the phenomenon known as state capture. State capture refers to the illicit influence exerted by individuals or groups over key state institutions for personal gain (Madonsela 2019:114). This encompasses the manipulation of government policies, appointments and decision-making processes in favour of private interests (Mlambo, Mphurpi & Makgoba 2023:40). In recent years, South Africa has grappled with allegations of state capture that have implicated high-ranking officials, including members of the executive parliamentary office, state-owned enterprise leaders and influential business figures (Madonsela 2019). These allegations have raised concerns regarding the integrity of public institutions and their ability to serve broader public interests. This is one of many examples that is indicative of the reality that corruption is unequivocally a challenge that sabotages the constitutional democracy of many states and communities, with special reference to South Africa. It is on account of this that Mlambo et al. (2023) purport that:

Corruption corrodes public trust in institutions and government. When citizens perceive that public officials are corrupt, it leads to a loss of confidence in the government's ability to address their needs and uphold the rule of law. This can contribute to a breakdown of social cohesion and stability. Furthermore, corruption has a detrimental impact on economic development. It diverts resources away from essential public services such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure, hindering economic growth and exacerbating poverty. Corrupt practices, such as bribery and embezzlement distort market mechanisms and create unfair advantages for those engaged in corrupt activities. (p. 44)

Bearing this assertion in mind, modern debates on corruption emphasise its adverse impact on governance, economic growth and social cohesion. For instance, Bruce (2014) underlines that corruption erodes public credence in key institutions, distorts dynamic market forces, diverts resources away from essential services and contributes to disparity. In view of this indication, efforts to combat corruption involve implementing anti-corruption measures, promoting transparency and accountability, strengthening legal frameworks, and buttressing a culture of ethics and integrity (Bruce 2014:51). On the one hand, international organisations, governments and non-governmental entities collaboratively address corruption through initiatives such as the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC), Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (TICPI) and various national anti-corruption agencies. Nonetheless, the fight against corruption is an ongoing global challenge that requires a multifaceted approach involving legal, institutional and societal efforts to create environments where corrupt practices are discouraged, detected and appropriately castigated. Unequivocally, the fight against corruption is a continuing global contest demanding a multi-layered approach integrating legal reforms, robust institutional frameworks and active societal engagement to foster environments where corrupt practices are deterred, swiftly detected and met with appropriate sanctions, thus promoting transparency, accountability and integrity across all sectors and levels of society.

Having said that, in the Bible, the term 'corruption' is not always used in the same way as in modern debates about dishonest or unethical behaviour. In spite of this, the biblical narrative does address various forms of moral and spiritual corruption, as revealed in the evaluation of various pieces of biblical narrative. In the biblical context, corruption refers to a departure from God's purposive moral order or deviation from righteous living (Onongha 2014:70). The Bible frequently uses the concept of corruption to describe the moral decay or sinfulness of individuals and societies (Averbeck 2006). In addition to this claim, the biblical narrative exemplifies corruption as a result of disobedience to God's commands, turning away from righteousness, and embracing wickedness. In particular, many biblical passages associate corruption with the worship of false gods or idols. For instance, in the Old Testament, passages such as Psalm 115:4-8 and Jeremiah 2:5-13 denounce the worship of idols, linking it to idiocy, spiritual blindness and moral corruption, while emphasising the significance of fidelity to the one true God as the foundation of righteousness and moral integrity. Among other biblical concerns, engaging in idolatry is regarded as a form of spiritual corruption as it entails turning away from the worship of one true God. That being said, it is crucial to bear in mind that the phenomenon of 'one true God' remains a bone of contention for theologists and philosophers. This is because of religious pluralism, which suggests that the world is characterised by religious multiplicity, with various belief systems, deities and interpretations of the divine (Kgatle 2020). As a matter of fact, religious pluralism means that multiple paths or religions could lead to a connection with the spiritual kingdom, challenging the exclusivity implied by the concept of the 'one true God'. By the same token, theological differences between denominations and sects contribute to ongoing dialogues on the nature of God. In any event, corruption is also depicted in the Bible as manifesting social and economic injustice. The exploitation of the poor, bribery and abuse of power are (re)produced as forms of corruption that oppose the principles of justice and morality. The Bible continues to describe corruption as a result of deserting God's ways and choosing paths that lead away from morality. The consequences of such corruption are recurrently portrayed as godlike judgement or discipline. These biblical narratives serve to underscore the biblical theme of moral accountability and the belief that corruption ultimately leads to spiritual retribution. This depiction aligns with broader biblical themes that underscore the significance of ethical conduct and warn against the dangers of moral degeneration. Thus, corruption is not just a matter of societal or legal repercussions but is also seen as a violation of heavenly principles with spiritual consequences.

With this contextual background in mind, this article aims to explore and examine instances of corruption as depicted in the Bible, elucidating the multifaceted depictions of human transgressions, the consequences of such corruption and the supernatural responses invoked within sacred scriptures. From the prelude of Noah's Ark in Genesis to the prophetic admonitions of Isaiah and Micah, biblical narratives present a compelling platform through which to critique the multifaceted nature of corruption and its implications for individuals and societies. Through a comprehensive examination of selected biblical passages, this article attempts to contribute to a profound understanding of how biblical narratives address the concept of corruption, offering perspectives on moral imperatives, divine justice and calls for repentance that resonate across the centuries. Alongside exploring subjects such as moral imperatives, spiritual justice and calls for repentance, this article also elucidates the mechanisms of corruption, interpreting the seductive allure of power and material gain and the insidious ways in which corruption corrodes individual character and societal integrity. In parallel to this view, this scholarly discourse underlines the transformative power of redemption and restoration, showcasing biblical narratives of individuals and communities who, through repentance and spiritual renewal, experience divine mercy and the possibility of moral regeneration.

The significance of this scholarly dialogue lies in the reality that exploring the biblical perspective on corruption allows for reflection on moral and ethical value systems. The Bible provides a foundation for moral dogmas and ethos, and the examination of corruption in its narratives encourages individuals to consider the consequences of unethical behaviour and the importance of living in accordance with moral standards. In fact, corruption in a biblical context has theological implications. In view of this reality, uncovering how the Bible addresses corruption potentially contributes to theological debates on the nature of God, human responsibility and divine justice. This provides perspectives into the biblical understanding of sin, repentance and redemption. Beyond this, the examination of corruption in the Bible offers a window into the ethnological and historical contexts of ancient societies. Given this fact, understanding how corruption is (re)produced in biblical narratives provides insights into the moral concerns and societal subtleties of the times in which these narratives were produced. For individuals within religious communities, scrutinising corruption in the Bible could be part of religious education, consciousness and spiritual development. It provides an opportunity for believers to engage with their sacred narratives, grapple with ethical questions and intensify their understanding of how faith intersects with issues of morality. For this reason, the biblical exploration of corruption could potentially offer guidance for addressing contemporary challenges related to ethical codes and governance. Lessons elicited from biblical narratives could inform dialogues on the integrity, justice and responsible use of power in various societal contexts. Nevertheless, it is imperative to bear in mind that this scholarly discourse applies two perspectives as a theoretical framework to its discussions.

 

Theoretical framework: Deontological and virtue ethical codes

This article applies two theoretical perspectives in discussing its phenomenon of interest. Firstly, the deontological theoretical perspective is a moral philosophy that concentrates on the inherent nature of actions rather than the consequences of those actions (Kant 2017; Mandal, Ponnambath & Parija 2016). This perspective is also known as duty-based ethics (Baron & Ritov 2009; Meyers 2003). Deontology derives from the Greek word 'deon' which means 'duty' or 'obligation' (Mandal et al. 2016). In deontological ethics, certain actions are considered morally right or wrong regardless of their outcomes. Bearing this explanation in mind, this underlines the importance of fulfilling one's moral duties or obligations. Actions are judged based on whether they adhere to moral rules or principles. For this reason, deontologists continually contend that ethical principles should be applicable universally (Schurr & Moran 2023). This means that, if an action is morally correct in a particular context, it should be considered morally correct in similar contexts for everyone. In addition to this assertion, deontological ethics place strong intensity on the objectives behind an action. This suggests that, even if the consequences of an action are adversarial, it may still be considered morally correct if the intentions are good (Fink et al. 2023). This perspective - deontological ethical systems - continually involves following specific rules or commands. These rules are derived from moral principles and individuals are obligated to follow them irrespective of the consequences. The deontological perspective remains pertinent and important in contemporary contexts for several reasons. For instance, deontological ethics provides clear moral guidelines and principles that could help individuals and institutions navigate complex ethical dilemmas. In other words, focussing on duties, obligations and rights offers a candid framework for moral decision-making, especially in circumstances where consequences are uncertain or ambiguous. Similarly, deontological ethics places a robust emphasis on the protection of individual rights and autonomy. In contemporary society, where issues such as privacy, freedom of speech and autonomy are vehemently debated, a deontological perspective could serve as a bulwark against potential encroachments on these fundamental rights by governments, corporations or other entities.

By the same token, deontologists, as determined by Molefe (2020:197), believe that certain actions have intrinsic moral values. This means that some actions are inherently right or wrong regardless of the context or outcomes they produce. For example, murder, torture, injustice and discrimination are inherently immoral, whereas the opposite of these values is inherently right. One of the most well-known proponents of deontological ethics is Immanuel Kant, who developed the concept of the 'categorical imperative' as a foundational principle (Shorter-Bourhanou 2022). The categorical imperative states that individuals should act according to principles that could be universally applied without contradictions (Meer 2018). In other words, an action is morally permissible if its underlying principle can be willed as a universal legal framework applicable to all rational agents without generating any logical contradictions or undermining the very possibility of achieving the purposive goal. In contrast to consequentialist ethical theories such as utilitarianism, which focus on the outcomes of actions, deontological ethics provide a different perspective by underscoring the inherent morality of certain actions based on principles and duties (Meer 2018:345). In this article, the importance of this theoretical perspective lies in the fact that applying deontological ethics to corruption provides a principled and rule-based framework for critiquing the inherent moral injustice of corrupt actions, regardless of their outcomes. In the same vein, deontological ethos emphasises the duty to adhere to moral rules and obligations offering a clear standard by which to judge actions in the context of corruption. This theoretical perspective helps establish a foundation for ethical decision-making, buttressing transparency, accountability and the prioritisation of moral ethos over personal gain in efforts to combat corrupt practices.

Secondly, this article applies virtue ethics to its discussions, as outlined earlier. Virtue ethics, as a theoretical framework, concentrates on the development of virtuous character traits as the foundation of ethical behaviour, rather than emphasising rules or consequences (Becker 2004:269; MacIntyre 2013; Smit 1991:55). This critical approach to ethics places a central emphasis on the moral character of an individual and the cultivation of virtues (Smit 1991:59). On account of this view, it stands to reason to regard virtue ethics as primarily concerned with the development of virtuous character attributes within individuals (Calvin 1975). Among other crucial components, virtues are positive qualities or traits such as reliability, courage, compassion, integrity and kindness. Virtue ethicists, as outlined by Manomi (2019), recurrently connect ethical living with the concept of eudaimonia, which is translated as 'flourishing' or 'fulfilment'. The idea is that living a virtuous life leads to human flourishing and a sense of welfare. It is against this backdrop that virtue ethics evaluates moral exemplars - individuals who embody virtuous traits - as role models for ethical behaviour. This indicates that by observing and emulating these individuals, one could strive to cultivate virtuous characteristics. In other words, virtue ethics emphasises the noteworthiness of practical wisdom, or phronesis, in making ethical decisions. This encompasses the plausibility to discern the morally right course of action in a particular situation based on one's understanding of virtue ethical codes. Unlike deontological ethics, which relies on fixed rules, and consequentialist ethics, which focusses on outcomes, virtue ethics does not provide a rigid set of rules or guidelines (Manomi 2019). Rather, it encourages individuals to develop a virtuous character and make decisions based on their understanding of virtues. Prominent ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, Plato and Epicurus, among many others, are associated with virtue ethics (Coetzer 2013). Aristotle, for instance, argued that virtue is a habit that develops through practice and that the goal of life is to achieve eudaimonia through virtuous living (Manomi 2019). With this view in mind, virtue ethics is distinct from other ethical theories such as deontology and consequentialism, as it does not prescribe specific rules or prioritise the consequences of actions. Instead, it offers a universal approach that encourages individuals to cultivate virtuous character traits as the foundation for ethical decision-making.

In a nutshell, applying deontological ethics provides a principled approach to moral decision-making, emphasising universal duties and moral obligations irrespective of consequences, offering a structured and rule-based foundation for ethical behaviour. On the one hand, virtue ethics highlights the cultivation of virtuous character traits as the key to ethical living, promoting personal growth and flourishing within a community context. Juxtaposed, these theoretical frameworks offer complementary perspectives, addressing both the inherent nature of actions and the development of virtuous individuals, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of ethics in varied situations. In the 'Findings and discussions' section, this article applies the previously explained theoretical frameworks to address its aim as it pertains to the subject of corruption.

 

Findings and discussions

This section critically assesses how corruption is depicted in biblical narratives. It is important to note that the passages that have been used herein are not from a specific Bible version as this scholarly discourse is not concerned with the versioning of different Bible narratives. It must be underlined that to advance the discussions of this article, the already explained theoretical frameworks are applied to uncover covert meanings of corruption. The rationale for selecting these biblical pieces of textual evidence to discuss deontological ethical codes and virtue ethical codes lies in their thematic pertinence to moral dilemmas and ethical considerations that are central to both ethical frameworks. In other words, these biblical passages are chosen for their depiction of pervasive corruption, whether preceding supernatural intervention, within societal structures or among leaders, offering opulent contexts to explore the application of deontological and virtue ethical codes. As revealed in this section, Genesis 6:5-13 represents a world engulfed in corruption, prompting reflection on the violation of moral duties and the cultivation of virtuous character qualities amid societal decay. Isaiah 1:4-6 and Micah 3:1-3 underscore the ethical obligations of individuals and leaders, inviting examination of both the breach of moral principles and the cultivation of virtuous dispositions as remedies for systemic corruption and injustice.

Corruption before the flood: Genesis 6:5-13

The narrative of Noah and the Ark in Genesis depicts a world that has become corrupt and violent. Genesis 6:5 states that 'The Lord saw how great the wickedness of the human race had become on the earth and that every inclination of the thoughts of the human heart was only evil all the time'. This piece of biblical evidence mirrors corruption in the context of moral and ethical degradation within human society. It describes a world that has detoured from moral principles, leading to widespread atrocity and violence. The use of the term 'corrupt' in this context does not necessarily refer to financial or political corruption but rather to moral corruption where human behaviour is characterised by evil actions and intentions. This biblical excerpt elucidates a pervasive moral decomposition and departure from ethical values, prompting the necessity for spiritual intervention through the story of Noah and the Ark to restore godliness. From a deontological perspective, this biblical passage underlines the moral duty and obligation to follow spiritual commandments. The statement, 'The Lord saw how great the wickedness of the human race had become' implies a subversion from moral rules and a breach of ethical codes. The deontological perspective additionally asserts that certain actions, driven by evil inclinations, are inherently unprincipled and go against divine commands. In this context, the wickedness described suggests a defilement of moral duties, illuminating the significance of adhering to God's ethical standards. With this in mind, I contend that in contemporary contexts, corruption is understood as the abuse of assigned power for personal gain or the subversion of institutions for unethical purposes, leading to societal destruction and injustice. In contrast to this reality, in biblical contexts, corruption is depicted as a moral failing entrenched in insubordination to supernatural principles, manifesting as a departure from morality and justice, and resulting in a supernatural judgement or societal upheaval. While contemporary understandings of corruption emphasise legal and institutional frameworks, biblical perspectives emphasise spiritual and moral dimensions, underscoring the necessity for both individual integrity and collective accountability in combating corruption. In fact, the aforementioned piece of textual evidence underlines what Woody (2019) posits as follows:

Deviation from divine commandments poses profound dangers, risking moral disorientation and spiritual estrangement. Departing from prescribed ethical guidelines can lead to societal decay, fostering injustice and eroding communal values. Individually, it jeopardises spiritual welfare, fracturing one's connection to a higher moral framework. The consequences may encompass ethical relativism, moral confusion, and a loss of transcendent purpose, plausibly fostering self-centred behaviour. Deviation from divine commandments not only undermines personal virtue but also threatens the moral fabric of communities, eroding the shared foundation that upholds notions of goodness, justice, and compassion. (p. 11)

In other words, travesty from spiritual commandments signifies the peril of moral degeneration, societal erosion and spiritual disconnection, with implications for ethical relativism and misplacement of collective value systems. By the same token, in a virtue ethical framework, the focus is on the development of virtuous character intricacies. Bearing this in mind, I argue that the aforementioned piece of textual evidence underlines a dearth of virtue in human behaviour, depicting a world where 'every inclination of the thoughts of the human heart was only evil all the time'. From a virtue ethical perspective, this underscores a deficiency in virtue ethical codes such as humanity, kindness and justice. Ordinarily, when there is a defect in virtues such as humanity, kindness and justice, it indicates that individuals need to focus on developing these virtues within themselves (Tobin 1986). This involves self-reflection, sometimes known as soul-searching, the intentional practice of virtuous behaviours and a commitment to personal growth. Apart from this claim, virtue ethics encourage individuals to cultivate moral virtue codes and strive towards a congenial balance of character, emphasising that the overall moral health of a community depends on the virtue codes exemplified by its individuals. As a matter of fact, when we use leadership and governance as an example, in contexts where deficiencies in virtues are observed, it raises questions about the ethical conduct of leaders and the effectiveness of governance structures. This suggests that leaders, whether in political, business or other contexts, are expected to exemplify virtues such as justice and consideration. Beyond this view, a lack of these virtues in leadership could lead to a distortion or erasure of trust and legitimacy. That is the reason Tobin (1986:202) cautions that virtue ethics guides individuals to make ethical decisions based on their virtuous character. When virtues such as affinity and justice are lacking, this may indicate that decision-making processes, among other central tenets, need to be re-assessed. This could involve assimilating ethical considerations into decision-making frameworks and encouraging individuals to prioritise virtues in their choices. Conclusively, it is important to note that corruption, as (re)produced in Genesis 6:5-13, leads to God's decision to bring a flood to cleanse the earth. In the Bible, cleansing holds significant symbolic and spiritual meaning, representing purification and absolution. It signifies the removal of sin or impurity, both ceremonially and metaphorically, and serves as a transformative process aligning individuals with divine righteousness (Lee 2023).

In view of this deliberation, one could contend that God's decision to bring a flood indicates punishment. This is on account that punishment from God is recurrently perceived as a supernatural response to human transgressions, reflecting a theological belief in a moral order (Smit 1991). It signifies a consequence for violating prescribed moral or religious principles, serving as a form of correction, retribution or a means to bring individuals or communities back into alignment with a perceived divine will. This concept of punishment varies among religious traditions, encompassing notions of justice, divine mercy and the notion that such punishment ultimately serves a purpose in the spiritual or moral development of individuals and societies (Meer 2018). Over and above this, it is prudent to bear in mind that in some religious perspectives, punishment from God is regarded as a test of faith or a means of purification, challenging individuals to reflect on their actions and pursue redemption (cf. Graybill 2004; Super 2020). This is often interwoven with notions of spiritual wisdom and ultimate justice, reinforcing the idea that the consequences meted out are part of a larger cosmic plan that transcends human understanding. In contemporary contexts, the biblical narrative of corruption before the flood in Genesis 6:5-13 serves as a cautionary tale about the destructive consequences of pervasive moral dwindling and societal corruption. It underlines the shattering effects of pervasive transgression, including violence, injustice and the breakdown of social order. Beyond this view, it underscores the importance of upholding moral values, fostering accountability and striving for decency in order to avert parallel patterns of corruption emerging in contemporary society. In doing so, it emboldens individuals and communities to learn from history and prioritise integrity and justice as essential safeguards against societal decay. In other words, it underscores the interconnectedness between individual moral conduct and the security of society, underlining the collective responsibility to maintain ethical standards and prevent the erosion of social order.

Corruption in Israel: Isaiah 1:4-6

The book of Isaiah comprises passages that censure the corruption and moral decomposition within the nation of Israel. Isaiah 1:4-6 speaks of a sinful and rebellious nation, likening it to a body covered in wounds and bruises: 'Woe to the sinful nation, a people whose guilt is great, a brood of evildoers, children given to corruption! They have forsaken the Lord; they have spurned the Holy One of Israel and turned their backs on him'. This piece of textual evidence vividly denounces and castigates the corruption and moral decomposition within the nation of Israel, using powerful imagery to depict the spiritual and moral state of the people. From a deontological perspective, this passage emphasises the violation of moral duties and spiritual commands. The language of 'Woe to the sinful nation' denotes a moral imperative, underscoring the enormity of the transgressions. The people are accused of deserting the Lord and turning away from the Holy One of Israel, buttressing a breach of ethical principles and a departure from their moral assignments. The deontological inquiry herein underscores the inherent immorality of their actions based on the divine commandments. In contrast to this assertion, in a virtue ethical framework, the emphasis is on the cultivation of virtuous character qualities. In fact, the description of the nation as a 'brood of evildoers' and 'children given to corruption' illuminates a deficiency in virtues such as morality, adhesion and conformity. Virtue ethics embolden individuals to reflect on the state of their character and the virtues they lack, highlighting the importance of a moral transformation to restore the nation's ethical health. Owing to this reality, integrating both theoretical perspectives, this biblical excerpt in Isaiah denounces not only specific actions but also the overall moral and spiritual condition of the nation. The deontological emphasis on spiritual commandments aligns with the virtue ethical concern for cultivating virtues, suggesting that restoration of ethical integrity requires both conformity to moral rules and the development of a virtuous identity. In addition to this fact, it underscores the interplay between individual moral agency and societal welfare, indicating that the cultivation of virtues not only impacts personal character but also contributes to the overall ethical health of the community.

Over and above this claim, this passage mirrors a nation covered in wounds and bruises due to its sinful and rebellious nature. From a deontological standpoint, the consequences are a result of violating moral duties and deserting spiritual ethical codes. In the process of this, it is crucial to observe that virtue ethics highlights the absence of virtues such as devotion and deference, contributing to moral mould. The consequences, in this case, go beyond immediate retribution to reflect a profound spiritual and moral malaise within the community. In view of this fact, it stands to reason to contend that both deontological and virtue ethical perspectives underscore a path to redemption. This is based on the premise that, deontologically, the nation is called to repentance and a return to the Lord's commandments. Having said that, virtue ethics underscore the necessity for a transformation of character, cultivating virtue ethical codes such as integrity and devotion. The call to redemption involves both a change in behaviour and a renewal of the nation's moral character. It is also prudent to bear in mind that, deontologically, individuals are called to uphold their ethical responsibilities and follow divine commands. In parallel to this, virtue ethics stress the significance of individual character development, with each person contributing to the collective virtue of the nation. Bearing this in mind, I argue that in the context of societal corruption, the call to redemption involves not only a change in individual behaviour but also a regeneration of the nation's moral character as a whole. This aligns with the principles of virtue ethics, which emphasise the significance of individual character development in contributing to the collective virtue of the nation. This implies an obligation to act in accordance with moral principles and duties, even in the face of communal corruption. In other words, by fulfilling their ethical duties and following supernatural commands, individuals contribute to the restoration of moral order and the promotion of justice within society. Consequently, both virtue ethical and deontological ethical codes underscore the significance of personal moral honour and ethical responsibility in addressing societal corruption. While virtue ethics focusses on character development and the cultivation of virtues, deontological ethics emphasises adherence to moral duties and spiritual commands. Together, these ethical frameworks provide harmonising approaches to the call for redemption and the transformation of moral character in the face of societal setbacks.

In the context of contemporary ethical challenges, the principle of repentance could be applied to societal acknowledgement and rectification of systemic and institutional challenges. This includes acknowledging historical injustices, addressing ongoing disparities and actively working towards transformative change. Considering this fact, I argue that the call to repentance becomes a call to recognise collective responsibility and commit to dismantling structures that perpetuate injustice. With respect to this, virtue cultivation, as emphasised in the aforementioned biblical passage, holds pertinence for addressing contemporary ethical challenges through the development of ethical leadership. Leaders in various empires, whether in politics, business or civil society, could potentially benefit from a focus on virtues such as integrity, empathy and justice. This means that the cultivation of these virtue ethical codes contributes to more ethical decision-making and governance. Beyond this, the balance of justice and mercy is a central consideration in the context of criminal justice reform. For these reasons, applying deontological principles, there is a call for just consequences for transgression, but virtue ethical codes encourage a compassionate approach that pursues rehabilitation and restoration. For this reason, I contend that striking a balance entails addressing systemic and institutional challenges in the criminal justice system while acknowledging the importance of accountability and rehabilitation for individuals. In particular, the integration of deontological and virtue ethical perspectives is pertinent in the arena of global governance. This indicates that, deontologically, there is a necessity for adherence to international legal frameworks and ethical standards. By the same token, virtue ethical codes inform the cultivation of principles such as global cooperation, affinity and honour for human rights. In a nutshell, the multifaceted exploration of ethical principles is crucial for addressing complex global challenges such as poverty, conflict and public health crises.

Corruption among leaders: Micah 3:1-3

The prophet Micah addresses the corruption among the leaders of Israel. Micah 3:1-3 castigates leaders who 'hate good and love evil' and who exploit their positions for personal expansion, stating:

You who hate good and love evil; who tear the skin from my people and the flesh from their bones; who eat my people's flesh, strip off their skin and break their bones in pieces; who chop them up like meat for the pan, like flesh for the pot.

In this biblical passage, the leaders are implicated in having a perverse moral orientation - they hate what is good and love what is evil. This piece of biblical evidence implies a philosophical moral catastrophe among the leaders, where their values are inverted, leading them to despise what is virtuous and embrace what is immoral. This indictment suggests a corruption of moral character, where those entrusted with authority and responsibility exhibit a depraved moral orientation, prioritising self-interest and immorality over rectitude and justice. Such a portrayal underscores the gravity of ethical lapses among leaders and the detrimental impact of their perverse moral orientation on society as a whole, highlighting the urgent prerequisite for moral regeneration and ethical leadership. In addition to this exposition, by contrasting the leaders' contempt for goodness with their embrace of evil, this biblical excerpt underscores the profound moral responsibility that complements positions of leadership. It serves as a stark reminder of the potential for power to corrupt and the imperative for leaders to prioritise ethical principles and integrity in their decision-making, lest their moral shortcomings lead to widespread impairment and injustice. As a matter of fact, it is clear from this passage that debating leadership challenges is crucial as it advances critical thinking enhances decision-making skills and encourages the exploration of varied perspectives on complex issues. In the process, it promotes innovation, resilience and adaptability in addressing contemporary and future leadership dilemmas, ultimately contributing to effective leadership practices and sustainable organisational success.

It is further crucial to bear in mind that this biblical excerpt sets the stage for comprehending the intensity of their (leaders) corruption and moral mould. The imagery used in this biblical passage is evocative and metaphorical. Phrases such as 'tear the skin from my people' and 'eat my people's flesh' paint a gruesome picture of the leaders' actions. This could be understood metaphorically as the leaders exploit and oppress the vulnerable members of society, taking advantage of their positions for personal gain. This metaphorical exposition underlines the insidious nature of corruption, unmasking how it propagates systemic injustices and exacerbates social imbalances. It emphasises the necessity for ethical leadership and the protection of the subjugated, urging society to confront and address the underlying causes of corruption to ensure justice and equality for all members of society. In the same vein, the imagery of tearing skin, breaking bones and chopping people up like meat for cooking serves to underscore the dehumanising nature of the leaders' actions. This underlines a complete disregard for the welfare and nobility of the people they (leaders) are meant to lead. As a matter of fact, the comparison of the people to meat for the pan and flesh for the pot metaphorically describes how the leaders view and treat the citizens - as commodities to be consumed for their own benefit. This is symbolic of the economic exploitation and social injustice perpetrated by corrupt leaders. Inevitably, this biblical excerpt underscores the social and ethical responsibility of leaders. Rather than protecting and caring for their people, these leaders are (re)produced as actively causing harm and agony. This highlights a profound failure in their role as guardians of justice and promoters of the common good.

From a deontological theoretical standpoint, the leaders' exploitation of their positions for personal gain is a clear violation of moral principles. This is because they have a duty to use their authority for the security of the people, and not for personal enrichment. Having said that, deontology emphasises the inherent value and dignity of individuals. This denotes that individuals possess intrinsic worth and are entitled to deference and moral consideration simply by virtue of being human. This emphasis on the inherent value of individuals underscores the importance of treating others with dignity, objectivity and respect, regardless of their status or circumstances. Deontological ethics thus provides a robust framework for recognising and upholding the rights and autonomy of individuals, emphasising the moral domineering to act in ways that honour and protect their inherent worth and dignity. Conversely, the dehumanising actions described in this biblical excerpt, tearing the skin and breaking bones, directly contradict the duty to treat others with respect and protect their welfare. Leaders, according to the deontological perspective, have a duty to uphold justice and protect the vulnerable, such as women, young girls and children. The leaders in this biblical passage are (re)produced as dwindling in their duty to advance the common good, instead propagating social injustice. On the other hand, from a virtue ethical perspective, leaders should strive to cultivate virtues that corroborate with their roles. This encompasses personal growth and the purposive development of virtuous character traits. Given this context, virtue ethical codes recurrently regard leaders as moral exemplars. The leaders in this biblical passage, however, are depicted as setting a negative example, failing to exemplify the virtues that should epitomise their leadership. One would recall that virtue ethics is concerned not only with individual character but also with the security of the society. On account of this fact, I contend that the corruption depicted in this excerpt disrupts social harmony and goes against the idea of leaders contributing to the flourishing of society. In addition to this claim, the interference of social harmony due to corruption leads to widespread distrust in institutions, weakening the fabric of societal cohesion and undermining the foundation of effective governance. Over and above this, by betraying the confidence placed in them to uphold the common good, corrupt leaders not only fail in their duty to serve the interests of society but also set a harmful precedent that erodes public confidence in leadership and perpetuates a cycle of unethical behaviour.

Therefore, it stands to reason to contend that this disruption of social congruence not only undermines the stability and prosperity of the community but also represents an infidelity of the ethical responsibility entrusted to leaders to govern with integrity and promote the welfare of all members of society. As such, the corruption pronounced in this biblical excerpt stands in direct opposition to the ideals of ethical leadership and the collective flourishing of society, highlighting the profound moral and societal implications of leadership misconduct. In fact, ethical leadership serves as a guiding beacon for future generations, forming societal ethical codes and values by exemplifying integrity, accountability and compassion. During the course, by propagating a culture of corruption, leaders not only sabotage the present welfare of society but also jeopardise its future sustainability and resilience, as trust and cooperation are essential components for addressing collective challenges and nurturing long-term prosperity. In a nutshell, these ethical perspectives illuminate the profound moral implications of the leaders' corruption in the context of Micah 3:1-3, offering different viewpoints to critique the actions of these leaders and the consequences of their ethical shortcomings and failings. The 'Conclusion' section includes important concluding remarks based on this scholarly exposition.

 

Conclusion

The (re)production of corruption in the Bible transcends mere instances of bribery or fraudulent conduct; it encompasses a far-reaching moral and spiritual facet. In biblical terms, corruption signifies a nonconformity from the supernatural hierarchy and ethical principles established by God. Instances of corruption in the biblical narratives range from moral shortcomings and deceit to systemic injustice and exploitation, all established in a departure from moral living. The concept of corruption is interwoven with the biblical understanding of sin and disobedience, emphasising the profound consequences of human actions that deviate from God's purposive moral order. With this in mind, I conclude that understanding corruption in the Bible requires a meticulous examination of the moral complexities entrenched in its ideals and ideologies. The stories of individuals succumbing to greed, deceit and exploitation serve as cautionary tales, illustrating the enduring consequences of moral transgressions. Biblical pieces of textual evidence, such as the narrative of Noah and the flood, among others, depict spiritual responses to corruption, underscoring the gravity of moral deviation and the necessity for contrition.

In contemporary contexts, the biblical understanding of corruption holds relevance for ethical and moral reflections. Beyond legal frameworks, it invites individuals and societies to consider the broader implications of their actions on justice, integrity and compassion. In view of this reality, the biblical narratives serve as a moral compass, encouraging individuals to navigate the complex web of modern setbacks with a commitment to morality and ethical conduct. In addition to this view, the biblical perspectives on corruption offer a foundation for dialogues on social justice and the responsible utilisation of power. It calls for an examination of institutional structures, policies and individual behaviours in light of ethical principles. In closing, in a world grappling with corruption in various forms, the Bible provides timeless discernments into the nature of moral choices, the consequences of corruption, and the enduring call to pursue justice and righteousness. Ultimately, the biblical comprehension of corruption challenges individuals and societies to aspire to higher ethical standards and seek redemptive paths towards a more just and virtuous existence.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.

Author's contribution

M.D. is the sole author of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Mlamli Diko
dikom@unisa.ac.za

Received: 22 Nov. 2023
Accepted: 19 Mar. 2024
Published: 10 June 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

On traumatised mothers and children? Re-reading Lamentations through the lens of trauma

 

 

Zukile Ngqeza

Department of Bibliological Perspectives, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Mafikeng, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 are biblical texts described as 'texts of terror' as well as traumatic biblical texts where 'tender-hearted women have eaten their children' (NLT). As Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 mention a traumatic event, a trauma biblical approach will be utilised to read these biblical texts. The biblical trauma hermeneutics challenges the traditional and judgemental reading of traumatic events as well as the social, cultural and intellectual power of those who tell the stories of the traumatised victims in the Bible and contemporary society. This study will demonstrate the ways in which trauma theory when applied to reading these biblical texts, challenges and subverts the narrator's version of these biblical texts. Ultimately, the mothers in these biblical texts will be presented as victims of biblical collective trauma rather than as mere murderers and eaters of their children.
TRANSDISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This study displays intersections between Psychology and Biblical Studies. In this article, Trauma Theory is used to read and interpret Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10. This study is interdisciplinary because I make use of psychology and trauma scholars to read Old Testament texts.

Keywords: Biblical trauma hermeneutics; trauma theory; Cannibal Mothers; children; Lamentations.

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Introduction

There has been a tendency among Biblical Commentators to ignore cannibal texts of Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10. Many Bible commentaries focus on Lamentations 3 as a poem of hope, while they ignore other poems (chapters 1, 2, 4 and 5) (cf. Harrison 1973:224 & Lalleman 2013:337). Where Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 are attempted to be interpreted, women are often blamed as murderers and eaters of their children. However, reading these biblical texts through the lens of trauma assists in identifying Lamentations as trauma and disaster literature. It considers the so-called cannibal mothers as victims of collective trauma. The trauma approach as part of psychological hermeneutics will be used in reading Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10. Trauma Theory will specifically be utilised in interpreting these biblical texts to subvert judgemental and androcentric interpretations that blame the mothers of these texts as murders instead of victims of trauma and disaster in an exilic context (Janzen 2012:38).

 

Brief history of psychological approach to the Bible

Providing a brief historical overview of the psychological approach to the Bible is vital. When the 20th century had come to an end, three elements were important to the revival of a psychological approach to reading biblical texts, that is, demarcating the field in its entirety, determining and collating the scholarly contributions that have been already published as well as setting up a study group that will write and publish new scholarly work (Rollins 2007:17). This led to the formation of the Psychology and Biblical Studies research unit in the Society of Biblical Literature in 1991. Such a formation was seen as part of a new way of engaging in biblical criticism that began towards the end of the 20th century. Other new forms of biblical criticism included 'ideological, feminist, rhetorical, social-scientific, cultural, and canonical criticism, as well as psychological criticism' (Ellens 2012:21). Wayne Rollins was elected as the chairperson of the Psychology and Biblical Studies research unit and henceforth began a long journey of collaboration in seeing psychological criticism of the Bible emerging in different parts of the world (Rollins 2007:17). Psychological criticism of the Bible sought to go beyond the limits historical-grammatical, literary, archaeological and theological approaches that have been popular in biblical studies for many years (Ellens 2013:21). Thus, such a hermeneutical project included questioning the historical and social context in which biblical texts came from, noting the ways in which biblical interpretations differ because of multiple cultural contexts (of biblical writers and interpreters), identifying 'gender biases in scripture' as well as realising the power of biblical texts in personal and public life (Ellens 2012:21).

Although there has been significant progress in psychological biblical criticism since 1991, there have not been adequate psychological approaches to the biblical texts written from the African perspective. For instance, reading biblical narratives in light of disasters such as the Sharpeville massacre in South Africa. Even though there are a few South African and African-based biblical scholars whose research is on psychological criticism, their work did not reflect on the South African and African context of collective trauma (cf. Van Aarde 2015:481-492 & Viviers 2010:1-7). Often the psychological approach to the Biblical texts is utilised by scholars who are based in America and Europe reflecting on disasters such as Jung and the Holocaust (cf. Ellens 2012). There is a need for a South African and African-centered psychological approach to biblical texts.

 

The trauma approach as a lens to read and interpret Biblical texts

It is important to locate the use of Trauma Theory in biblical studies, not as a new methodology but as a lens for reading and interpreting biblical texts within the auspices of the psychological criticism of the scriptures. Thus, the utilisation of Trauma Theory as a lens for reading and interpreting the devastating texts of the Bible started at the beginning of the 2000s (Garber 2015:24). This does not mean that trauma reading of biblical texts is a new methodology but rather a 'frame of reference, when combined with other methodologies (e.g., psychology, post-structuralism, post-colonialism, refuge studies etcetera) can yield innovative results' (Garber 2015:24). Although Trauma Theory was initially applied in exilic texts and narratives of the Old Testament, it is now being used in reading other parts of the Bible. The experiences of forced migration, displacement, loss of land and the temple, dismemberment and the traumas that surround led Old Testament scholars to consider using Trauma Theory in reading exilic texts. Thus, trauma reading of biblical texts comes from and within the context of psychological criticism of the Bible - Trauma Biblical Approach as part of psychological hermeneutics and not as a separate methodology. Trauma reading of Biblical texts should not be seen as something outside of other approaches and methodologies. The trauma approach is not necessarily a method of interpreting scripture but is an 'interpretative lens' where insights from psychology are used to read and interpret a biblical text. For instance, the book of Ezekiel has examples of episodes that call for the utilisation of the psychological and trauma biblical approach because of the strange actions of the prophet as well as the violence exhibited in the book (Garber 2015:25). Biblical scholars realise that these events and experiences describe the characteristics of trauma and disaster (Frechette 2015:26). In the Old Testament, there are stories of sexual violence, siege, famine and cannibalism. Frechette (2015:26) observes that Lamentations exhibits a picture of individual and collective trauma. Deuteronomic History's Narrative recorded the experiences of Babylonian exile and forced migration of Israelites, which accounts for 'traumatic memories' (cf. 2 Ki 6:24-32). This led some biblical scholars to read such texts through the lens of trauma.

While the need for biblical trauma hermeneutics is realised, Claassens (2021:577) observes that there is a need for the decolonisation of trauma biblical approach. She notes that the strides achieved in postcolonial criticism must be considered when we embark on a trauma biblical approach. For me, in as much as there has been work done on reading biblical traumatic stories in light of calamities that took place in the Western and Eastern world such as the Holocaust and Vietnam War, there is a need to read biblical traumatic events in light of massacres (as far as they affect women and children) that took place in South African as well as other African countries (cf. Ngqeza 2021).

The views from trauma theory can assist biblical scholars in reading and interpreting 'potentially harmful texts' in ways that heal communities (Frechette 2015:20). Reading problematic texts through the lens of trauma further helps in dealing with the challenges faced by trauma and disaster survivors. Thus, it is vital to approach Lamentations as a trauma and disaster literature.

 

Lamentations as a trauma and disaster literature

There is a submission in biblical studies to demarcate Lamentation as trauma and disaster literature. Williamson (2015:8) recognises Lamentations as a book that was written after the experiences of communal and collective trauma. Thus, Lamentations is not so much about individual trauma but is about the trauma of Israelites as a people or nation that suffered forced migration, loss of the land, temple and was in Babylonian exile. It is in the after-effects of collective trauma that the five poems or dirges (funeral songs) were written. Lamentations struggle to articulate a response to the catastrophe that was experienced by the community of God's people after the desolation of Jerusalem by the Babylonian empire in 587 BCE (Williamson 2015:8). According to O'Connor, the 587 siege was more devastating than all the sieges experienced in the world of the Old Testament and that this siege occurred over a couple of years and led to many young and old people dying because of hunger while a legion of men died in the war. Lee (2008:34) also agrees with O'Connor (2002:27) by noting that the poems of Lamentations were possibly written during the devastating event that took place between 597 and 586 BCE in ancient Israel. Hence, Garber (2015:29) also argues that Lamentations must be read as survivor literature.

Linafelt (2000b:18) defines survival literature as 'literature produced in the aftermath of a major catastrophe and its accompanying atrocities by survivors of that catastrophe'. Thus, Lamentations could be the work of a person or people who witnessed and survived the catastrophe of the destruction of Jerusalem and the forced migration of Israelites. This could be the reason it is written in poetic form rather than as prose.

Reading Lamentations as survival literature is to recognise that it is the work of the traumatised poet(s) writing about the experiences of ancient Israelites in the face of the 'traumatizing God' (cf. Lm 1 and 2) (Linafelt 2000b:18). Thus, Linafelt (2000a:267) warns us from 'surviving' the book of Lamentations by focussing more on the few words of hope in chapter 3 or over-highlighting the questions of theodicy that rise in the book. The poems in Lamentations are more concerned with how suffering is expressed rather than with seeking to explain its (suffering) meaning. Lamentations disturb 'the reader's theology or notions of how religious language should sound' (Linafelt 2000a:267). For instance, in Lamentations 2, Daughter Zion blames God for the forced removal and disaster that Israelites were facing. She needs Yahweh to reply regarding Israel's forced migration and famine experienced by women and their children (Lm 2:20 & 4:10). This can lead biblical scholars to avoid this book or only deal with chapter 3 of Lamentations as this chapter exhibits hope rather than lament.

O'Connor (2008:27) considers Lamentations as possibly the poems of the survivors who were in besieged and occupied Jerusalem. Thus, five poems that make the book of Lamentations exhibit words and images of 'loss, of outrage, of desires for revenge' except for chapter 3 where hope appears (O'Connor 2008:27). Furthermore, Lamentations offers an invitation to the reader to see and witness these traumatic images and voices (O'Connor 2008:30). Lamentations is composed of the genre of lament. Lament as a genre is not unique to ancient Israel; it was initially performed on various occasions in the Near East (Lee 2008:34).

Middlemas (2019:345) also concurs that the poems of Lamentations were written after the disastrous fall of the city of Jerusalem. including the 'destruction of the city's infrastructure including the royal palace, the temple, and the razing of the city walls, the loss of the Davidic king, the deportation' as well as the immigration of many people to Babylon. Many people became refugees to nearby countries while their cities and homes were destroyed. These are the reasons for Middlemas (2019:245) to view Lamentations as disaster literature. However, for many years, the status of Lamentations as a disaster and trauma literature has not been taken seriously by Bible commentators. In my view, approaching Lamentations as trauma and disaster literature has the potential of going beyond 'meaning making' into appreciating the storytelling of survivors who invite us to see the pain and trauma of God's people in Lamentations. Furthermore, trauma subverts the versions of biblical narrators who tell traumatic events in a non-traumatic language (Janzen 2012). In the following section, I explore how Bible commentators have read and interpreted Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10.

 

Recent discussions on Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10

It is helpful to look at how Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 have been read by Bible commentators. Whether Bible commentators considered the trauma surrounding the Cannibal mothers and their children (during the Babylonian empire) is an issue to be explored. Linafelt (2000a:269) notes the possibility of the effect of the interpreter's gender during the process of interpreting the biblical text. He further notes that as most Old Testament scholars are men, it is possible that there would be androcentric biases in their reading of the maternal cannibal texts of Lamentations. Often these Biblical scholars read Lamentations in ways that preserve the 'ideological core' rather than showing the 'lament' of the poems on issues of war, forced migration and famine, as well as the trauma of considering eating your own child. When trauma is not considered, women are blamed as murderers and eaters of their own children.

Harrison (1973:223) observes that Lamentations 2:18 introduces the sudden thematic transition by the 'author calling on the distraught city to make supplication to God'. The poet calls Jerusalem to cry unto the Lord. Harrison (1973:224) notes the value of tears as a 'profoundly therapeutic activity' during times of sorrow. I find Harrison going beyond just 'surviving' Lamentations by rushing into the hope that is found in chapter 3. But this approach is short lived, at least in Harrison (1973:224). He acknowledges the death of children because of hunger. Hence, Zion appeals to Yahweh as even mothers had to eat their children. Harrison does not question the fact that it is mothers who have to eat their children. He (Harrison 1973:225) generalises by arguing that 'the extremes to which the capital had been reduced seem implied by the reference to cannibalism'. For Harrison (1973:225), it is 'the Hebrews' (and not women or mothers) who considered cannibalism 'as a last desperate resort' after there were no longer food supplies. It is also interesting to observe that Harrison (1973:225) speaks of extreme conditions that led to cannibalism instead of 'child or maternal cannibalism'. Harrison (1973:224-225) avoids the gender and age aspects of Lamentations 2:20. His comments on this biblical text are androcentric (male centered) and adult centred. He also does not consider the trauma of a caring mother considering eating their child. It is also intriguing that Harrison (1973: 224-225) does not question the absence of fathers of the 'eaten' children in this text. Regarding Lamentations 4:10, where it is said 'The tender-hearted women have cooked their own children. They have eaten them to survive the siege' (NLT). Harrison does not say anything much except to say that this text was a fulfilment of Deuteronomy 28:53. It was, therefore, a result of a broken covenant by the Israelites.

Lalleman (2013:337) does not say anything regarding the social positioning of women and children in this text. He does not mention any trauma aspects as this text was in the context of siege, forced migration and extreme poverty. Instead, Lalleman (2013:337) notes that Lamentations 2:20 is the same horrible and shocking situation mentioned in 2 Kings 6:24-29 where two women bid to eat their children because of siege and hunger. Like Harrison (1953:225), Lalleman (2013:351) also argues that the idea that women ate their children in Lamentations 4:10 is a fulfilment of the curse mentioned in Deuteronomy 28:53-57 because of disloyalty to the law of Yahweh. Lalleman (2013:351) further makes two observations regarding Lamentations 2-4:10. He argues that there are two ways in which people die under the circumstances of hunger. Firstly, hunger has the ability to kill people. Secondly, people kill each other in situations of hunger; hence, women 'have cooked their own children and eaten them'. I find two problems with Lalleman's submissions on Lamentations 4:10. Firstly, he is confusing in the sense that on one hand, he regards this text as a fulfilment of Deuteronomy 4:53-57. On the other hand, he regards maternal cannibalism in this text as part of how 'people kill one another' in circumstances of hunger. Furthermore, Lalleman labels the mothers of this text as those who kill and eat their children simply because people kill each other in situations of hunger. Lalleman does not consider the trauma that these women were facing and the possibility that true cannibals in these biblical texts may be those who created conditions of siege, forced migration and poverty.

It is interesting to observe that Dearman (2002:379-382) says nothing about Lamentations 2:20 in his exposition of the second chapter. Regarding Lamentations 4:10, Dearman (2002:394) notes the terrible 'changes that had happened to families with children' as a result of the Babylonian siege. This led to children begging for food in the streets (Lm 4:4). When it comes to women eating their own children in Lamentations 4:10, Dearman (2002:394) further notes that 'the emotional impact can hardly be overestimated'. He does not say anything further.

Smith (2006:17) accuses the mothers of Lamentations 2:20 as part of the Jewish people who 'sank into the lowest kind of human behaviour, cannibalism' because of being punished by Yahweh. For Smith (2006:17), the dire situation was calling on Yahweh to 'intervene when men are driven to the point of consuming one another'. I find Smith, too, ignoring the gender, age as well as trauma aspects of these biblical texts. These texts are not about 'men consuming one another' as he states but about women who are pushed to the social and economic periphery to the point that they have to face the trauma of considering eating their children. Regarding Lamentations 4:10, Smith (2006:27) argues that because of poverty and hunger these mothers 'have forgotten their maternal affection'. He further argues that their survival strategy was to cook and eat their children (Smith 2006:27). It seems that Smith blames women as those who feed on the flesh of their children without looking at the circumstances of war, forced deportation, siege, poverty, and how such events are traumatic.

 

Defining trauma theory and how it helps us read biblical traumatic events

Trauma comes from a Greek word that denotes 'wound' (Eyerman 2013). In health sciences, trauma is:

[U]nderstood as a wound inflicted not upon the body but upon the mind - a wound inflicted by an emotional shock so powerful that it breaches the mind's experience of time, self and the world and eventually manifests itself in dreams and flashbacks. (p. 43)

Thus, an event, conceptually, is regarded as traumatic not only because of its strongness or dangerousness but 'because it is unthinkable' and therefore cannot be comprehended simply (Eyerman 2013:42).

The relationship between trauma and memory is concerning. It appears that trauma has the potential to destroy memory. Trauma comes with the suppression of memory that can arouse the symptoms This does not mean that traumatic events did not take place but rather Eyerman (2013:42) indicates that they 'overwhelm and against which the mind and the body must defend itself'. Eyerman (2013:42) further argues that despite the numbness (a situation where the ability to feel pain is for a short while missing), 'amnesia and repression are defences of the mind against such an intrusion'. Thus, the victim of trauma forgets or refuses to believe or remember that the traumatic event happened. This forgetting or refusal to remember a traumatic event by the victim may not last forever as the event may come back whether in dreams or somewhat different ways. It is therefore clear that there is a relationship between trauma and memory and that trauma as an 'unthinkable' event cannot be explained understood and explained in simple terms.

Regarding reading and interpreting traumatic events, Bistoen et al. (2014:839) argue that the traumatic event cannot be understood entirely from within the interpretive background that is present at the moment of its occurrence. Thus, the 'traumatic truth' cannot be understood by using the intellect and memory. This is important as traumatic experiences 'destroy the symbolic identity of the affected person' (Bistoen et al. 2014:839). Trauma invites readers and interpreters to a new way of seeing which, is different from the interpretive methods and cognitive framework that preceded the event. One cannot interpret trauma events in the same way as they do to non-traumatic circumstances.

In terms of trauma and biblical interpretation, Groenewald (2018:804) observes that trauma smashes and destroys all frameworks of interpreting texts (whether it is biblical or not). This causes a predicament for theologians and biblical scholars who have the task of interpreting the tragic experiences of people. Commitment to following traditional exegetical steps scholars follow and use in the process of interpreting non-traumatic texts is challenged by trauma. This further poses a challenge to a kind of theology or biblical scholarship that considers itself a 'meaning-making enterprise' (Groenewald 2018:804). Thus, trauma destroys the ability to strive to make meaning and sense in our theologising and interpreting biblical texts. Trauma is beyond the violent event in the past, but it is 'what remains' (Rambo 2010:15). It is the pain that remains after the traumatic event. This is the new world in which trauma invites its survivors, interpreters and communicators. The suffering of trauma cannot be properly explained in discourse and literary means that are clear. For Groenewald (2018:806), when Lamentations and Jeremiah are read as trauma and disaster narratives what matters not so much what is said but mostly what is not said by biblical narrators and commentators. Thus, in many instances, there is a tendency to jump into hope and happy-ending biblical passages while ignoring the pain and suffering biblical communities suffered especially in the exilic and post-exilic contexts. Using trauma theory provides bible interpreters with a language and approach to reading and interpreting biblical events of trauma and disaster. In the next section, I will apply trauma theory to read and interpret Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10.

 

Applying trauma theory in Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10

Applying trauma theory in reading Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 needs a biblical exegete to acknowledge these poems as trauma and disaster literature. These biblical texts must be understood as a presentation of pain. Thus, a move from mere interpretation to the presentation of pain in these biblical texts is necessary (Linafelt 2000b:43). Seeking to interpret Lamentation texts without acknowledging the trauma and the pain exhibited in these texts will lead to judgemental interpretations where Daughter Zion, the cannibal mothers are blamed as murders instead of victims. Thus, the victims and survivors of trauma are often blamed that they are suffering as a result of the sin they have committed. This is what the poet does in Lamentations 1:1-11. The poet blames Daughter Zion for her suffering.

There is a tendency to read the maternal cannibal texts of the Old Testament (and in this case, Lm 2:20 and 4:10) to interpret the meaning of mothers eating their children. Often these interpreters want to establish whether these mothers are guilty of being murderers and eaters of their children. They have no intention to 'see' from the perspective of Zion and her children as victims as well as the trauma and disaster survivors. Yet, what the trauma and disaster survivor needs is for Yahweh and the reader 'to see' instead of seeking 'meaning' (cf. Lm 1:9c & 1:12c). That is evident in Lamentations 1:9. In Lamentations 1 and 2, the poet sees Daughter Zion's suffering as a result of her guilt while Daughter Zion asks for Yahweh to 'see and pay attention' (cf. 1:9c, 1:11c, and 2:20). There is an invitation for Yahweh and the reader to see the suffering 'in the words of Zion' (Linafelt 2000b:44). Daughter Zion seeks solidarity and attention from Yahweh rather than forgiveness as resistance to the poet's view that she is suffering because of her guilt.

There are indeed various interpretations for Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 but what trauma theory helps us with is to value Daughter Zion's 'presentation of pain as pain rather than as the raw material for ruminations on guilt' (Linafelt 2000b:44). While Daughter Zion asks Yahweh to see and pay attention to her pain, the reader is also invited to see the pain of Daughter Zion and her children as 'pain' rather than statements that affirm her guilt and the need of repentance. The trauma approach to reading these biblical texts calls biblical scholars to the posture of solidarity rather than that of being judgemental. The trauma approach enables biblical scholars to see the mothers and children of Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 as victims and survivors rather than as perpetrators.

O'Connor presents several interpretations of these biblical texts. Firstly, it is possible that the mothers contributed to cannibalism to 'feed other starving children' (O'Connor 2002:62). Secondly, these mothers may have cooked children who were already dead to provide food for surviving children (O'Connor 2002:62). Thirdly, Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 may be 'symbolic fulfillment of a curse in Deuteronomy 28:53-57' where both mothers and children would as a result of a curse eat their children (O'Connor 2002:62-63). Furthermore, O'Connor is concerned that fathers are not mentioned in these cannibal texts. This may mean that men left women and children dealing with the aftermath of trauma while they (men) ran away. The argument posed by this study is that whatever interpretation one may lean towards, these poems do not provide us with sufficient proof and information for a reader to decide. They do not even give an inadequate account of the suffering women and children may have faced while men were absent. Thus, the trauma approach helps us to see the pain of these mothers and children as a reflection of communal pain in the face of empire, forced migration, dehumanisation and defeated society. That even 'tenderhearted' [רחמנית] women are said to have boiled and eaten their children is confirmation of collective trauma suffered by women and children. It is a call for the reader to 'see and pay attention'.

 

Implications of trauma and memory for reading and interpreting Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10

The relationship between trauma theory and memory has implications for utilising trauma to read Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10. For instance, the American Psychiatric Association mentions a variety of symptoms that relate to traumatic circumstances. These symptoms include 'recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the traumatic events, recurrent dreams in which the content and/or effect of the dream are related to the traumatic events' (American Psychiatric Association 2013:271). Often the memories of the traumatic event will replay in the mind of the victim whether through dreams and/or nightmares. It is also possible for the victim to seek to avoid being among 'people, places, conversations, objects, situations' that would remind them of the traumatic events they have experienced (American Psychiatric Association 2013:271). Furthermore, the victim of trauma experiences an 'inability to remember an important aspect of the traumatic events' (American Psychiatric Association 2013:271). The 'inability to remember' should not be understood as a result of brain damage, drunkenness or drug abuse that sometimes the victim consumes after experiencing trauma (American Psychiatric Association 2013:271). But it is many times a consequence of 'dissociate amnesia' (American Psychiatric Association 2013:271). Thus, forgetting (especially the important parts of the traumatic events) is part of the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). To tell the stories of traumatised is very complex, but it does not mean that the traumatic event did not occur. The trauma approach does not deny or question the stories of the traumatised people and communities. Instead, it questions the accurateness of the narrator's version including that of the poet of Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10. If trauma theory includes forgetting, avoidance of 'external reminders' as well as exaggerating, we cannot take the versions of the narrators and poets of trauma stories as truth. This is important if we are aware of the social, cultural and intellectual power of those who tell the stories of traumatised people and communities.

Therefore, when Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 are read from a biblical trauma approach, there is a possibility that the mothers of these biblical texts under the stress or anxiety of the trauma of siege-related hunger and poverty could not think rationally anymore and consequently opted to eat their children. The traumatic situation of these mothers influenced their memory of good parental behaviour. In other words, trauma had a destructive impact on the ability of these mothers to act motherly to their children.

There is a tendency to judge the mothers of these biblical texts on whether their actions were right or wrong. Both Janzen (2012:59) and Rambo (2010:10) argue that traumatic events disturb and destroy the language of morality and meaning-making in storytelling. Thus trauma as a social category renders meaning-making as indescribable and inarticulate. (Li et al. 2020:260). This is the reason the narratives of trauma cannot be interpreted by employing a 'language of morality' that is used in non-traumatic texts. A biblical exegete cannot use a 'right or wrong' approach to read traumatic events as far as choices and actions made by trauma victims as well as survivors (cf. Gobodo-Madikizela 2012:258). Therefore, using this aspect of trauma studies in reading Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 implies that the actions of the so-called cannibal mothers (at least in the version of the narrator) cannot be seen as good or bad. Such a category (of good or bad) does not fit in these traumatic poems simply because trauma destroys the language of morality and meaning-making. Using ethical language in reading these biblical texts leads to judgemental and androcentric interpretations.

 

Conclusion

Using the trauma approach in reading and interpreting these texts helps demonstrate how traumatic texts are complex and open to a variety of interpretations. Reading Lamentations 2:20 through the lens of trauma assists in resisting judgemental and androcentric interpretations of these texts that label mothers as mere murderers and eaters of their children. The trauma approach helps to see the mothers of Lamentations 2:20 and 4:10 as victims of collective trauma in a besieged city. This interpretive lens helps us doubt whether the mothers really ate their children while it is open to other interpretations that acknowledge the ways in which traumatic events are complex.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

Z.N. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article complies with the ethical standards of research and does not contain any studies involving human participants performed by the author.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Zukile Ngqeza
zukile.ngqeza@nwu.ac.za

Received: 15 Apr. 2024
Accepted: 14 May 2024
Published: 12 June 2024

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Ecological crisis and the church: A proposal for biblical stewardship as a nexus for environmental protection

 

 

Christopher Magezi

Department of Missiology, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Mahikeng, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

There is a growing global concern for environmental issues, and stakeholders, including governments, are trying to address the situation in various ways. However, not many churches are involved in climate change endeavours, regardless of the prevalence of eco-theologies that challenge them to act as responsible custodians of God's creation. Given this, the aim of this article was to propose and discuss biblical stewardship as a nexus for environmental protection. This literature-based study reviewed existing studies on the current ecological concerns. The study investigated how various stakeholders, including the World Council of Churches (WCC), as a representative voice of many churches, were combating environmental degradation. Further, the article discussed stewardship from a biblical redemptive historical approach, so as to challenge the Church and, consequently, Christians to start partaking in environmental protection initiatives, or continue to do so. The article concluded by advancing that if the Church adheres to its holistic mission, instead of solely focussing on evangelism, it would be possible for society to practise sustainable environmental management.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article focussed on current ecological crisis and Church responses. It discussed the concept of biblical stewardship from systematic and missional theological perspectives, so as to stimulate the Church to join other stakeholders in seeking ways to address the pervasive environmental concerns. The article contributed to environmental discourse by examining the existing literature on the current ecological concerns and evaluating various stakeholders' efforts in combating related disaster.

Keywords: God; ecosystem; environment; biblical stewardship; global warming; climate change; climate-related disasters; World Council of Churches; Church responses to environmental concerns; Christocentric ethics.

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Introduction and study background: Terrain sketch and problem identification

There is no doubt that some faith communities across the world are contributing to the local, national and global efforts to address the current ecological crisis. The Church is viewed as an integral part of the society that cannot afford to ignore multi-layered effects of climate change and global warming. For instance, in a document titled Climate change: A challenge to the churches in South Africa, the South African Council of Churches (SACC) (2009:16-17) recognises the existing global Christian responses to climate change. Firstly, it states that some congregations in South Africa and other parts of the world have introduced earth keeping concerns in their services (i.e., the World Environment Day on 05 June) and other diverse facets of worship. Secondly, the idea of an 'eco-congregation', which began in some United Kingdom (UK) churches, is now being adopted by certain congregations in South Africa and other parts of the world. Thirdly, some of these churches have introduced earth keeping projects, such as tree planting, water harvesting, organic vegetable gardens, recycling, indigenous church gardens and graveyard campaigns. The projects include the following (SACC 2009):

[O]utdoor youth and family activities to promote the love of nature, nature conservation projects focusing on habitat, wildlife or indigenous plants, job creation projects in the field of appropriate technology, the development of teaching material and networks to communicate such work to others. (pp. 16-17)

Notwithstanding the above-mentioned responses, it is apparent that many churches are not doing much to combat climate change and global warming. This point is validated by the SACC (2009), which affirms that:

There may be some who suppose that climate change is scarcely on the agenda of the church, that Christians are 'silent' on climate change and that virtually nothing is being done in this regard. In many respects such assumptions are probably valid, also in South Africa. (p. 16)

The above assertion is echoed by Cock (1992:174), who bemoaned that churches were not practically contributing towards alleviating the ecological crisis. Even at that material time, this was a worrisome development, since the Church had a robust and well-organised grassroots presence, which had the potential to promote environmental literacy, but not much came from it (Cock 1992:174).

The fact that Christians are the best-placed grassroots stakeholders, who can make a significant impact on ecological care, is now substantiated by the Pew Research Centre, which is a think tank on demographics and world religions (Pew Research Centre 2017). In respective order, Christianity and Islam are projected to remain as the dominant world religions in the next four decades (Pew Research Centre 2017). Hence, the collective efforts of the entire Church can be used as a leverage for combatting environmental crisis. Kabongo and Stork's (2022:1) empirical study reveals that many members of African Independent and Pentecostal Churches in Limpopo province acknowledged the effects of climate change in their immediate surroundings; however, they did not know of any pro-environmental communal activities. Moreover, their respective churches themselves did not have any eco-theological doctrines or programmes.

In the context of Kenya, Kiariei (2020:1ff) reports that churches are not actively involved in addressing ecological crisis, in spite of having made significant social, economic and political contributions to society since independence in 1963 and in the 1990s. This is rather worrisome, especially when one considers environmental care as a divine mandate and core mission of the Church.

Zaleha and Szasz (2015) conducted a research in the United States of America (USA) and its findings mirror the Kenyan experience, which was described by Kabongo and Stork (2022). In terms of climate change-related issues, American Christians had split voices (Zaleha & Szasz 2015). The study established that mainline protestants and Roman Catholics clearly supported the efforts to curb climate change and global warming, while some prominent Southern Baptist and Evangelical Protestants harboured anti-environmental sentiments (Zaleha & Szasz 2015). Zaleha and Szasz (2015) capture these divergent views as follows:

American Christians have become increasingly polarized on issues of climate change and environmental regulation. In recent years, mainline Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church have made explicit declarations of support for global climate action. Prominent Southern Baptists and other evangelical Protestants, on the other hand, have issued statements that are strikingly similar to the talking points of secular climate skeptics, and have attempted to stamp out 'green' efforts within their own ranks. An analysis of resolutions and campaigns by evangelicals over the past 40 years shows that anti-environmentalism within conservative Christianity stems from fears that 'stewardship' of God's creation is drifting toward neo-pagan nature worship, and from apocalyptic beliefs about 'end times' that make it pointless to worry about global warming. (p. 19)

Based on the above quotation, one can argue that American congregations and denominations definitely have polarised views on environmental issues. This shows that the American Church even still plays a peripheral role in related public discussions and debates. Thus, the lack of Church involvement in environmental protection discourse, as observed by the SACC (2009), Cock (1992), Kabongo and Stork (2022), Kiariei (2020), and Zaleha and Szasz (2015) may be indicative of the fact that congregations across the globe are experiencing similar challenges in this respect. Regrettably, this is worrisome, especially when one is cognisant of the existence of various eco-theologies that were developed by various theologians and scholars, such as Van Schalkwyk (2013), Mpofu (2021), Orr (n.d.), Balcomb (2019), Resane (2021), Kavunga (2022), and many others.

At this juncture, one major question that can be asked is: why does the Church show such little concern to environmental issues if there is extant literature on eco-theology? In response, one may argue that although there are many issues that cause the Church to seem uninterested in issues related to environmental care and protection, there is an urgent need for an unambiguous theological thrust in this regard (cf. Balcomb 2019:1; Kabongo & Stork 2022:1; McKnight 2020; SACC 2009:16). There are very few churches that have adopted eco-theology as a dominant topic, either in doctrine or practice (Kabongo & Stork 2022). For instance, in reference to the American context, McKnight (2020) helpfully observes that some congregations and denominations in the US show very little concern for environmental issues, because of the lack of proper theology to stimulate participation in that endeavour. McKnight (2020) further notes that:

Most churches seemingly show very little regard for environmental issues as a concern for serious thinking Christians. Environment is not found in most books about the Christian life or discipleship studies. It's not part of our 'introduction' to what Christians believe. (n.p.)

In the South African context, the above observation is echoed by Kabongo and Stork (2022:1) in their article titled African-initiated churches and environmental care in Limpopo, South Africa: A missional enquiry. The study discovered that many members of the African Independent and Pentecostal Churches in Limpopo province had knowledge about the effects of climate change in their immediate surroundings, but they did not know of any related communal activities, since none of their ministries had adopted eco-theology. Likewise, Balcomb (2019) avows that:

There has been a hot debate around Christianity's complicity in environmental destruction for some fifty years. The reasons are mainly to do with the so-called dominion mandate in the book of Genesis and the propensity for Christianity to 'disenchant' the environment, that is rid it of spiritual agency. …In the African context there are signs that the Christian mission continues to have negative effects on the environment, and this raises the question of what would constitute an appropriate African Christian theology of the environment. (p. 1)

Indeed, the above citation clearly demonstrates that the lack of church-driven environmental activism needs to be scripturally interrogated consistently. Regardless of the prevailing status quo, Christians have the potential to offer significant contributions to environmental care, since they constitute the majority of the global population (cf. Pew Research Centre 2017).

Thus, in corroboration with extant eco-theologies that stimulate faith communities to respond to the current ecological crisis, this article proposes and discusses biblical stewardship as a nexus for environmental protection. Thus, the first section reviews pertinent literature that provides a global overview of the underlying issues that cause climate-related disasters, which have far-reaching consequences for humanity and the ecosystem. The second section establishes the Church's response to ecological crisis by reviewing the World Council of Churches' (WCC) responses to environmental issues. The ecumenical body comprises 352 ministries that have a joint membership of 580 million Christians in more than 120 countries (WCC 2023b). Although the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) and some Independent and Pentecostal Churches are not members of the WCC (Brunn 2001:70; Cloud 2013; Raiser 1997:92-93; Tulun 2020:1), the organisation is still the largest international body of churches (cf. Cloud 2013; Tulun 2020:1). In support of the foregoing argument, Tulun (2020) advances that the WCC is:

[T]he most extensive and inclusive ecumenical movement [organisation] in the world; a movement that calls for Christian unity. Christian unity, according to the WCC, should not be understood as the creation of a world church above all other churches. For the WCC, Christian unity is about cooperation and solidarity amongst Christians in issues relevant to Christians around the world. (pp. 1, 7 cf. Oxley 2010)

In light of the foregoing assertion, this article provides a global overview of how different WCC-affiliated churches and their members respond to the unfolding global ecological crisis. In the third section, the article utilises a biblical redemptive historical approach¹ to examine Scripture and, subsequently, proposes and discusses the concept of biblical stewardship, which is grounded in the gospel of Christ, as a nexus for Christian-centred environmental protection (cf. Padgett 2021). The concept of biblical stewardship challenges the entire body of Christ to start or continue getting involved in environmental protection initiatives. The paper concludes by advancing that if the Church adheres to its holistic mission, instead of solely focussing on evangelism, sustainable environmental management would be a possibility.

 

An overview of the current environmental crisis and challenges

Defining ecosystem

In the term ecosystem, the prefix eco means part of the world, while system refers to coordinating units (Balasubramanian 2008:1). Thus, an ecosystem is an operational unit of environment that comprises all living organisms and their products, which interact among themselves, as well as with their surrounding physical environment (Balasubramanian 2008). The preceding explanation denotes that an ecosystem consists of living and non-living things. The ecosystem of living things includes animals, microorganisms, plants, bacteria, fungi and their waste products, like fallen leaves or branches or excreta, while non-living things include ponds, dams, rivers, seas, forests, and grasslands (Balasubramanian 2008:2).

Many environmentalists regard the whole biosphere as a global ecosystem that consists of all the local ecological units on earth; therefore, it is too diverse and complex to understand. Because of this, some scholars find it convenient to divide the biosphere into two basic categories namely, the terrestrial and the aquatic (Samadhiya 2024; Brutas n.d.; cf. Balasubramanian 2008:2). Grasslands, deserts and forests are good examples of terrestrial ecosystems, while ponds, lakes, wetlands and estuaries are examples of aquatic ecosystems (cf. Samadhiya 2024). According to Samadhiya (2024), an aquatic ecosystem exists in water, while a terrestrial one exists on land. Dams, croplands, gardens, parks or aquariums are considered as man-made ecosystems (Balasubramanian 2008:1). Given this, one would concur with Balasubramanian (2008:1) and Samadhiya's (2024) affirmations that ecosystems can be broadly categorised as natural or artificial, which can either be land or water-based.

A global overview of the causes and consequences of climate change

Having defined an ecosystem as a functional unit of organisms and their physical environment that are mutually interactive and dependent on each other, it follows that the term refers to 'the environment of life that is self-sustaining, structural and functional unit of biosphere' (Balasubramanian 2008:1; Green Infrastructure-Austin n.d.). However, although an ecosystem can be self-existent, it is important to acknowledge that it has potential benefits for humankind (Green Infrastructure-Austin n.d.:1). Thus, when people 'directly or indirectly use the environment and products from it', it is clear that they are receiving essential services from the ecosystem (Green Infrastructure-Austin n.d.). Examples of ecosystem products include food, lumber, minerals, clean water and fibre (Green Infrastructure-Austin n.d.). On the other hand, non-product services include: 'water purification, waste treatment and intangible elements, such as oxygen from the trees, recreation and beauty, thus, an ecosystem benefit is the human valuation of its service' (Green Infrastructure-Austin n.d.). The fact that humankind benefits from the ecosystem in various ways, as indicated above, is a clear indication that humans have the responsibility to care for the ecosystem, so that they can realise the full potential of the benefits and services that emanate from the environment.

Nonetheless, while human beings derive product and non-product benefits from the ecosystem services, they evidently pose serious threats to it (Green Infrastructure-Austin n.d.:1-25). This paradox is amplified by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2024), which notes that human actions trigger environmental degradation, as highlighted by the following examples:

• Humans use an equivalent of 1.6 earths to maintain their current way of life and ecosystems cannot keep up with our demands.

• One million of the world's estimated 8 million species of plants and animals are threatened with extinction.

• Seventy-five per cent of the earth's land surface, including 85% of wetland areas, have been significantly altered by human actions.

• Sixty-six per cent of ocean area is impacted by human activities, such as fishing and pollution.

• Close to 90% of the world's marine fish stocks are fully exploited, over-exploited or depleted.

• Our global food system is the primary driver of biodiversity loss, with agriculture alone putting 24 000 of the 28 000 species at risk of extinction.

• Agricultural expansion accounts for 70% of the projected loss of terrestrial biodiversity.

United Nations Environment Programme (2024) further indicates the impact of environmental degradation because of the abovementioned human activities, which worsen climate change, and consequently undermine food security, thereby subjecting many people and communities to famine. The below-mentioned aspects demonstrate the far-reaching negative consequences of poor environmental management:

• Around 3.2 billion people, or 40% of the global population, are adversely affected by land degradation.

• Up to $577b in annual global crop production is at risk of pollinator loss.

• Twenty-five per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions are generated by land clearing, crop production and fertilisation.

• Development is putting animals and humans in closer contact, thereby increasing the risk of diseases like coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). About 60% of human infections are estimated to have originated from animals.

• About 100 to 300m people are at increased risk of floods and hurricanes, because of coastal habitat loss.

• Declines in nature and biodiversity at current trajectories will undermine progress towards 35 out of 44 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targets that are related to poverty, hunger, health, water cities, climate, oceans and land (UNEP 2024).

Having established the abovementioned consequences, it is imperative to highlight that each country and local community should look after small and large functional ecosystem units, in order to receive full services and benefits from the ecosystem. Nonetheless, as noted above, instead of looking after these various parts of the ecosystems, human beings are involved in activities that damage the environment, thus, culminating in climate change and associated disasters or events that are catastrophic to both humanity and the ecosystem itself (cf. Earthjustice 2022; Robinson 2024). Robinson (2024) rightly contends that, although UNEP (2024) identifies many causes and consequences of nature loss, it is ostensible that the burning of fossil fuels is the leading cause of climate change and global warming across the globe. In turn, these two phenomena result in extremely high temperatures and rainfall on regular bases. High rainfall causes floods, which wipe away crops and create land degradation.

Climate change is also characterised by tropical storms and hurricanes, which also pose threats to food security. On the other hand, high temperatures bring extreme heat waves and wildfires, as was the case in some European countries (Atmosphere Monitoring Services 2023) and parts of US² in 2023, which was reported as the hottest year on record (Robinson 2024). According to Robinson (2024), global average temperatures were at 1.46C in 2023:

[A]bove pre-industrial levels and 0.13C higher than the eleven-month average for 2016, currently the warmest calendar year on record. The year was marked by six record-breaking months and two record-breaking seasons. This steady annual increase is a 'direct result of human activity', mainly from the burning of fossil fuels for transportation and electricity generation but also from cement manufacturing, deforestation, and agriculture. (n.p.)

It is important to note that Africa is not immune to the consequences of climate change and global warming, such as increased poverty, food insecurity and famine, which many African countries are already experiencing (Feedback Madagascar n.d.). For instance, Madagascar is considered as the third most vulnerable nation, given that a large portion of its population lives on subsistence farming; thus, it faces the devastating realities of climate change daily (Feedback Madagascar n.d.). Although developed countries, including the US, are the largest contributors to climate change, because of transportation and electricity generation (Earthjustice 2022; Robinson 2024), it is unfortunate that the consequences of climate change mostly affect countries like Madagascar, which have the 'tiniest of carbon footprints contributing to global warming' (Feedback Madagascar n.d.). Madagascar is currently prone to the following consequences of climate change:

[I]ncreased temperatures, droughts, cyclones, landslides, deforestation, flooding, devastation of crops, land and infrastructure, increased pests and crop diseases, e.g. locust plagues, unpredictable and unreliable seasons, leaving farmers unsure when to plant and what to plant, leaving farmers and the people of Madagascar cut off from supplies, markets and communications, resulting in price hikes in basic foodstuffs. (Feedback Madagascar n.d.)

Reliefweb (2023a), in the following citation, paints a vivid picture of the disasters that Madagascar experienced in 2023, because of climate change:

Intense rainfall caused by two different tropical weather systems which have impacted Madagascar over the last week has driven flooding, landslides, destruction of infrastructure and loss of life, particularly affecting the country's capital Antananarivo, and other areas of Analamanga Region, in the centre of the country. The rains were initially driven by an Intertropical Convergence Zone around 17 January and increased when a Tropical Depression made landfall in the east of the country on 22 January and exited the other side of the island on 23 January. (n.p.)

Malawi also experienced devastating floods in 2023 and even prior to that year (Reliefweb 2023b). For example, in 2019, the country was ravaged by Tropical Cyclone Idai, and the Global Climate Risk Index slotted it in the top five global category of nations that were most affected by life-threatening weather events (Reliefweb 2023b). In 2022, the country was hit by Tropical Storm Ana and Tropical Cyclone Gombe, which killed 64 people and displaced 945 934 people, respectively (Reliefweb 2023b). Generally, as indicated above, these climate change induced floods strike poor countries and communities that are already struggling to meet their basic needs or build proper infrastructure, such as health facilities, roads and bridges (Reliefweb 2023b). Reliefweb (2023c) notes that the disasters that hit Malawi continually compel the poverty-stricken country to spend huge sums of money on repairing and replacing infrastructure, thus, diverting scarce resources from other national development needs. Reliefweb (2023b) succinctly sums up the dire climate change induced predicament that befell Malawi as follows:

The 2015 floods resulted in 278 deaths, 638,000 people affected, and physical damages and economic losses of $335 million ($422 million when adjusted to 2023 dollars), while the 2019 floods resulted in 60 deaths, 975,000 people affected, and damages and losses of $220 million ($257 million in 2023 dollars). … More recently, Tropical Storm Ana and Tropical Cyclone Gombe (2022) resulted in 64 fatalities and 945,934 people affected. (n.p.)

Further, climate-related disasters in Malawi mostly affect rural areas, where the majority of the nation's population lives (Reliefweb 2023b). In 2021 and 2022, the nation's poverty rate stood at 50.7%, with the rural areas being the most poverty-stricken (Reliefweb 2023b). Thus, climate-related disasters tend to widen the inequality gap between the rich and the poor (Reliefweb 2023b). However, it is unfortunate that the frequency and severity of climate-related disasters in Malawi are likely to increase in the foreseeable future, given that the majority of the citizens continuously engage in activities that cause high rates of deforestation, as well as land and water degradation (Reliefweb 2023b).

It can be contended that the aforesaid disasters in Madagascar and Malawi have far-reaching consequences, which other Southern African countries need to be wary of as well. For example, South Africa has not yet recovered from the floods that resulted from Subtropical Storm Issa, which ravaged some parts of the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province between 08 and 21 April 2022 (Munyati 2022; JBA Risk Management 2022). Apart from the floods, there were also mudslides, which displaced more than 40 000 people and left a trail of severe destruction to homes and infrastructure, thus, prompting President Ramaphosa to declare a state of disaster in the area (JBA Risk Management 2022). JBA Risk Management (2022) notes that the storm killed more than 440 people, while 63 went missing. The storm damaged 13 000 homes, disrupted 80% of the water supply and forced 600 schools to close temporarily (JBA Risk Management 2022). In addition, roads were rendered impassable, and bridges were swept away (JBA Risk Management 2022). Although the storm caused large-scale disruptions, an assessment by JBA Risk Management (2022) also indicated that the damages were worsened by poor drainage and building standards in the affected areas.

At this point, it is imperative to underscore that the South African government allocated 1b rand to assist the KZN province to respond to the destruction and disruptions caused by the floods (JBA Risk Management 2022). Nonetheless, local government officials from the affected areas bemoaned that the money was not enough, therefore it needed to be doubled (JBA Risk Management 2022). Given that KZN was once again hit by severe floods in 2023, there is indeed an imminent need to further increase the disaster fund (JBA Risk Management 2022). Munyati (2022) underscores that the KZN floods mostly affected poor neighbourhoods, which further demonstrates that, as witnessed in Madagascar and Malawi, climate-related disasters can worsen the inequality gap, as the underprivileged communities are not likely to recover from the pain and loss. Munyati (2022) encapsulates these sentiments in the following words:

The impact of the disaster was not equally felt. South Africa is the world's most unequal country, and it was in the poorer regions where the consequences of the extreme weather were most severe. This impact visualises the plea of many African nations: Poor communities contribute the least to global pollution but are suffering the most. (n.p.)

In the wake of the KZN catastrophe, the Western Cape province was also ravaged by floods, which caused many fatalities, damaged houses and infrastructure, and left many homes and business premises without power (Reliefweb 2023c). This put a further strain on the fiscal system, since the national government had to disburse another tranche of unbudgeted disaster relief funds.

Having discussed the underlying issues and causes of climate-related disasters, as well as the far-reaching consequences of the harm that human activities cause to the environment, it should be acknowledged that the WCC always joins hands with many international organisations, governmental and inter-governmental organisations that seek to strengthen the earth's resilience to climate change. With this in mind, the next section discusses how the WCC responds to ecological crises. The section is not exhaustive, as it only highlights a small fraction of the efforts that the organisation undertook to address environmental disasters globally.

 

Overview of World Council of Churches' responses to ecological crises

In the introduction, the terrain sketch and problem identification of the subject under consideration were discussed and justified. As established already, although the RCC and some Independent and Pentecostal Churches are not members of the WCC, it is arguably the largest ecumenical body globally. Therefore, its stance on ecological issues reflects the collective position of many churches. This section reviews how the WCC responds to ecological crisis.

In its maiden discussion on the topic, the WCC leaned towards McKnight's (2020) affirmation that there was little interest in environmental issues among Christians, mainly because they argued that the Bible did not fundamentally teach such a subject. For instance, Robinson (2009:2) reports that when the environmental discussions and debates commenced in the 1960s within the WCC, some members expressed concern that the organisation was 'losing its focus from complicated task[s] like justice to some gullible topic[s] like environmental concerns'. However, the aforementioned position shifted with time. In 1966, the African, Asian and Latin American sub-units of the WCC met in Geneva to converse on environmental issues in emerging countries. Among many other things, the conference declared that, because of their commercial and manufacturing activities, developed countries were guilty of destroying the global ecosystem (Robinson 2009).

Subsequent WCC conferences discussed environmental concerns. For instance, the 1974 conference on science and technology for human development, which was held in Bucharest, Romania, conversed about ecological challenges, and the Nairobi conference of 1975 declared that the Church was to strive for 'just, participatory and sustainable' environmental management (Robinson 2009:2). The Nairobi conference noted that, without a healthy environment, the commitment to justice and peace had no meaning; therefore, the Church also had to commit to preserving the integrity of all creation (Robinson 2009). In 1983, the Vancouver conference delegates repeated the same commitment (Robinson 2009), while at the 1988 session, along with scientists, political leaders and environmentalists, the WCC discussed the emerging greenhouse and global warming crises (Robinson 2009:3). After this conference, the WCC continued to hold more conferences in which environmental concerns were raised and discussed. However, the ecumenical body took very little practical action to curb the far-reaching consequences of the ecological crisis (Robinson 2009:3).

On 28 June 2023, the WCC signed the Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty, which had been formerly endorsed by hundreds of other faith institutions, the World Health Organization (WHO), European Parliament, 3000 scientists and academics, 700 parliamentarians from 84 countries, 101 Nobel Laureates and more than 2000 civil society organisations (WCC 2023b). At its core, this treaty undergirds that, although some measures are being taken to strengthen earth's resilience to climate change, the issue of emissions from the burning of fossil fuels is barely addressed, as some companies continue to use such forms of energy, with no clear plan of transitioning to cleaner alternatives (WCC 2023b). Thus, the treaty was proposed to manage a fast, fair and just global transition from coal, oil and gas, which produce large amounts of emissions that cause global warming and, consequently, the current ecological crisis (WCC 2023b). Many members of the WCC, including Bishop Dr Heinrich Bedford-Strohm, the moderator of the WCC Central Committee, wholeheartedly endorsed the initiative for a Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty and welcomed its ratification by the WCC. In Bishop Dr Heinrich Bedford-Strohm's own words:

The fact that the World Council of Churches central committee has endorsed it at its recent meeting may be a big backwind for a world which takes seriously that it is God's creation given to us not for indiscriminate exploitation but for good care. Humans can only lead a good life together with nonhuman creation, not against it! (n.p.)

Although the WCC has shown much concern and commitment to environmental issues, it is extremely worrisome that it has put in much less practical action to the cause (cf. Robinson 2009). This is regrettable, because the Bible sanctions the Church to lead the ecological discourse (Kiariei 2020:1ff). Now, the underlying question is: which biblical theological concept can convince Christians to be involved in environmental care? To address the aforesaid question, this paper proposes biblical stewardship and discusses it utilising the biblical redemptive historical approach. The intention of adopting this trajectory is to persuade the Church to play a significant role in the global efforts to protect the environment. However, Baker (2010) and Kessler (2013) criticise the biblical redemptive historical approach in examining Scripture mainly because of its claim that the Old Testament should be understood in light of Christ. For instance, in his book titled, Two Testaments, one Bible, Baker (2010:277-228) lampoons this position because it reduces the Old Testament to a secondary position, which is not compatible with mainstream theological positions.

Regardless of the abovementioned criticism, this paper submits that the biblical redemptive historical approach is theologically constructive because it views the Bible as a single story that finds its fulfilment in Jesus Christ (Gaffin 2012:92). The approach also pays closer attention to the pivotal biblical storyline and doctrines namely, creation narrative, fall, redemption, and consummation (Gaffin 2012).³ That is, regardless of the weaknesses indicated by Kessler (2013) and Baker (2010), the biblical redemptive approach is one of the best methodologies for understanding Scripture because:

[I]t helps to bring out the relationship of anything that the Bible touches on with its central message or the so-called bigger picture. In other words, the redemptive historical approach helps to mainstream anything that the Bible teaches on, whereas other approaches tend to allow for many of the things to be studied as if they are peripheral to the central message of the Bible. (Magezi 2018:28)

Using the abovementioned methodological approach spawns a constructive and sound theology. Magezi and Magezi (2018:1) define this as practical theology, given that it answers to people's needs. In this case, such needs stem from the current ecological crisis. That is, as the climate crisis worsens, the biblical concept of stewardship and the biblical redemptive historical perspective, from which it will be discussed, might challenge Christians' moral authority 'to play a decisive role in swaying public policy toward … action to mitigate global warming' (Zaleha & Szasz 2015:19). In this way, the Church, as 'the conscience of society' should have proper theologies that drive it to accomplish its divine mandate to save the world, including the ecosystem (Kiariei 2020:6). In Kiariei's (2020:6) view, 'the first step to consciousness of this is to condemn the environmental destruction of Mother Earth'. However, the Church's actions to the proposed matter must be embedded in proper theology, such as the biblical concept of stewardship, which is discussed in detail below.

 

The concept of biblical stewardship as a nexus for environmental protection

Defining biblical stewardship

Le Roux (2017:206), Esler (1998:223-224) and Horrell, Hunt and Southgate (2008:223-224) opine that, although the Bible fundamentally deals with the doctrines of creation, sin, redemption and consummation of salvation in the Parousia, it also speaks about the beauty and significance of the creation of God and stipulates some environmental management and conservation principles (cf. Ps 8:3-8; I Chr 16:7, 30-34; Job 9:5-10; Rm 1:20; 3:23; 5:8; 6:23; 10:9, 13). For instance, Le Roux (2017:205) notes that the Church and, consequently, Christians are the stewards of God's creation, thus they are responsible for taking care of the environment.

According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary (n.d.), the term steward refers to one hired 'in a large household or estate to manage domestic concerns'. Supervision steward also supervises servants, collects debt or rent and manages accounts (Merriam Webster Dictionary n.d.). Stewardship refers to 'conducting, supervising, or managing of something' on behalf of someone (Merriam Webster Dictionary n.d.). The word stewardship initially featured in English in the Middle Ages, and it operated as a job description in reference to the office of a steward, or a manager of a large household (Merriam Webster Dictionary n.d.). It should be noted that, from a management perspective, the term progressively acquired more positive connotations namely, a person's 'careful and responsible management' of something entrusted to him or her, such as business, the environment and many other things. Van der Walt (2012:3) defines stewardship as an act of taking 'care of something entrusted to one, to manage another's estate or property, the charge committed to one'. This is the working definition that will be adopted in this paper.

Scholars like Bọlọjẹ and Groenewald (2014), Van der Walt (2012) and Venter (2022), rightly support the biblical perspective that God entrusted human beings to be the stewards of his creation. Bọlọjẹ and Groenewald (2014:1) note that people often associate the term stewardship with money, yet it is 'only a fraction of our total Christian stewardship', which can be viewed from different viewpoints. The comprehensiveness of Christian stewardship, which includes ecosystem management and all that it comprises, is rooted in Genesis 1:28 and 2:15. It should be noted that, in the wider context of Genesis, the epitome of God's creation is human. God placed Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and he explicitly sanctioned them to take good care of his environment, which comprises living and non-living creation (cf. Gn 2:4-3:24). This can be interpreted as God's charge for human beings to order and rule his precious creation without abusing it for their personal gain. In so doing, creation will flourish in many ways, some of which are discussed below.

First of all, good stewardship allows creation to be fruitful and reflect the glory of God, while also benefiting humankind (Hyneman 2013:12). As attested by Psalms 19:1-4, creation glorifies God in the goodness and splendour of its own existence and order (Hyneman 2013). This is in sharp contrast to the ancient Near East world, where the sun was widely viewed as an object of worship (Hyneman 2013). A closer look at Psalms 19:1-4 shows that God forbids the worshipping of creation, and this simply affirms he has uncontested sovereignty over the entire universe (Hyneman 2013). In other words, the universe was designed to instruct humanity about the rule of God (Hyneman 2013). In light of Psalms 19:1-4, which attests that 'creation glorifies, praises, exalts and celebrates God', one would concur with Hyneman's (2013:12) claim that human beings are stewards of God's creation. As a result, humanity is supposed to care for creation in a manner that backs the aforesaid scripture (Hyneman 2013). In doing so, humanity exhibits proper worship to God, who himself views his creation very highly, as it glorifies him (Hyneman 2013). In corroboration, Le Roux (2017:206) argues that, as nature sustains living creatures and humanity, it reminds humans of the existence of God.⁴

At this juncture, one can assert that the biblical concept of stewardship, which emerges in Genesis, presents humankind as tenants in the Garden of Eden, and God as the owner, who sets the rules of how his household should be administered (Hyneman 2013:10-11; Muwadzuri 2014:42). This shows that the biblical concept of stewardship does not elevate humankind to the status of the owner of the environment (Hyneman 2013). For instance, after creating Adam and Eve, God commanded them to fill the earth and to have dominion over the living creatures of the land, air and sea (Gn 2:8). Now, if God commanded humankind to have dominion over all other creation, then all the descendants of Adam must safeguard their well-being in order to ensure that the ecosystem functions as a self-existing entity. For example, for the well-being of aquatic and terrestrial creatures (including fellow humanity), the entire environment, including water and air, should be kept clean. This entails maintaining healthy pastures and ensuring land fertility for sustainable agriculture, thus, guaranteeing that both human beings and animals are food secure. If anyone exhibits contrary behaviour and actions, it means that he or she is exploiting the environment in ways that hamper it from reaching its God-intended goals and purposes.

In Genesis 3:1-24, God prohibited Adam and Eve from eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, as they would certainly die (Muwadzuri 2014:39). Thus, as stewards of God's creation, Adam and Eve had the responsibility to utilise the ecosystem in accordance with God's intended plan (Muwadzuri 2014). God has the ultimate say on matters of life and creation, and this is evidenced by the punishment that he meted out to Adam and Eve when they violated his instruction (Hyneman 2013:11; Muwadzuri 2014:39). That is to say, as Adam's descendants, people are sanctioned to manage the ecosystem in a responsible manner, otherwise they incur God's judgement. There is no doubt that the whole world and all that is in it, including humankind, belong to God (Ps 24; Lv 25:23; Dt. 10:14). Hyneman (2013) sheds more light on the preceding explanation:

Humans have no innate ownership of creation. Rather, the Creator owns creation. Humanity has been given a very important role in the created order, but the Scriptures are clear that God has ownership over creation. Humanity's role with regard to creation must be discerned from the first principle: that God is owner. Humanity inhabits creation, but it is not ours. Since God is the owner of creation, we look to God's Word to determine how we should interact with creation. The Scriptures show that creation - including the earth, its natural systems, plants, animals, people and all other things - is God's. (p. 10)

It is significant to mention that the priestly nation of Israel still venerates the conception that God judges those who mismanage creation. In this case, it should also be observed that, while God is the creator and owner of the universe, Israel is the vehicle of his salvation to the nations. Even in the promised land, the Israelites were compelled to observe certain regulations that reminded them that they were stewards of God's land, whose use is supposed to ensure prosperity for all people, including the landless widows, orphans and aliens. For instance, in Deuteronomy 25:19, the Israelites were reminded that the land they were inhabiting was their gift from God, but it entirely belonged to him. Thus, the Israelites understood that they could not do as they pleased with God's land. In Exodus 23:10-11, God instituted legislation that clearly reminded them of this actuality. In the proposed text, God ordered the Israelites to let his land lie fallow every seventh year, so that it could rest from planting and harvesting. Farmers can understand that God wanted the land to regain fertility, so that it could be fruitful in providing for the needs of all people (Lv 23:22). However, over time, the Israelites violated the sanctioned Sabbath rest of the land and God punished them by sending them into captivity, as shown in 2 Chronicles 36:20-21 (cf. Gowan 1998). This scripture explicitly attributes the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC and the subsequent Babylonian captivity to the violation of the aforesaid law (Gowan 1998).

In light of the foregoing discussion, it can be argued that Christians were saved to advance God's plans and purposes in the world; therefore, they should take environmental concerns seriously, because God's eschatological judgement is real (Jones 2007:130; Hyneman 2013:12; Miller 2009:32ff). This judgement does not only affect Israel, as Revelation 11:18 plainly states that God will destroy those who destroy his precious earth, including Christians and non-Christians (Hyneman 2013). However, González's (2015) exegetical study, titled Destroyers of the Earth in Revelation 11:18 - Who are they?, dismisses the notion that this passage encourages environmental protection practices. This conclusion is, nevertheless, refuted by leading Revelation commentators. For example, Miller (2009:32) and Jones (2007:130) did some exegetical work on the proposed passage and concluded that it challenges all humanity to protect the environment. Miller (2009) notes that, according to Revelation 11:18, all those that are destroying the planet will face God's wrath for their actions. Miller (2009) emphatically concludes by declaring that:

[W]e have the capacity to destroy ecosystems on a global scale. Our scientific belief in this horrific potential parallels the biblical judgement that the destroyers of the earth themselves will be destroyed. (p. 32)

Thus, in taking Jones (2007) and Miller's (2009) lines of thought, it can be argued that the judgement in Revelation 11:18 is for all humankind, as all the descendants of Adam and Eve were given the responsibility to take care of the environment. In corroboration, Muwadzuri (2014) states that:

If humankind does not keep, preserve and nurture the earth as mandated by God, they shall be found guilty for destroying the earth and be liable for God's judgment. Therefore, humanity has to make an effort to take care and protect the earth and develop a deep understanding of the fact that the entire human race is a recipient of the stewardship mandate, which comes with accountability. (p. 42)

With the aforesaid in mind, it can be submitted that the fear of God's judgement, with regard to how one treats the ecosystem, should encourage responsible environmental practices. In other words, Christians are custodians of God's creation, and therefore they should avoid God's judgement by managing the environment in a responsible manner.

Further, the fact that God judges people on the basis of how they treat the environment is of utmost significance, as it challenges people with limited understanding of the notion of God's accountability. As Hyneman (2013:12) notes, for Christians, accountability does not only imply defiance of God's direction, instead, it extends to how they treat the environment. At this point in the discussion, this study still acknowledges that the Adamic sin has universal consequences for all creation and their relationship with God and other 'human and non-human species' (Hyneman 2013:12). However, although the Adamic sin in Genesis 3 affected all humankind (Rm 5:12-19), including the entire ecosystem, as Paul attests in Romans 8:22, this does not mean that human sin would cause God to abandon creation, because it is precious to him. The Bible clearly states that the universe was also saved by the redemptive acts of Jesus Christ, and just like humanity, it is waiting for his return to consummate its complete renewal and recreation (Rm 8:22).

Thus, it is clear that God, in the person and saving work of Christ, saved the entire creation. However, with the concept of the overlapping of ages in mind, one can proceed to declare that God, in Christ, is continuously busy renewing or recreating creation until it attains the original goal that he intended and purposed for it before the fall. As captured in the Book of Isaiah 65, the Old Testament looked forward to this recreation, which Jesus Christ accomplishes in the New Testament. This aligns with the views of leading scholars, such as Torrance (1995:84), O'Donovan (2001:11), Bonhoeffer (2009:49) and De Wit (2013:2-3), who advocate for Christocentric ethics that make the person and redemptive work of Christ fundamental to reflection pertaining to Christian ethics, which are intrinsic to what God has done in and through Christ. In this instance, humanity seeks to find principles and guidance from God's self-disclosure in the person and work of Jesus Christ. As a representative voice of Christocentric ethics, Torrance (1995) argues that:

[A]s the arche in this creaturely economic form, Jesus Christ is the Head of all creation, the one source and controlling Principle with reference to whom we are to understand all the ways and works of God. (p. 84)

In support of the above argument, Bonhoeffer (2009) helpfully observes that:

[The] source of a Christian ethic is not the reality of one's own self, not the reality of the world, nor is it the reality of norms and values. It is the reality of God that is revealed in Jesus Christ. (p. 49)

In corroboration with the abovementioned Christocentric Christian ethics scholars, this paper reinforces that in this era of overlapping of ages, all creation, including Christians, continue to look forward to the eschatological consummation of the new earth (Rv 21), which will bring the fullness of life that God had planned and purposed before the fall. In that eschatological life, Christians will be truly at home, where God will physically dwell with them, as they worship him and live by his rule (Rv 22:4). From a missiological perspective, one can argue that Christ's salvation is comprehensive as it involves the entire creation, including the environment. In an article titled, Environmental change and salvation theology in African Christianity, Golo (2012:348) agrees that the notion of comprehensive salvation of Jesus Christ involves the entire creation. Nevertheless, Golo (2012) bemoans that African Christians do very little in terms of environmental protection, because they inherited a limited theology of salvation from the early missionaries, who focussed on the salvation of the souls at the expense of the entire creation, which Christ's saving person and work address. Thus, in trying to position African theological thinking on environmental concerns, Golo (2012) argues that:

[F]or African Christians to better configure salvation theology to creation faith there is the need for configuring Jesus Christ through an ecological lens and consequently correlating the implications of the theological claims to salvation wrought through Him to the salvation of creation. (p. 348)

There is a possibility that some Christians may misconceive the foregoing understanding of Christ's salvation as vast and comprehensive in nature, as it encompasses the whole creation, including the environment. This misconception is likely to stem from Revelation 21, which may be misconstrued as implying that this current creation will pass away and make way for a new heaven and earth. Thus, those who subscribe to this school of thought may neglect the environment because they view the current cosmos as transient, therefore, it is needless to care for it. Consequently, such Christians tend to solely focus on evangelising to the lost souls, while ignoring the environmental crisis. It can be argued, however, that an ordinary Christian who pays attention to the benefits and services of the ecosystem to humankind will not entertain the aforementioned misconception and use it as an excuse for ignoring the current ecological crisis. It should be understood that human beings get food, water, oxygen, mineral resources, and many other things that enhance their welfare, from the environment. With this in mind, it would be myopic to refrain from participating in environmental protection on the pretext of the concept of an eschatological new heaven and earth. Nonetheless, given the aforementioned biblical concept of stewardship and its interrelated aspects, and the possible misconceptions of stewardship, it would be justifiable to conclude that:

The Church is consequently well-positioned to make a significant contribution in addressing the environmental crisis by developing, preaching and practising a holistic spirituality that promotes a custodial ethic towards the natural world. (Le Roux 2017:205)

 

Conclusion

This article presented the pervasive growing concern for environmental issues by giving a global overview of the issues and causes of climate change and global warming, and their far-reaching consequences for humankind and the world at large. However, irrespective of these magnitudes of climate-related disasters across the globe, the study indicated that although some Churches are involved in combating the environmental crisis, it is apparent that others do not take part in such efforts, regardless of the existence of many eco-theologies. Thus, in response to this challenge, this article proposed and discussed the biblical concept of stewardship as a nexus for environmental protection. This discussion was foregrounded on a biblical redemptive historical approach, from which the biblical concept of stewardship was defined. The approach and concept presented human beings, particularly Christians, as God's agents and earthly representatives, or tenants within God's environment. Thus, God is the owner and creator of the universe, and he sanctions the manner in which the environment should be used. Having clearly established the obligations of Christians from the point of view of biblical stewardship, the paper advanced that they should never have polarised views on environmental concerns, but they should take the lead in championing environmental protection. This implies that obedience to God's word is not simply synonymous with preaching the gospel of salvation, but it also entails involvement in environmental issues. Thus, Christians should lead the environmental protection crusade by engaging in practices that promote, rather than harm, the productivity of the ecosystem.

From a practical perspective, the biblical concept of stewardship was used to challenge the Church and, consequently, Christians to preach and teach environmental awareness in Church and non-Church spaces (community or society at large). The concept was also used to challenge Christians to be vocal against those who abuse the environment. This can be achieved by influencing local, national and international authorities to develop policies that promote the well-being of the environment. Such actions will significantly reduce climate-related disasters. In doing so, the Church would be taking its God-ordained holistic ministry seriously. This corresponds with the vast and comprehensive mission of Christ's salvation, which involves the entire creation, including the environment. The reality of God's judgement for the manner in which humanity treats the environment was discussed comprehensively. Therefore, the concept of the fear of God's judgement was reinforced as a nexus for encouraging responsible environmental responses among Christians.

 

Acknowledgements

This submission was part of a conference on ecology and theology that was held at UNISA (University of South Africa) from 23 January 2024 to 25 January 2024.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

C.M. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article complies with the ethical standards of research and does not contain any studies involving human participants performed by the author.

Funding information

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability

The author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Torrance, T.F., 1995, The Trinitarian faith, Edinburgh, T & T Clark, New York, NY.         [ Links ]

Tulun, M.O., 2020, 'What is the World Council of Churches? Centre for Eurasian Studies (AVİM)', Commentary 2014(34), 1-4, viewed 13 April 2020, from https://avim.org.tr/en/Yorum/WHAT-IS-THE-WORLD-COUNCIL-OF-CHURCHES.         [ Links ]

United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2024, Facts about the nature crisis, viewed 08 January 2024, from https://www.unep.org/facts-about-nature-crisis.         [ Links ]

Van der Walt, J.L., 2012, 'Another look at education from a Christian stewardship perspective', Koers 77(2), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.4102/koers.v77i2.428        [ Links ]

Van Schalkwyk, A., 2013, 'Ecological activism and interreligious dialogue of life - A case study of the Southern African Communities Environmental institute', Scriptura 112 (1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.7833/112-0-93        [ Links ]

Venter, F., 2022, 'Environmental stewardship: Confluence of law and religion', Pioneer in Peer-Reviewed 25, 1-30. https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2022/v25i0a13879        [ Links ]

World Council of Churches (WCC), 2023b, World Council of Churches endorses the Call for a fossil fuel non-proliferation treaty, viewed 30 April 2024, from https://fossilfueltreaty.org/world-council-churches#:~:text=28%20June%202023%20%E2%80%93%20At%20the,primary%20cause%20of%20the%20climate.         [ Links ]

Zaleha, B.D. & Szasz, A., 2015, Why conservative Christians don't believe in climate change, viewed 06 January 2024, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0096340215599789.         [ Links ]

 

 

Correspondence:
Christopher Magezi
magezichristopher@gmail.com

Received: 04 Mar. 2024
Accepted: 17 May 2024
Published: 14 June 2024

 

 

1 . The biblical redemptive historical approach will be defined in section 'Overview of World Council of Churches' responses to ecological crises' of this paper, which provides a review of Church responses to ecological crisis. This is done by examining the response of the WCC, which is the largest body of churches; thus, it mirrors the efforts of many ministries.
2 . For more information about global warming and climate change induced veld fires in the US, read 2023 North American wildfires, 2023, viewed 09 January 2024, from https://disasterphilanthropy.org/disasters/2023-north-american-wildfires/?gclid=CjwKCAiA-vOsBhAAEiwAIWR0TahWuPEny7lOzSmfX2Gee4SUND6sPZ1MV2xc2iIxAbLwPlEF1aPUjBoCZiEQAvD_BwE
3 . Please read Richard Gaffin's work cited in this article for a detailed understanding of the biblical redemptive historical approach.
4 . However, I am conscious of scholars, such as Sennett (2005:313), who use Romans 1:20 to advance a philosophical argument that if the general or natural revelation results in God condemning non-Christians, then it should be logical that it can also save people. However, because of space constraints, this paper will not deal with the issue. It should be noted that Sennett's (2005:313) argument was refuted in Peterson's (2008:192) article, Inclusivism versus exclusivism on key biblical texts. Thus, for more information on Sennett's position, one should read the work itself, which is referenced in the bibliography. Further reference can be made to critiques by Peterson (2008), which is also referenced in the bibliography.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Memories of Zion in Exile: A contextual reading of the Ironical 'Bitter Beatitudes' of Psalm 137

 

 

Blessing O. Boloje^{I, II}

^IDepartment of Biblical Studies, Faculty of Theology, Baptist Theological Seminary, Eku, Nigeria
^IIDepartment of Old Testament and Hebrew Scriptures, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

While one's memory might not always be flawless, possibly because of forgetfulness, memory loss, or selective recall, there are certain memories that demand to be remembered. These memories can flow through people's lives like rivers. Psalm 137 depicts a compelling backdrop and scenario that closely mirrors the actual experiences of individuals and their recollections. This Psalm is regarded as the most direct and poignant recollection of the Babylonian exile in the entire Psalter. Although some may find the desires expressed in the Psalm troubling and unsuitable for New Testament believers, it aligns with Israel's theological and liturgical response to undeserved or unavoidable suffering. It serves as an entreaty to Yahweh (YHWH), the ultimate source of strength amid powerlessness and hope amid hopelessness. Consequently, Psalm 137 represents a substantial theological statement with contemporary relevance. This article draws a parallel between the emotional anguish experienced by the psalmist, stemming from their unfavourable socioeconomic circumstances, and the similarly oppressive socioeconomic, and psychological conditions faced by many in contemporary times.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article employs the principle of contemporaneity while engaging with the biblical, literary, and exegetical scope of Psalm 137 to establish a theological rationale and contextual adaptation for this retaliatory Psalm attributed to David. The theological assertion is that in a society marked by violence and abuse, where there exists a sinister conspiracy of brutality, invoking YHWH's intervention by breaking the silence indeed has the potential to effect change. This theological datum makes Psalms 137 resonates in the memory of many today.

Keywords: Psalm 137; memory; retributive Psalm; theological and liturgical; contextual realities; unmerited suffering.

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Introduction

Memory plays a significant role in understanding human cognition, spirituality, and the human experience through shaping of human behaviour, learning, and identity. Defined and described at different levels Duling (2011) observes that:

Memory is usually related to images and places … Memory of events and persons is selective … Memory does not recall the real past, but only constructions of it; it 'distorts' the past in its need to show that an 'event' has a significance beyond the event itself. Memory constructs the past for the present, especially in relation to one's social group. The social group neither totally dispenses with, nor altogether determines, individual memory - 'it is individuals as group members who remember' … although it does limit its range of options. Social groups identify themselves and are identified by, their 'collective memories'. Different groups may have different or even competing, versions of the same persons or events (which amounts to memory 'contestation'). The past tends to be 'constructed' as a narrative with a beginning, middle and a satisfactory ending. (p. 1)

In the biblical context, memory is linked to faith, covenant, and communal identity. Memory offers valuable insights into the human experience and the importance of remembering and learning from the past. The close connection of memory with tradition is reflected in Kirk's (2010) remark:

Like memory, tradition is refracted through the contemporary social realities of the communities in which it is enacted, such that it comes in important respects to reflect, even to signify those realities. (p. 62)

While there exist both individual and collective memory (cf. Fentress & Wickham 1992:vii-viii; Hutton 1993:73-89; Kinny 1999:426; Olick 2006:6-8), Cattel and Climo (2002:22) hold that, 'Individual and collective memory come together in the stories of individual lives. The process of constructing a life story is heavily mediated by social construction'. One's memory might not always be flawless, possibly because of forgetfulness, memory loss, or selective recall, but there are certain memories that demand to be remembered. These memories can flow through people's lives like rivers. Psalm 137 depicts a compelling backdrop and scenario that closely mirrors the actual experiences of individuals and their recollections.

Psalm 137 falls within the realm of poetry that endeavours to encapsulate the emotions of a singular moment - specifically, an endeavour to capture the moment of degradation and hopelessness that followed Judah's devastation and exile at the hands of the Babylonians. Within this Psalm, one can witness the portrayal of an individual grappling with the weight of excruciating emotional torment and trauma, while another aspect of it rejoices in the advantages arising from such inhumane actions. Consequently, the Psalm may be regarded as a contemplation of YHWH's justice concerning his retribution and theodicy (Kselman 1989:838). While the Psalm primarily focusses on the emotional and spiritual distress of the exiles, it indirectly touches upon unfavourable socioeconomic circumstances, which can be compared to similar conditions faced by marginalised and oppressed communities in contemporary times. This article is thus an attempt to reread the contents and experience of the psalmist in Psalm 137 in the light of its literary, contextual, and theological trinity for contemporary appropriation. The explorative reading proceeds, firstly by stating the Psalm's literary setting (in terms of its form, structure, and composition); secondly continues with an understanding of Psalm's imprecatory dimension; thirdly, it seeks to unveil its theological appropriateness in the Hebrew Bible and/or Old Testament canon; and fourthly, it articulates its contextual appropriation for many who are crying for relief from the clutches of their captors.

 

Literary setting of Psalm 137

Psalm 137 is a part of the larger collection of Psalms in the Psalter.¹ As a heartfelt community lament, Psalm 137 is apparently inserted after the Songs of Ascents (Ps 120-134),² among two outstanding communal hymns (Ps 135-137) that are lacking superscriptions compared to surrounding Psalms (DeClaissé-Walford 2019:670). Its function in the narrative story of Book V (Ps 107-150)³ is interpreted differently. In view of the fact, Psalms 135-137 are seen to have likely formed a kind of appendix to the Songs of Ascents (DeClaissé-Walford 2019)

[… S]cholars have aptly argued that Ps 137 can be interpreted as a concluding word to the Songs of Ascents using, … the power of memory to keep hopes for Zion alive. (p. 674)

This Psalm is a poignant expression of sorrow, a heartfelt lament that resonates deeply with the emotions of the exiled Israelites. The art of lamentation in the context of prayer is a refined and poetic form of expression that held a significant place in Israelite tradition. While similar petitions can be found in various parts of the Old Testament, the majority of them are elegantly captured within the Psalms as laments. This approach is remarkably bold, as it boldly calls upon YHWH to address their needs, essentially expecting and, in some cases, demanding a decisive response from the divine to alleviate or overcome their hardships. The underlying assumption for these forceful, legitimate prayers and/or petitions is that Israel has the right, and that YHWH has a legitimate obligation to answer the prayer because His people who are bound to Him in a covenant of mutual fidelity and commitment are offering it (Brueggemann 2002:118). This stylised form of prayer is often in the voice of an individual speaker who prays, as a member of the community but who, at the same time, speaks from an intimate, functional, and personal relationship with YHWH (cf. Ps 17:1-5). In another form, the prayer may be offered by the voice of the community when the whole community is caught up in a public crisis, such as war or drought (cf. Ps 94:1-8).

In Psalm 137, the psalmist's words convey the deep emotional impact of exile on the community. According to Kafang (2002:25), each Psalm was created within a specific 'life setting' or 'cultural context'. This context could encompass various aspects such as social, political, geographical, or provincial factors. When examining the essential elements that contributed to the inception of the Psalter and guided its unique evolution, Terrien (1952:19-32) analysed the prevailing themes, including deliverance, warfare, the divine presence in religious rituals, expressions of gratitude for bountiful harvests, reflections on sacred history, and intimate communion with the divine. The following sections analyse Psalm's 137 form, structure, setting and composition along with certain lexical and syntactical elements.

Form and structure

Psalm 137 stands out as a vivid and direct recollection of the Babylonian exile within the entire Psalter. While it's often referred to as the quintessential 'Psalm of violence' (Zenger 1996:46), it resists easy categorisation in form-critical terms (cf. Anderson 1972:896). According to scholarly analyses, it initiates with a tone akin to a communal complaint (cf. Kraus 1989:504), and then evolves into something resembling a hymn - song of Zion (cf. Allen 1983:241; Burden 1991:122; Mays 1994:421), ultimately concluding as a fervent curse (cf. Mowinckel 1962:51-52). It can be primarily identified as a communal lament, a classification supported by several compelling indicators. Beyond the depiction of sorrow in verses 1-3, which pertains both to the afflicted and their oppressors, verses 5-6 can be interpreted as an implied expression of trust, while verse 7 constitutes a plea for retribution. These elements collectively contribute to its lament-like character (Gerstenberger 2001:394; Gunkel 1998:580; Maré 2010:118; cf. Westermann 1981:52-64).

As a lyrical or poetic composition, categorised as a communal lament, Psalm 137 has a distinct structure that majority of scholars have divided into a three-fold subdivision, with specific time orientation and alternation of different subject and/or agent (Wendland 2004:319; cf. Allen 1983:240; Anderson 1972:896; Bar-efrat 1997:3-11; Davidson 1998:439-441; Eaton 2003:454; Gerstenberger 2001:390; Mays 1994:422; McCann 1996:1227; Motyer 1994:577).

The Psalm begins with the exiles sitting by the rivers of Babylon, weeping as they remember Zion (Jerusalem). They hang their harps on the poplar trees and when taunted by their enemy captors, they refuse to sing songs of joy in a foreign land. The act of hanging the lyre on the trees serves as a metaphor, symbolising that the owners had chosen to set aside their instruments, never to play them again. This symbolic gesture also signifies that the musicians had ceased to publicly offer praise through their music. It is likely that the psalmist and his fellow musicians represent the entire Judean exile community in a synecdochic manner. This community, as a whole, experienced a loss of the joyful worship of YHWH in the temple during their exile (Simango 2018:222; cf. Goldingay 2008:604). Table 1 outlines these structural divisions.

 

 

At the middle of the Psalm, the psalmist expresses the depth of their commitment and devotion to Jerusalem, their sorrow and captivity, emphasising that their right hand has lost its skill (Table 2), likely referring to their inability to play musical instruments or create music in their current state.

 

 

In this closing section, the psalmist expresses a passionate desire for vengeance against the Edomites (verse 7) and Babylonians who had oppressed them. They invoke a curse upon those who had taken them captive and destroyed Jerusalem (Table 3).

 

 

Setting and composition

Psalm 137 is composed in the first person, with the psalmist speaking on behalf of the exiled Israelites. It combines deep sorrow and longing with anger and a desire for retribution against their captors. The composition is distinguished by its profound emotional intensity and vivid imagery, serving to effectively convey the profound pain and yearning of the Israelites for their homeland. According to DeClaissé-Walford, Jacobson and Tanner (2014:946), 'Psalm 137 has the distinction of having one of the most beloved opening lines and the most horrifying closing line of any Psalm'. Keil and Delitzsch (1988) attempt to illustrate the portrayal of vivid imagery and how the emotional intensity in the opening verses of the Psalm when they said:

The bank of a river is a favorite place of sojourn of those whom deep grief drives forth from the bustle of men into solitude. The boundary line of the river gives to solitude a safe back; the monotonous splashing of the waves keeps up the dull, melancholy alternation of thoughts and feelings and cool water exercises a soothing influence on the consuming fever within the heart. (p. 800)

Although this beautiful Psalm lacks an official title or direct indication of the circumstances in which it was composed, there is little doubt about its historical context (cf. Kraus1989:501). The absence of the author's name adds to the mystery, making it impossible to identify them now. Nonetheless, it becomes evident that this Psalm was penned by one of the Babylonian exiles, an individual who had personally endured and empathised with the sufferings of their fellow exiles. This author also retained a vivid recollection of the injustices inflicted upon Jerusalem during its besiegement and ultimate destruction by its adversaries. The writer's identity was deeply rooted in their Jewish heritage, a true 'Hebrew of the Hebrews', who, in this concise Psalm, encapsulated and conveyed the essence of Hebrew sentiment, patriotism, and devotion (cf. Allen 1983:239; Anderson 1972:897; Davidson 1998:439; Delitzsch 1980:335; McCann 1996:1227).

The mention of Babylon within the Psalm serves as a poignant reflection of the historical context in which it was most likely composed - during the Babylonian exile of the Israelites, an event that unfolded in the 6th century BCE when Jerusalem and the Temple fell to the Babylonian forces, marking a pivotal and sorrowful period in Israelite history (cf. Belcher 2006:78; Kraus1989:501; Stern 2007:33). Clearly, this lament is a communal expression, originating from the time of the Babylonian exile. It was a period marked by the preceding horrors of ancient siege warfare. The fall of Jerusalem, orchestrated by the ruthless Babylonians and incited by the treacherous Edomites, as described in Obadiah 10-16, was undeniably a profound national tragedy. It resulted in the near-complete destruction and deportation of the community of faith. Furthermore, within the city's fall, the pillars of that faith were obliterated. These included the Davidic monarchy, the sacred city of Jerusalem, and the temple of YHWH. All of these foundational elements that had defined Israel's identity as a nation and as the people of God were either razed to the ground or forcibly displaced.

 

Expression of indignation

Siege warfare in the ancient Near East was undeniably cruel, with one of the most brutal and unfortunately common practices of conquerors being the heart-wrenching act of dashing infants against rocks amid the fury and devastation of war (cf. 2 Ki 8:12; 1 Sm 15:16). This barbaric slaughter of the most defenceless non-combatants was a strategy aimed at achieving total annihilation, effectively waging war on the next generation (Allen 1983:237). While this practice was not unusual, it never failed to elicit shock and horror (2 Ki 8:2). Thus, the Psalm in question reaches an emotional climax as it addresses this gruesome reality. The Scriptures also employ this horrific imagery in judgement oracles against various entities, including Israel (Hs 13:15; Hs 14:1), Jerusalem (Lk 19:44), and Assyria (Nah 3:10). Strikingly, Babylon itself is promised a similar fate (Is 13:16).

Indeed, Psalm 137:9 employs two verbs, אׇחַז [to grasp or seize] and נׇפַץ [to smash or dash to pieces], in a conjunctive manner to convey a profound meaning. The use of the pi'el form for נׇפַץ [dash to pieces] serves to intensify the action described in the qal form. This intensification paints a vivid picture of fragmentation and destruction. It is not merely that the infants are smashed, but that this violent act results in the scattering and shattering of baby fragments. Within the context of the text, both the actions of seizing and smashing are portrayed as essential for the realisation of genuine happiness or blessing, as underscored by the term אַשְׁרֵ֥י. This implies that the psalmist views this severe retribution as a path towards establishing a sense of justice and vindication, where those responsible for heinous deeds confront a comparable destiny. The use of these verbs and their intensified form in the pi'el underscores the depth of emotion and desire for retribution expressed in the verse.

While the exact age range the expression עֹלָלַ֗יִךְ [infants] refers to in Psalm 137:9 isn't explicitly defined in the text, the context and a parallel verse in Lamentations 4:4 provide some clues. In Lamentations 4:4, the phrase עוֹלָלִיםשָׁאֲלוּלֶחֶם, which translates to 'little children beg for bread', strongly implies that these children are of an age where they can speak and likely comprehend the direness of their situation. This would imply that in Psalm 137:9, when the psalmist speaks of 'grasping them and smashing them again and again against a rock', it would require significant effort and extreme callousness, as these children are not infants but old enough to comprehend the horrors being inflicted upon them and even old enough to plead for mercy. This interpretation aligns with the Psalm's portrayal of a deeply distressing and horrifying scenario, underscoring the intense emotions and sense of injustice conveyed by the psalmist (Keil & Delitzsch 1988:800).

Such matters should be met with a degree of sombre rejoicing. In fact, rejoicing is commanded in anticipation of Babylon's future devastation in accordance with the principle of lex talionis (cf. Jer 51:48). Commenting on the implications of the imprecations in the closing verses of the Psalm, Simango (2018) remarks:

The Babylonians were well known for their cruelties and in this manner, they had captured Judah and destroyed the temple and the city of Jerusalem. Therefore, the psalmist prays to YHWH so that he would bring on the Babylonians the atrocities they had committed in Judah (lex talionis) so that in like manner they would experience utter defeat, helplessness and defenselessness. (p. 238)

Thus, the psalmist appeals to YHWH as the ultimate Judge to administer justice according to His own decree. In doing so, the psalmist excludes personal revenge, desiring no more than the satisfaction of divine justice, which YHWH will ultimately bestow upon those who persist in their sinful ways.

 

Theological Datum of Psalm 137

Theology is often defined as the thoughtful articulation of biblical revelation within specific historical contexts, enabling the transmission of the Christian faith to future generations (Finlayson 1969:7). According to Clements (2001:36), 'theology is only truly theology when it engages with the concerns of contemporary life'. As Christian theology is an ongoing, dynamic endeavour, it cannot be definitively encapsulated in a single formulation. Instead, each generation of Christians, within their respective cultural contexts, must earnestly engage with the theological task, adapting and responding to the evolving challenges and questions of their time (Ramm 1961:15).

The book of Psalms has held immense significance for countless Jewish and Christian believers across various languages and nations for millennia. It has been a source of inspiration, expressing their hopes, fears, and renewing their faith in YHWH. The spiritual insight and religious heritage of a small group of ancient Israelites have left a profound and enduring impact on humanity. The Psalms encompass the theology of ancient Israel and convey the entire spectrum of human experiences and emotions - anger, despair, vindictiveness, grief, faith, praise, and questioning. These verses resonate with countless lives, offering a genuine and faithful reflection of humanity (cf. Craige 1983:45; McEachern 1981:9; Perowne 1976:40; Wood 1984:3). Its position in the Hebrew canon however, presents a perplexing picture in the various areas of text tradition (Kraus 1993:12). Within the Psalms, Israel's theological and liturgical response to undeserved or inescapable suffering finds expression in prayers of lament, sadness, complaints about unjust suffering, and protest against righteous indignation. These lamentations, protests, and petitions represent Israel's primary faith strategy for bringing suffering into YHWH's sphere of concern (Brueggemann 2002:118, 147).

The psalmists, when faced with enemies threatening their reputations and lives, refrained from taking matters into their own hands. Instead, they turned to YHWH as the righteous judge and vindicator. Their cries were essentially the 'passionate pleas of the powerless for justice' (Zenger 1996:47). In the face of injustice that could not be addressed humanly, YHWH's chastened people had no alternative but to turn to Him. They appealed to the divine judge for justice, according to His own decree, rather than seeking private revenge. They entrusted the demands of justice to the rightful jurisdiction of YHWH (McCann 2001:121). Vindication and deliverance often required the downfall of their enemies, leading the psalmists to call upon YHWH's vengeance against their tormentors. The specific judgements they invoked upon the wicked, although at times seemingly harsh and vindictive, actually demonstrated the psalmist's strong commitment to justice and their concern for YHWH's character. They raised their cry for vengeance to YHWH - a cry that would ultimately transform into public praise when divine deliverance was realised (Zuck 1991:280).

The abrupt and shocking outcry in Psalm 137:7-9 can be understood as a passionate plea from the powerless, demanding justice (Zenger 1996:47). Zenger (1996) writes that:

Psalm 137 is an attempt, in the face of the most profound humiliation and helplessness, to suppress the primitive human lust for violence in one's own heart, by surrendering everything to God - a God whose word of judgment is presumed to be so universally just that even those who pray the [P]salm submit themselves to it. (p. 48)

Amid the horrifying brutality of such circumstances, where the temptation to 'forget' (cf. Ps 137:5) or forsake one's faith in exchange for personal safety and comfort looms large, Psalm 137 serves as a poignant appeal to YHWH. It underscores YHWH as the ultimate wellspring of strength in the face of powerlessness and a beacon of hope in the darkest moments of despair. In these verses, the psalmist implores YHWH for a just retribution against the treacherous Edomites and the merciless Babylonians, seeking their utter destruction through the violent annihilation of their infants. However, this raises the question of whether such an appeal aligns with YHWH's command that children should not be punished for the sins of their fathers (Dt 24:16). In response, Deuteronomy 24:16 pertains to judicial sentences carried out by humans, while YHWH retains the authority to visit the iniquities of fathers upon their children (Ex 34:7), as evidenced by His command to annihilate the entire Canaanite population upon Israel's entry into the land. The cry for punishment in Psalm 137 is a plea for justice commensurate with the gravity of the crimes committed. The one who would execute this justice is referred to as אַשְׁרֵ֥י (blessed, verses 8-9), as through them, justice would be served, YHWH's honour upheld, and a portion of the world's injustices rectified.

 

Contextual relevance of Psalm 137

Psalm 137 is a biblical text that reflects the lamentation and anguish of the Israelites during their Babylonian exile. It is a poignant reflection on the unfavourable socioeconomic circumstances and psychological distress faced by the Israelites at that time. While it primarily focusses on the emotional and spiritual distress of the exiles, it indirectly touches upon unfavourable socioeconomic circumstances, which can be compared to similar conditions faced by marginalised and oppressed communities in contemporary times. The words of Psalm 137 do not prescribe the actions of a devout individual. Rather, they serve as a historical lens, allowing readers to revisit the bitterness endured by their forebears in the face of defeat, destruction, humiliation, exile, and enslavement at the hands of their conquerors. Through these words, readers are prompted to empathise with their experiences.

Edom and Babylon, ancient embodiments of the Antichrist, provide historical parallels. There may be, and indeed have been, times in modern-day context of lived realities when believers must unite with their predecessors and appeal for the cessation of a contemporary manifestation of the Antichrist, articulating their grievances in a manner befitting the offense. In Psalm 137, the ancestors, depicted as powerless, had no recourse but to curse their triumphant oppressors. This irony underscores humanity's inclination to turn against itself. In an often hostile environment, the weak and disadvantaged frequently bear the brunt of mistreatment by the wealthy, powerful, and politically privileged. As one engages with the verses of Psalm 137, aptly termed 'Bitter Beatitudes', one strives to connect with those who have experienced displacement and forced migration because of conflicts, ethnic tensions, and economic hardships, leading to internal displacement or seeking refuge in other countries, or who may experience a sense of detachment from their cultural roots and traditional ways of life, which can lead to feelings of loss and alienation.

Today, there are many in different socioeconomic and political contexts, sitting beside the flowing rivers of exploitation, corruption, and violence, who are confronted by the ever-increasing levels of senseless and horrific oppression. They grieve over the loss of their children, their homes, and the destitution of their loved ones. As they reflect on the offensive and destructive actions of their leaders, their hearts are ignited with righteous indignation. These leaders have, regrettably, fallen short of fulfilling their rightful responsibilities to the highest standards. They weep and wail over the degradation and violation of human dignity, the neglect of societal peace, security, and cohesion, the deplorable state of their infrastructure, and the impoverished state of healthcare and education, are among other issues, weighing heavily on their minds.

The emotional distress experienced by the Israelites, as reflected in Psalm 137, can resonate with the psychological challenges faced by many today. The stress of living in adverse conditions, the trauma of conflict and displacement, and the uncertainty of the future can lead to mental health issues. The central theme of Psalm 137 is the longing of the Israelites to return to their homeland. This longing for a better life and a sense of belonging is a sentiment shared by many who hope for improved socioeconomic conditions, peace, and stability in their country. This theme can resonate with contemporary readers who may have experienced displacement, migration, or separation from their place of origin, emphasising the importance of one's roots and connection to their cultural and spiritual heritage.

Psalm 137 expresses anger and a desire for retribution against their captors. While these sentiments may be challenging for contemporary readers, they can serve as a reminder of the complex emotions that arise in situations of injustice and oppression. It prompts reflection on the ethical and moral responses to such feelings. Despite their suffering, the Psalm also conveys a sense of spiritual resilience and faith. The Israelites did not forget their God even in exile, and this can inspire contemporary readers to maintain their faith and hope in challenging circumstances. The Psalm ends with a plea for peace and the wellbeing of Jerusalem, which can serve as a universal message for contemporary readers, reminding them of the importance of working towards peace and prosperity for their communities and the world.

 

Conclusion

The Psalms, in line with the ancient Near Eastern ideal of a just ruler, depict YHWH as the preserver of order and justice in the world. They show Him as the defender of the rights of the vulnerable and oppressed. This portrayal, although conflicting with the harsh realities of a world inhabited by wicked individuals and plagued by unjust rulers, aligns with YHWH's commitment to justice. It reflects His fair decrees and actions, especially as experienced and revealed to His covenant people. The choice to maintain an active stance within the covenant, through expressions of complaint and protest, reveals Israel's unwavering determination to secure its future solely through this relationship, and not from any other source. Thus, the present need to reengage issues of complaint, lament, and voice is parallel to Israel's exile when Israel was driven from certified Presence to saddened and demanding exile (Brueggemann 2001:41).

This biblical, theological, and contextual exploration, akin to that of ancient Israel, is not undertaken in isolation but is firmly rooted in its context. It's impossible to detach it from a setting where multiple parties play diverse roles. The key lies in determining how to responsibly and actively engage in this defining relationship in specific circumstances. While the historical and cultural contexts of Psalm 137 and contemporary contexts are distinct, the themes of displacement, suffering, and the resilience of the human spirit are universal. The Psalm serves as a reminder that people throughout history have faced adversity and have sought solace and strength in their faith and cultural heritage, which can offer insights and inspiration for those facing similar challenges today.

 

Acknowledgements

B.O.B. declares sole conceptualisation and authorship of this article and acknowledges it as a revised version of the article he presented at the SASNES/LXXSA/OTSSA Annual Conference held at the Department of Old and New Testament, Faculty of Theology, Stellenbosch University from 05-09 September 2022.

Competing interests

The author declares that no financial or personal relationships exist that may have inappropriately influenced the writing this article.

Author's contributions

B.O.B. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human participants.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author and the publisher.

 

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Correspondence:
Blessing Boloje
pstbobson@yahoo.co.uk

Received: 12 Oct. 2023
Accepted: 28 Nov. 2023
Published: 31 May 2024

 

 

Note: Special Collection: African Hermeneutics.
1 . The name 'Psalter' has its origins in the Greek word 'Salterion', which initially meant 'stringed instrument' but later evolved to signify a 'collection of songs'. It was utilised in the Codex Alexandrinus as the title for the Book of Psalms. In the Masoretic Text, the traditional Hebrew Old Testament text established by Hebrew scholars in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, the entire book is referred to as 'Tehillim', meaning 'hymns' (Anderson 1983:23). While the term 'Psalm' pertains to individual poems within the book, in this article, 'Psalter' and 'Psalms' will be used interchangeably as appropriate.
2 . According to deClaissé-Walford (2019:673), 'While the Songs of Ascents depict the Psalm singers either on their way to (Ps 120 and 121) or physically present in Jerusalem (Ps 122-134), Psalms 137 is set "by the rivers of Babylon" (v. 1)'.
3 . DeClaissé-Walford (2019:672) notes that, 'The centrepiece of Book V is a collection of Psalms used at various festal celebrations in the life of Israel - celebrations best undertaken in Jerusalem, the centre of religious and political life in pre-exilic Israel'.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Decolonial thinking and Europe: Decolonisation between particularity and universalism

 

 

Johann-Albrecht Meylahn

Department of Practical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Colonisation continues to have a tremendous impact on large parts of the globe and not only on previously colonised countries. Many of the current geopolitical, economic and environmental challenges that the globe faces cannot be thought of without taking decolonial thinking into consideration. In his Preface to Fanon's book, The Wretched of the Earth, Jean-Paul Sartre argues that this book is not written for Europeans, yet he challenges Europeans to read it. It is between such particularism and universalism that this article will engage with decolonial thinking in the context of the globe's various geopolitical, environmental and political challenges. Europe's colonial claim to universalism cannot be separated from Christendom. In this article, this Christian colonial universalism will be brought into conversation with an attempt at a decolonial theology.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The article is an interdisciplinary conversation between philosophy and theology.

Keywords: Fanon; decolonialism; social death; Afropessimism; Europe; Human Rights; Ethics; Theology.

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Introduction

This article was first presented as a paper¹ in Germany. The title of this article, Decolonial Thinking and Europe, raises numerous critical questions and some serious concerns.

Does a white man, living and working in Europe, have the right to write about decolonial thinking? Where and in what place should such conversations take place? Is a Zoom meeting, predominantly attended by participants from European institutions of higher education, the correct space and place? Clearly not, on two accounts: it is an exclusive space. It is a space from which far too many are excluded from the conversation, firstly, because of the global divide between north and south and secondly, the digital divide that divides the world into those who have access to the digital world and those who cannot afford that access, because either they cannot afford the technology and/or cannot afford the data costs. These questions can be further expanded regarding Christianity, talking about decolonial thinking in a Christian context, where Western Christianity has played such an integral colonial role in global Christianity.

Yet, I believe that this conversation is vitally important, and even more so in exactly such a space of privilege. I stress the term vitally, as it has everything to do with life and that which gives life a chance, as the Argentinian political theorist Léon Rozitchner (2012) argues, when he argues that there is power in this life of the majority against the politics of war and neo-liberal democracy.

But one needs to make a few clear demarcations:

• Not going to try to define what decolonial thinking is.

• Not presenting or introducing a theory of decolonial thinking.

• Not going to present a decolonial perspective, as I do not have that right or that privilege.

What can be done?

• As a European, one has a responsibility, in the sense that decolonial thinking calls a response forth, and therefore one cannot but respond. In this sense, one has a responsibility to allow decolonial thought and decolonial questions to address and deconstruct one.

• This responsibility is not to theorise or determine or appropriate decolonial thinking but to allow it to challenge the Western European subjects, in their Eurocentrism and allow it to deconstruct the European bourgeoisie colonial subjectivity.

Therefore, this article will not be a presentation of decolonial thinking, but rather a thinking and/or a reflection about Europe together with an interpretation of European (bourgeoisie) subjectivity, which are both placed in question by decolonial thinking. To reflect on decolonial thinking as a challenge to think about Europe and European subjectivity together with European identity as it is revealed and exposed by responding to decolonial thought.

 

The time-place of thinking and writing

Who has the right to talk about such matters, in a world where large parts of the world's population, in fact, the majority, have been structurally silenced and continue to be silenced or are at least not respected as equals? Spivak's (2010:21-80) famous question, Can the subaltern speak, is as relevant today as when it was first published. The place and time of the writing of this article is Europe, more specifically Germany, and the time is the time that is dominated by news of the war in Ukraine and the war in Gaza. Trying to write about decolonial thinking in Europe in this particular time-place, while being exposed to the mainstream and official media, one cannot help but perceive how little attention or credence the global south's opinions receive concerning these geopolitical matters, be it on the war in Ukraine or the South African case against Israel.² This lack of credence that the South receives raises exactly this question: Can anyone, but the West speak authoritatively and 'rationally' on these global matters? The scant attention and bias against South Africa in mainstream German media, clearly accentuates this question, that if such a global legal case is brought before any International Court, by anybody but a Western European or North American country, it will not really count in the global rules-based order, which seems to be the new order that has replaced International Law (see Dugard 2023). The dominant West's (USA, UK and Germany together with France) attitude towards the war was not in the least affected by the preliminary judgement of the International Court of Justice. The court's ruling has not received the urgency nor the attention (by Western Government or Western Media) that the situation requires. This historic moment accentuates, or one could even say embodies, the theme of this article.

 

Fanon and social death

Frantz Fanon was a psychologist well acquainted with psychoanalysis in the tradition of Freud and Lacan. This psychoanalytic space together with Marxism - which in a certain sense are both marginal paradigms of thinking within Europe, specifically after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the supposed victory of capitalism - might offer an ideal space to be receptive to the decolonial questions and challenges.

The question this article seeks to respond to, is the question: Is Europe obliged to respond to the call into responsibility by the colonial other, as the other of Europe is the very other who helped create the identity of Europe and European subjectivity? All this, while keeping in mind that the moment that one talks about identity and subjectivity, one has entered the space of the symbolic, the constructed and therefore an ideological and/or religious space.

Fanon did not write for a European audience, but he wrote his thoughts for those whom the white man had and continues to classify as black, as other. Today there might be other names for this other, for example, the migrant, the illegal, the paperless, the stateless and those classified as terrorist, as once Nelson Mandela was also classified as a terrorist not only by apartheid South Africa but also in the West. Fanon wrote for those whose identity, as the black other, was and remains an imposed identity. This Fremdbestimmung determines the livelihood of black people in the global north and south. Frank B. Wilderson III (2017) in his edited book on Afro-pessimism reinterprets the concept of Afro-pessimism from its original use as it was first coined in the context of developmental studies and argues that this determination, this Fremdbestimmung, being identified as black, brings with it a social death. To be racially classified as black is to experience social death. The term, social death, Wilderson (1982) develops from Orlando Patterson:

This is not to privilege anti-Black racism on a hierarchy of oppression, but to assert - against the disparaging lack of analysis - the unlivability of life for Blacks over centuries of social death and physical murder, perpetuated (at varying times) by all non-Black subjects in society. (Wilderson III 2017:12)

Fanon (2008), many years before Wilderson, writes something very similar:

The White man is all around me; up above the sky is tearing at its navel; the earth crunches under my feet and sings white, white. All this whiteness burns me to a cinder. (p. 94)

In other words, what seems to be described here is the impossibility of being in the white world: a social death.

To understand both Fanon and Wilderson, it is important to acknowledge that it is not skin pigmentation that brings about racism, but racism that creates race. '[I]t is not race that produces racism but racism that produces race' (McGowan 2020:181). Or as Fanon writes, 'it is the anti-Semite who makes the Jew' (Fanon 2008:73).

The racial category 'Black' is not biological, genetic, essentialist or a natural phenomenon, but is and always will be an ideological construct of one or other form of racism. This does not deny that the category 'Black' has had tremendous day-to-day implications for generations of people. Barbara and Karen Fields in their book, Racecraft (2012) argue exactly this point that the visibility of race attests to the predominance of racism. The scapegoat that is presented for racism is always the other race. Or as Todd McGowan argues, 'We see race in order not to see racism' (McGowan 2020:187). One speaks of races, one speaks of black people in order not to be confronted with one's racism. Fanon takes this thought one step further, when he argues, 'In our view, an individual who loves Blacks is as "sick" as someone who abhors them' (Fanon 2008:xii). In other words, as long as race is a category (positive or negative), there is racism.

These words and these thoughts of Frank B. Wilderson are extremely unsettling, especially taking into consideration that he wrote these words and edited his book on Afro-pessimism during the presidency of Barack Obama (2009-2017), not only the 44th President of the USA but the first black president of a Western nation, which was presented to the world as a sign of progressive politics, as the end of racism. The idea that a black president presented as the symbol of anti-racism and progressive politics is a clear indication of the underlying racism.

To return to the concept of social death, Wilderson (2017) describes it as follows:

Social death has three constituent elements: One is gratuitous violence, which means that the body of the slave is open to the violence of all others. Whether he or she receives that violence or not, he or she exists in a state of structural or open vulnerability.

This vulnerability is not contingent upon his or her transgressing some type of law, as in going on strike with the worker. The other point is that the slave is natally alienated, which is to say that the temporality of one's life that is manifest in filial and afilial relations - the capacity to have families and the capacity to have associative relations - may exist very well in your head. You might say, "I have a father, I have a mother," but, in point of fact, the world does not recognize or incorporate your filial relations into its understanding of family. And the reason that the world can do this goes back to point number one: because you exist in a regime of violence which is gratuitous, open, and you are openly vulnerable to everyone else, not a regime of violence that is contingent upon you being a transgressed worker or transgressing woman or someone like that. And the third point is general dishonour, which is to say, you are dishonoured in your very being - and I think that this is the nature of Blackness with everyone else. You're dishonoured prior to your performance of dishonoured actions. So, it takes a long time to build this but in a nutshell that's it. And so that's one of the moves of Afro-pessimism. If you take that move and you take out property relations - someone who's owned by someone else - you take that out of the definition of slavery and you take out forced labor, and if you replace that with social death and those three constituent elements, that you have is a continuum of slavery-subjugation that Black people exist in and 1865 is a blip on the screen. (p. 18)

I believe that these words of Wilderson ring shockingly true in Gaza in this time of war beginning in October 2023 and continuing into 2024, where the lives of children, black children (that is, non-whites) have no value. At least their value does not compare to the life and the bodies of Europeans and their families. The mainstream Western response to the different murdered bodies in Gaza makes a mockery of the term universal in universal rights.

There are no universal rights prior to the politics of belonging, that is citizenship (see Žižek 2007). Agamben's (1998) Homo Sacer or bare life, does not have any rights; one first needs to be worthy, identifiable, to be included in the bourgeoisie citizenship of freedom and rights as developed through the Enlightenment and the French Revolution.

 

Human rights and decolonial thinking

Before Wilderson, Frantz Fanon (2008) wrote, in Black Skin, White Masks:

Running the risk of angering my black brothers, I shall say that a Black is not a man. There is a zone of nonbeing, an extraordinarily sterile and arid region, an incline stripped bare of every essential form from which a genuine new departure can emerge. (xi author's emphasis)

Between, on the one hand, the pain of this assertion of nonbeing and of having no value and on the other, the cry of hope for a genuine new departure, one ventures forth in this article, consciously writing these words at a desk in Europe.

This social death of the black body, raises the question: What is it in the white man, or in the white global world of the European, that she, he, they need the social death of the black body, the black person, why do they need the Black other for the 'I' of the European to be? To ask this question even more radically, in the tradition of Rozitschner (2012), why is there a need for genocide of the other for the universal rights of Western civilisation to be? The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) was a response to the genocide in Germany and the atrocities. In other words, genocide and human rights are intimately connected.

This is the question that is maybe raised among others by decolonial thought, in the tradition of Fanon. The European subject, just like the Black subject, is not a natural phenomenon, but an ideological construct, constructed not only from the protestant Reformation, the Enlightenment and the French Revolution but from the exploitation and the genocide of indigenous people, cultures and civilisations by colonialism. This modern universal (European) subject is, if anything, a transmodern subject, created in the intersection between North and South. It is not a subject that was born from the isolation of Europe and purely on European ground and thought, but it is a transmodern construct - it is a colonial construct. The rights of the Europeans, believing themselves to be the incarnation of the World Spirit, are only possible based on the loss of all rights, the rights of all the other 'inferior' cultures and civilisations who apparently do not incarnate the World Spirit, as Hegel thought in his Hegel's Philosophy of Right (cf. Dussel 1981:807).

It is in this transmodern space, that this question is revealed and becomes visible and through decolonial thinking, the question becomes audible and ever more visible, tangible as it becomes embodied in this space.

 

Why does the European they require the social death of the black them to be?

For the European modern subject to be, to be European, to be modern, to be universal with all its human worth, dignity and rights, whatever that might mean, it needs the black them to be without dignity, honour, worth and rights. For the one to be the civilised, free and autonomous same, it needs the barbaric and unfree other. The colonial other only exists because of colonialism, and therefore, decolonial thinking only exists because of colonial thinking. In this sense, the two cannot be separated from each other and therefore decolonial thought cannot be separated from colonial thought - decolonial thought reveals a truth one could say of colonial bourgeoisie or if you prefer, metropolitan, even cosmopolitan thought and subjectivity.

As Fanon writes in his book, The Wretched of the Earth, 'It is the colonist who fabricated and continues to fabricate the colonised subject. The colonist derives his validity, that is, his wealth, from the colonial system' (Fanon 2004:2).

The active-passive agent here is the one who requires an answer to the question, 'Who am I?' once the traditional identities all but disappeared with the Reformation, Enlightenment, Industrialisation and the French Revolution. For Kant, it was tradition and society that violently imposed an identity on individuals (cf. McGowan 2020:11) and therefore, the Enlightenment was experienced as a liberation of identity from these imposed determinations. Identity was now dependent on superior values, such as a 'free' consciousness and the individual's courage to think for themselves. These superior and higher values had to be superior and higher to something, first superior and higher to the past (tradition and traditional authorities) and then the other.

Therefore, it was not the colonial other, who asked these questions concerning identity and the 'free' grounding of this identity, because the colonial other was created in response to this question. It is the identity of Europe that depends on the social death, we can add the cultural death, of the other. Europe, with its stars on the blue sky of the European Union's flag, was created on the foundation of this death.³ Yet, this modern Western identity is such a fragile and fickle thing, and always a response to an other. In this sense, identities are always ideological as they are symbolic.

Jacques Derrida (1992) writes in his book, The Other Heading:

In the logic of this 'capitalistic' and cosmopolitical discourse, what is proper to a particular nation or idiom would be to be a heading for Europe; and what is proper to Europe would be, analogically, to advance itself as a heading for the universal essence of humanity. (p. 49; author's emphasis)

Decolonial thinking is in this sense as much about the identity of the coloniser (Europe) as it is about the struggle for cultural and economic independence of the colonised.

The colonised other and their struggle for identity and liberation is a structural necessity caused by the European self, the European subject and the European ego, and therefore this has as much to do with Europe as it does with the colonial countries. For the coloniser (Europe), it is a self-critical perspective grounded in a deep understanding of this structural necessity hidden in the subjectivity and identity of Europe of which Europe is so proud, namely the supposedly free, autonomous and self-determining subject - in other words, the emerging bourgeoisie and colonising subject of the metropolitan centres, which has given itself the right to be the heading (leaders) of the globe by revealing the universal essence of humanity.

The European subject is born in and from the oppression of, colonisation of, silencing of and condemnation to the social death of the colonial other. There is a certain necessity of death to be, the necessity of violence to be and the necessity of murder to be. This structural insight, that psychoanalysis argues, is what is concretised and revealed in decolonial thinking. A truth, hidden in the unconscious and revealed through the work of psychoanalysis. Europe responds to this concretisation in various ways.

It can play the role of the eternal confessor, publicly confessing their privilege, as I did at the beginning of this article, but does such acknowledgement of privilege change anything, or is it part and parcel of the same bourgeoisie mechanism, where acknowledgement of one's privilege becomes the grounding of an inverted privilege to speak. In other words, a Nietzschean will to power that is hidden or not so hidden in this apparent confessional morality of proclaiming oneself guilty - a kind of inverted victimhood. It is a will to power of not only wanting to speak but to continue to determine what social justice is, what the good is and what is politically correct, in other words, still determining the superior values on which identity is based (Žižek 2004):

And is this not the 'truth' of such an ethical stance, thereby confirming the old Hegelian suspicion that every self-denigration secretly asserts its contrary? It is like the proverbial excessive Political Correctness of the Western white male who questions his own right to assert his cultural identity, while celebrating the exotic identity of others, thereby asserting his privileged status of the universal-neutral medium of recognizing other's identities … (p. 11)

The inherent superiority of knowing what justice and social justice are and to a certain extent what the goal of human development and what true civilisation is: the civilised are those who can acknowledge their privilege and confess their past atrocities; this confession of past atrocities seems to lend the confessor the right to morally recolonise the globe.

Acknowledgement of privilege becomes the new hallmark of superior values, and of what is good, just and politically correct. These superior norms and values are still established among the liberal intellectuals and academia of the Face of Christ as Deleuze and Guattari (2011:167-191) would argue, in other words by the West. Thus, both the construction and the deconstruction, the presentation and the critique of the presentation of this Western Norm remain a Western privilege.

It remains a kind of missionary universalism that the contemporary politically correct European is once again imposing on the colonial world, while presenting it as a universalism of inclusivity, a celebration of diversity, a cosmopolitanism, in the sense of belonging to the wonderful and colourful rainbow of universal (Western) humanity. This is not a universalism, as François Julien would argue, but a uniformism. In other words, it is a cultural (European) particularity that presents itself as universal (Julien 2014):

The uniform is the perverted double of that universal which is now being spread by globalization. As it saturates the world, it surreptitiously masquerades as the universal without being able to evoke its legitimacy. (p. xi)

But one knows that belonging is only possible on the condition that there is a non-belonging, just as an inside is structurally and logically only possible if there is an outside, an inclusion is only possible on the condition of the possibility of an exclusion. To be able to determine who belongs, one also needs to determine who does not belong; in other words, the other, the enemy, the excluded needs to be determined. Uniformism is always conditional, of course, the other is welcome in the inclusion, if and only if she, he, or it fulfils certain criteria, agrees to the norms and subscribes to certain 'superior' values, which are all part of the criteria for inclusion. Inclusion in the world system, inclusion into the norms and rules-based world order, and if not, one is classified as rogue and/or terrorist, or a 'Queerdenker'. This conditional inclusion presents itself as open, inclusive and universal, but it is based on becoming uniform to a particular interpretation of diversity. This mission of uniformising the globe becomes historical in the belief that this mission is progressive. It began with the Enlightenment and the French Revolution and their claim to universal rights, but in fact, it was only the inclusion of the heterosexual white middle-class male, although the inclusion was presented as being universal. Later heterosexual women were included and eventually many years later, homosexuals were included. This brings with it the belief that this inclusion and celebration of diversity is something progressive and that eschatologically one day all will be included in a global humanity with their particular cultural, racial, religious, sexual and sexual orientation differences, and identities respected and recognised. It seems to be about the recognition of differences.

In time, in eschatological time, everyone could theoretically be included. However, 'The project of universal inclusion is hysterical: it does not want the total inclusion that it strives for' (McGowan 2020:186) - a universalism of belonging, conditioned by rules and norms; a rule and norms-based universalism that finds expression in so-called universal rights (as universal norms and values).

As Fanon (2004) writes:

In the colonial context the colonist only quits undermining the colonized once the latter have proclaimed loud and clear that white values reign supreme. In the period of decolonization the colonized masses thumb their noses at these very values, shower them with insults and vomit them up. (p. 8)

This kind of universalism of belonging is opposed by Fanon. The colonised do not want to one day be granted the privilege of belonging to a uniform European-conditioned universal humanity, for example, once the colonial subject has learned to speak French or English without an accent, has studied and learned the correct manners, has adopted the values and integrated the norms and therefore abides by the rules-based Western world order. It cannot be a question of the colonial subject becoming uniform to the conditions set by those who believe their particularity is universal but needs to be something else.

Fanon argues that even if the black mouth speaks French perfectly, the black intellect has received all the degrees from the prestigious ivy-league universities, she or he or they will still not be welcomed as full members of the so-called uniform universal bourgeoisie metropolitan community, as they will never completely belong. Fanon, argues that the black skin will never belong, will never be equal, irrespective of how she or he performs and fulfils the criteria set out in the universal charter of belonging, which supposedly determines human worth.

 

An other universalism

Wilderson argued in 2017, it does not matter how well educated the black person is, it does not matter if the president of the USA is black, the black person is doomed to social death because it is never enough to belong, as the conditions are never fulfilled. Fanon thus argues for a different kind of universalism, the universalism of nonbelonging. There are different voices within decolonial thinking who would probably not agree with Fanon on this point. They would rather argue for a pluriversal perspective, embracing differing worlds, rather than a singular (Western) world where nonbelonging prevails.

McGowan describes this subject, this universal non-belonging subject, as a being of language and as a consequence of being a language, the subject is divided.⁴

'Universality is not the uniform but the absence that puts subjects at odds with themselves' (McGowan 2020:172). What is truly universal about humans is that the human subject is a divided subject, a subject that is at odds with themselves. The universalism that takes this universal lack into consideration is a universalism that unites all humanity. The particularity of the diverse identities is an unavoidable symptom in response to the universal lack. For there to be belonging, there must be nonbelonging. Likewise, one can say that for there to be inclusion, there is exclusion. It is the universalism of a certain lack, a non, a universalism of a negativity, of a social death, of a certain violence, an original murder. This is the universalism that appears through the hermeneutic lens of psychoanalysis, in which Fanon was trained. That which universally unites all humanity is not the constructed particular identities, which are always ideology dependent. The universal humanity is not identity dependent, but humanity is united by their common lack, the murder, the violence and the death that gives birth to the speaking being: the human subject.

Lacan teaches one that the subject is a divided subject, a lacking subject, and it is this lack that is universal, but without conditions, as it is a universalism that is universal without any positive content for which one can fight, it is a universal that stands with or without human struggle. The colonial subject is the singular expression of this universal, in the particular global uniformism of the European subjectivity. Such universalism is worth taking up, in the sense of posturing oneself or taking this specific stance rather than a position (see Meylahn 2021:201). It is about taking a stance with regard to this lack - not to fulfil the conditions set by a particular construction of human identity, but rather to create an awareness of the struggle of universal non-belonging, the struggle of universal social death. It is a much more fundamental or originary universalism that is there prior or as the non-ground ground of all particular constructs of universalism. It is a universal condition concerning all human systems, constructs, identities, social systems and communities. It is as Wilderson (2017) writes:

If we are to be honest with ourselves, we must admit that the 'Negro' has been inviting whites, as well as civil society's junior partners, to the dance of social death for hundreds of years, but few have wanted to learn the steps. (p. 13)

Fanon's decolonial thinking helps us rediscover this kind of universalism, the universalism of nonbelonging.

Fanon (2008) writes, 'This essay will attempt to understand the Black-White relationship.

The white man is locked in his whiteness.

The black man in his blackness.

Our sole concern was to put an end to a vicious cycle.

Fact: Some Whites consider themselves superior to Blacks.

Another fact: Some Blacks want to prove at all costs to the Whites the wealth of the black man's intellect and equal intelligence…

We believe that an individual must endeavour to assume the universalism inherent in the human condition' (pp. xiii-xiv).

Decolonial thinking gives this universalism a singular face, not a particular expression, not a particular African construction of an alternative humanity or alternative claim to universal humanism, as Fanon does not want to lift Negritude, African Socialism or Ubuntu to the status of an alternative construct, alternative essentialism and thus alternative universalism. Decolonial thinking can be interpreted rather as a singular expression of the universalism of nonbelonging and in this sense, it is a universal struggle, which includes Europe.

Fanon (2004) concludes his book with the following words:

If we want to transform Africa into a new Europe, America into a new Europe, then let us entrust the destinies of our countries to the Europeans. They will do a better job than the best of us. But if we want humanity to take one step forward, if we want to take it to another level than the one where Europe has placed it, then we must innovate, we must be pioneers. For Europe, for ourselves and for humanity, comrades, we must make a new start, develop a new way of thinking, and endeavor to create a new man. (p. 239)

It is a universalism, a new conception of humanity, but not a humanity that will be born on the foundation of any positive attributes, but that will be born out of the scream from a black hole (Fanon 2008):

What more can we say? After having driven himself to the limits of self-destruction, the black man, meticulously, or impetuously, will jump into the 'black hole' from which will gush forth 'the great black scream with such force that it will shake the foundation of the world'. (p. 175)

To give an example from the Black Lives Matter movement, one could argue, as does Todd McGowan (2020):

Success for Black Lives Matter could only be everyone paying attention and recognizing that we all partake in the nonbelonging that the murdered black people represent. This mark of this success would not be total integration. Instead, it would occur when lives that don't belong would become impossible to shoot without collapsing the entire social order. The fundamental confusion that surrounds universality is that we often mistake the adding up of all particulars, which is what All Lives Matter proposes, for the universal. (pp. 185-186)

The politics of liberal cosmopolitanism often presents itself as universal, but the universalism of cosmopolitanism is understood as a combination of all positive differences in a rainbow-nation sense. McGowan (2020), in reference to Jacques Lacan, argues against such a positive interpretation of universalism, understood as the addition of all possible positive identities:

But the universal is not all particulars assembled together.⁵ It is not a combination. It is what remains absent from a complete collection of particulars. It is what all the particulars lack. The point of political struggle is not to include all within the social structure but to recognize the failure of all inclusion. (p. 186)

A radically different kind of universalism is presented here (McGowan 2020):

The solidarity organized around a shared absence does not necessitate the nonbelonging of some because it accepts that no one really belongs. We can discover universal solidarity only through what doesn't belong, not through the act of belonging. (p. 186)

It is not about including the colonial other into the particular universalism, in other words, the bourgeoise subjectivity of the Enlightenment and French Revolution, but rather discovering universal non-belonging through the singular decolonial other, who becomes the concrete universal in this particular struggle. There will always be the poor among you, there will always be someone in the position of the black other, the colonial other. Therefore, the question cannot be how they can be included, but how one relates to (postures oneself to) this structural necessary exclusion. The political posture to take is to abandon the quest for a solution, and rather identify with the missing signifier, but not in an attempt to integrate it successfully into the very system that always again brings about exclusion (see McGowan 2013⁶):

By doing so, we would see that the missing signifier, despite appearances, does not concern those who are not properly represented. It concerns the system of signification itself, the law itself. The absence in the law is the founding moment of the law, not an otherness that the law cannot accommodate. (p. 277)

It is not about seeking to include the other, but focusing on the insider; decolonial thinking in this sense could be interpreted as focusing on colonial Europe, with the emphasis on the upstanding citizen within the dominant social structure, which needs to be disrupted. By responding to the other, the political battle is already lost, as the missing signifier is not an opening to a mysterious otherness; 'it is the unacknowledged way that the symbolic structure manifests itself' (McGowan 2013:277).

Therefore, McGowan (2013) argues that:

[R]ather than working to include previously excluded subjects within the structure of signification, we must work instead to reveal how those inside are themselves already excluded: there is no inclusion that does not partake of the fundamental exclusion that defines the structure. (p. 277)

This is a very different kind of universalism to the universalism of the Face of Christ, as Deleuze and Guattari argue, and in this context, Christianity cannot be ignored (positively or negatively) when thinking about decolonialism.

Therefore, instead of trying to ignore Christianity, ignore the Face of Christ (see also Meylahn 2018:41), one would need to reinterpret Christianity or at least follow the traces of alternative interpretations of Christianity throughout the ages. For example, one could follow the traces of the prophetic voices within the Bible as well as throughout church history, although these prophetic voices throughout the history of Christianity remain part and parcel of this Face of Christ as Nancy (2008:10) argues, that both construction and destruction are Christian. It cannot therefore be a matter of simply choosing between the priestly and the prophetic, as in the Kairos Document (1985), but it is rather to seek a radical non-interpretation. Not an active interpretation or reinterpretation, but a passive stance, allowing something to happen to one, as Saul's experience on the road to Damascus. Saul, before he became Paul, experienced being confronted with his persecution of Christ. Such a passive experience is transformative: to realise that one cannot but persecute Christ, to realise that one, in order to be, cannot but be a colonialist persecutor of black bodies. Such a Saul-Paul experience is required, not in the sense of a reinterpretation, as it is not an active alternative interpretation, but as a passive experience of being the persecutor and the experience of being the cause of social death.

This might open the door to a different universalism, namely a universalism of lack, which can be interpreted as a universalism of the crib and the cross. The crib and the birth of an illegitimate baby on the outskirts of an Empire only recognised by those marginalised by society is certainly a story of lack, entering the world. The crib in a stable in Bethlehem is the birth of the saviour revealed in a lack: the lack of a home, the lack of being an illegitimate child, the lack of living on the margins of the Empire and the lack of being forced to become a refugee in a foreign land. This lack that is revealed in the crib will repeatedly and constantly be filled with positive content, as has happened throughout the centuries, when good intending and devout believers gathered around the crib in awe and adoration filling this lack with various positive fictions: dogmas, theologies and beliefs. It is probably no coincidence, that - as this lack is universal - the positive fictions that are supposed to fill this universal lack present themselves as positive forms of universalism, although this kind of positive universalism is always particular to those who create it and who have the power to universalise it. One could say the same of the cross, which is par excellence a symbol of lack and loss of all meaning, the death of God. In the adoration of the cross, like the crib, it has been filled with positive content, which presents itself as universal, thereby repressing the universal lack that the cross reveals. In this sense, one can argue that Christianity, as a positive religion, will always present itself as universal, as its founding event is the revelation of universal lack.

The question is if this is inevitable. It certainly seems that way, if one for a moment reflects on the Book of Revelation.

As the fatally wounded lamb of the Book of Revelation Chapter 4 opens the seven seals of the Book of Life, it makes sense that the first seal, the first rider on the white horse, can be interpreted as the rider of universal victory. The victorious world spirit rides out to conquer the world in the name of its universal truth, only to realise that once this universal truth, as lack, is positively filled with a particular content, which enables one to ride out in conquering victory, it is lost and the red horse of war invariably follows. The red rider brings with him religious wars, ideological wars, wars always between friend and foe. To stem this eternal conflict between friend and foe, the black horse with its rider needs to be released. The black rider of the law and the market. Laws, as Benjamin argues, 'Modern law [is] to divest the individual, at least as a legal subject, of all violence, even that directed to a natural end' (Benjamin 2004:241). Yes, the law can stem the violence, as does the 'free' market which seeks to regulate a space for 'healthy' competition and thereby stem the mimetic violence, but the law together with the market and the commodification brings with it the final rider on his pale horse, the rider of death. These four riders, seem to be necessary, structural consequences of filling the lack with content, be it the positive adoration around the crib in a stable or at the foot of the cross in Jerusalem. Yet, the congregation in Philadelphia (Rv 3. 7ff) was commended not for riding out on any white horse, but for remaining true to the lamb in weakness and in lack. Can the congregation in Philadelphia inspire decolonial theology?

The question is if such a decolonial faith can be translated into a theology, or is theologising always a form of idolatry? Wilderson argues that a black person is the singular universal, who reveals the social death of humanity and invites all of humanity to this dance of social death. In this sense, just as decolonial thinking is tied to the singular universal of the black person, as Wilderson understands the construct of the black body, so theology, if it wants to remain faithful to the crib and the cross, is tied to this social death, and is thus inherently decolonial.

Such a positioning of theology is untenable and it would again be a position and not a stance or a posture. Maybe one can refer back to Luther and his simul justus et peccator - that one is always simultaneously sinner and justified. In this sense, one can argue that humanity is simultaneously coloniser and colonised, colonialist and decolonialist, as one cannot but be colonialist, as to be is to be colonial. Luther is believed to conclude from this that one is encouraged to be a joyful sinner. What does Luther imply with his idea of sinning joyfully? He is certainly not referring to immorality or debauchery or even to purposefully disobeying the laws or moral codes, but to acknowledge - in one's desire to do good, to be perfect, to create a perfect just society by seeking to fulfil the law - that one does the exact opposite and enters the realm of the wrath of God deus absconditus (the hidden God). The desire to do good, to reach the good taken to its logical consequence is to experience suffering and the cross and therein alone lies freedom and redemption. It is one's sins that bring one to the grace of Christ crucified. It is the terror, the violence that is experienced in the world that drives one towards the grace of democracy (see Rozitchner 2012). This is maybe where one is today and where theology should posture itself, where theology should take a stance within society between colonial and decolonial. Maybe Wilderson has something of this in mind, with the invitation to the dance to which all are invited. It is not that one dances with death, as a kind of dance with nihilism, but it is the dance of immortality: the dance that dances with death in that it defies death. It is that which is not killed, not murdered, that which defies and denies death, plays with death, also known as eternity, resurrection and everlasting life but in an immanent non-otherworldly sense, as a political force in Jacque Rancière's (2019:39-44, 160) sense of politics.

Social death is a universal human condition, which is a dance, and the colonial subjects have been inviting the globe to learn this dance. The time is now, to hear the scream from the black hole in the birth pains of a new humanity - resurrection.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

J.-A.M. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Johann-Albrecht Meylahn
johann.meylahn@up.ac.za

Received: 19 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 16 Apr. 2024
Published: 31 May 2024

 

 

Note: Special Collection: Decolonialism in Theology today.
1 . This article is based on a paper presented, via Zoom, as part of a series of International Talks. This is a joint venture between various universities in Germany.
2 . The Application of the convention of the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel) instituted in December 2023, see https://icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/192/192-20231228-app-01-00-en.pdf. The order from the International Court of Justice on 26 January 2024, see https://icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/192/192-20240126-ord-01-00-en.pdf.
3 . It had to believe that the culture and the civilisation that is liberated from tradition and religion is superior. It had to believe that this enlightenment and reformation freedom is superior to the tradition and religion of the indigenous other.
4 . The speaking being becomes a speaking being through a constitutive lack: language distances the subject from the world of objects and eliminates any direct access to the object that would fulfil the subject's needs. The subject exists as a subject only insofar as it remains incomplete and divided from itself. The subject desires as a result of its incompletion, and this desire is caused by the lack. Lack defines how we relate to the world, impelling us to seek out what we are missing in the world. The self-identical, non-lacking subject would no longer be a subject and no longer be capable of speaking. Lack is subjectivity (McGowan 2017:15).
5 . Jacques Lacan defines feminine sexuality according to the logic of the not-all in his Seminar XX. He contrasts this with a masculine logic of the all, which attains wholeness through positing an exception out-side the all. In this way, Lacan shows that the only possible universality is that of the not-all. The universality of the all is faked, just like masculine potency.
6 . This means that the struggle against illegal immigration does not concern illegal immigrants outside the legal social structure, even though they are clearly affected by this struggle. It concerns, instead, the status of the upstanding citizen within the social structure (McGowan 2013:277).

^rND^sBenjamin^nW.^rND^sDugard^nJ.^rND^sDussel^nE.^rND^sRozitchner^nL^rND^sSpivak^nG.C.^rND^sWilderson III^nF.B.^rND^sŽižek^nS^rND^1A01^nPeter^sMasvotore^rND^1A01^nPeter^sMasvotore^rND^1A01^nPeter^sMasvotore

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Decolonising theological education in the eyes of African Theologians: Lessons for the church

 

 

Peter Masvotore

Institute for Theology and Religion, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Sub-Saharan African countries including Zimbabwe taught and continue to teach students in ministerial formation Western theology using pedagogy that is not contextual to address African concerns. The quality of education and the methods used do not prepare students to encounter the challenges of the dynamic global, social, economic and technological environmental advancement. The definition of theology as the study of God needs to be rethought because theology is not only the study of God. Instead, it involves the study of how God interacts with His creation. This expanded definition has allowed some theologians the likes of Canaan Banana and others to scratch where Africa itches in the bid to meet the goals of Agenda 2063 of the Africa we want. Using desk research, this article seeks to explore decolonisation in theological education in the spectacles of some African theologians in order to draw lessons for the church in Zimbabwe. Through their insights that deal with aspirations and passion of the African continent, the article concludes by suggesting African teaching methods that are contemporary to the needs of Africans for sustainable development as a way to decolonise theology.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: A call to decolonise theological education in the spectacles of African theological giants brings insights for the church to be relevant in Africa, in line with achieving Agenda 2030 and 2063 goals. This subject matter is informed from the discipline of theology, political theology, political science, education as well as sociology.

Keywords: African; church; citizenry; decolonising; education; theological.

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Introduction

The contextualisation of Christianity is a process that calls for the exegesis of Christian truth in terms of and applying it to the real-life issues arising from the socio-cultural context within which the interpreters live (Imasogie 1983:7). This simply means taking seriously every day human life and God's desire to be involved in this life where people live. Biblically, God was involved in the life of the Hebrews throughout the Old Testament. God demonstrated His commitment and willingness to contextualise in the lives of His people for meaning and relevance to them. Even, Jesus's involvement with the people of his day and his willingness to deal with their concerns and questions, teaching using metaphors and parables that were familiar to the day today business of his people, shows high level of contextualisation. Paul and the other New Testament writers, likewise contextualised God's message to suit the people they were addressing. The fact that the writers of Scriptures, are contextualising for different audiences explains the surface level and differences between the messages the writers were teaching their congregants to meet their needs in their different contexts. It is also observed in the Scriptures that the problem caused by Judaizers who misunderstood the Gospel only applied to their cultural context, hence they went on to assume that the Gospel also endorsed their culture. Therefore, these Hebrew Christians believed that because God was willing to enter their way of life he was as such endorsing that way as the only valid cultural expression. These Judaizers concluded that circumcision and other Hebrew religious rituals were the only response of all other nationalities to the Christian message.

The history of Christianity has seen tendencies of reverting to the Judaizers' approach in the missionary movement. The Western Christianity in its endeavour to spread the Gospel through missionary activities, transported the Western gospel suited for the Global North and transplanted it in Africa without taking the African world view and self-understanding into consideration in their theological formulations. It therefore means the group in power gets to define orthodoxy and to impose it on less powerful groups unless and until the latter develop enough strength to separate from the dominating group. Given the cultural differences between missionaries and the Africans, among whom missionaries worked, what was then spread or taught to Africans did not scratch them (Africans) where it itches. Today African church leaders are asking questions such as, 'if Christianity is universally valid, does it have answers to the questions non-Westerners are asking? Cannot the Bible be properly interpreted outside the academic corridors of Eurocentrism'.

Through the spectacles of some African theologians such as Canaan Banana and Maponga, this article seeks to explore decolonisation in theological education to remove the Euromerican syndrome that always thinks theology is absolute to a contextualisation of theology that addresses needs of Africans and situate theology in an African world view in order to draw lessons for the church in Zimbabwe. Through their insights that deal with aspirations and passion of the African continent, the article concludes by suggesting African teaching methods that are contemporary to the needs of Africans for sustainable development as a way to decolonise theology.

 

Methodology

A desk research methodology was used to gather already existing data from published sources in books, articles and journals as well as online data that are relevant to the topic under investigation. Creswell (2009:10) attested that when using a desk study, one will be gathering data without directly engaged in fieldwork. Furthermore, desk research can be defined as (Hakim 1982):

A tributary examination of a prevailing information that presents clarifications, suppositions or evidence supplementary to, or diverse from, those obtainable from the first account on the entire enquiry and its key outcome. (p. 1)

In the context of this study, the term desk research is used in a broader sense to include every data collected without direct participation in the fieldwork. Furthermore, this research uses this method to gather information from published books both hard copies and electronic books, articles and journals by some African theologians who wrote on issues of decolonisation and contextualisation of theological education. Using already existing data is an alternative possibility for researchers who could not have enough resources and time to carryout interviews in the field. According to some scholars such as Andrews et al. (2012) and Smith (2011):

Desk study investigation is a practical method that employs similar essential research ideology as studies using primary data and has rules to be followed just as any research method. Even though secondary data enquiry is further defined as a logical research method, nevertheless, not many frameworks are obtainable to direct researchers as they carry out desk research data analysis. (p. 13; p. 920)

The advantage of using already assembled data is that it saves financial resources in transport and other logistics involved in the collection of data. It also affords equal opportunity to all researchers counting or embracing the apprentices and shapes aptitude for empirical research. Furthermore, it is quicker to conduct desk research as one skips other time-consuming research steps.

 

Biblical perspective on theological education

The importance of education dates back to biblical times that has undergone transformation to suit various contexts. From the Patriarchs, education started with giving instructions to the Israelite parents to teach their children, what God taught them as instructed in Deuteronomy 11:18-19. It is also in the book of Proverbs where references to education and learning methods are enshrined as guide to humanity, (Pr 22:6, 8:10-11, 17-21). It is in the book of Proverbs where human beings were urged to value education more highly than wealth as stated in the above verses. Those who would value education will have sound judgement that leads to prosperity, honour, and a rich inheritance.

Apart from the Old Testament view, theological education should get insights from Jesus' model of teaching. Jesus is considered to be the greatest teacher ever known as evidenced by the impact he had during his life time on earth (Mumuni 2018:345; see also Ango & Rutoro 2020:152). Ango (2018:108) admitted that theological educators need to engage with learners in dialogue, reflection, critical thinking, and action which are the methodologies that Jesus used in the story of Nicodemus who was an intellectual, even with his disciples who were regarded as ignorant, and also with the Samaritan woman at the well. Jesus answered their questions through asking searching questions as well as engaging them into critical dialogue that resulted into praxis.

In his method of teaching, Jesus answered his audience's questions by throwing back a question to the one who asked, for the one to reflect and provide self with an answer. He was unlike some teachers who respond to questions directly or even felt being challenged by the learners. In the Bible (Lk 10:25-28), Jesus answered an expert of the law's question using this method of questioning:

'Teacher,' he asked 'what must I do to inherit eternal life?'

'What is written in the law?' Jesus replied. 'How do you read it?'

He answered, 'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind,' and 'Love your neighbour as yourself.'

'You have answered correctly,' Jesus replied. 'Do this and you will live.'

From the conversation held the learner seem to have not been convinced with Jesus' answer which, just confirmed what he already knew hence, he asked a follow up question. 'And who is my neighbour?' (Lk 10:29). Jesus did not give a direct answer. Rather he told a parable of the good Samaritan. From the parable, he asked his learner a question that provoked him to think. 'Which of these three do you think was a neighbour to the man who fell into the hands of robbers?' (Lk 10:36).

From the above one can deduce that Jesus was using the questioning technique to search for answers from those around him by provoking them to think for themselves instead of being spoon fed. For Mburu (2019:72), hermeneutics requires the use of certain methods or techniques in order to produce reliable results. Therefore, African interpreters of the Bible particularly theological college lecturers, must be alert to the need of giving a theological translation that connects with where African people are in their cultures. As the church is an interface of contact between the Christian faith and the culture, therefore contextualisation is essential if the biblical message is to be understood for what it is.

 

The call for new critical perspectives

The speedy social, political and economic vagaries that have forced systems of the Zimbabwean society to change have dire consequences for theological education in Africa and Zimbabwe in particular. The implications are in both ways. On the one hand, the interconnectedness between theological education and society is inseparable. On the other hand, there are social dynamics that affect our theological education systems, at the same time it is a fact that our theological education systems do affect our society. Theological education shapes student ministers who in turn shape the world beyond the ministerial formation classrooms (eds. Carpenter, Glanzer & Lantinga 2014:23; see Ango & Rutoro 2020:146; Babalola 2006:4). If theological education in Africa, Zimbabwe in particular, is to attain transformation that is needed to reach the goals of both Agenda 2030 and Agenda 2063, there is need to decolonise theological education and contextualise it to focus on building character and having ability to solve problems. It should be looked at from the spectacles of insiders who are African theologians themselves to diagnose the relevance of an imported theology from the Global North.

It has been long overdue when Africa and some other developing countries such as Brazil have relied on what Paul Freire called 'banking system of education' where students' minds are regarded as empty vessels, where there is need for teachers to pour in knowledge (Freire 1967:126). Students in this case are considered passive recipients of other people's ideas without having ability to think on their own. This is what prevail in most of the theological colleges dotted around the country, hence the need to turn the tables and advocate for problem solving systems of education where learners are actively involved in critical thinking to look for solutions to their problems. The teacher becomes a facilitator rather than a bank of knowledge.

Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 Agenda (2015), ensures an inclusive and equitable quality education that promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all. When articulating this goal, it is critical to observe that education is no longer an impartation of data, certain ideologies or skills, instead, theological education also affect a student's attitude, emotion and social and psychological stance, and model one's world view. Theological education is influential in shaping character and training in conduct that directs humanity to a successful life. Ango and Rutoro (2020) suggest that:

Successful lives are even more likely if learning involves more than just doing what the lecturer says and involves the students in thinking for themselves and discovering how to come up with innovative ways to solve problems. (p. 147)

In Zimbabwe, the shift from education 3.0 (an education system that focussed on teaching, research and community engagement) to education 5.0, which add two more components that include technology and industrialisation, means that the education in all educational institutions including theological education should now focus on innovation through use of technology and any education should contribute to the industry to create jobs as additional components to the already known teaching, research and community engagement. The call is for students to be able to be job creators instead of being job seekers. Karakoc (2016) puts it:

The primary focus of any theological education system should be to nurture thinking skills in order to help individuals realize their full potential. Those students who develop these skills will be able to adopt an analytical and evaluative attitude towards their own performance and the performance of the society around them. (p. 82; cf. Almeida & Franco 2011:178)

It is therefore, important for lecturers to develop and engage in analytical, evaluative delivery methods that enable and encourage students' critical thinking skills including teasing their problem-solving skills, research skills, creative skills, and innovative questioning and reasoning skills. There is need to give learners a theological education that is carefully designed and executed in ways that addresses the economic and social objectives of Africa and promotes the common good, which is the key principle of public theology. Because of the centrality of faith in Africa, a faith-based theological education should guide the development of an African theological education guided by African theologians such as Banana who had a decolonising ideology to situate an African context. For Zvobgo (1996:16), such an education system will value not only sustainable development and the development of critical thinking but will also nurture honesty, integrity and god-fearing spirit. All these facets are critical if we are to protect God's creation for present and future generation and achieve the goals of Agenda 2063.

 

African indigenous teaching methods

Theological education systems in Africa, Zimbabwe in particular, should be soaked in indigenous ways of teaching. It is true that Africa had its own educational tradition that was not bookish but an education system that emanated from identifying problems and finding ways to solve such problems (cf. Seroto 2011). It was not an education that started from learning to look for employment. Rather, students could start by going into the community see the problems engrossed within the community and then find ways to address those challenges. Lecturers in theological education need to think creatively about how they can tap from cultural traditions such as initiation ceremonies, passage of rites, which do have educational models that could be useful to modern day education.

 

Banana's contextualisation model

In the People's creed, Banana managed to bring out the idea of the universality of God's redemption in a poetic way that paves a true nature of God palatable to the religious cowards and to people who are always bombarded by theological jargons, which are far-fetched from their understanding. In his book the Gospel according to the Ghetto (1980), Banana revealed how God continue to work with his redemptive work within and through the Zimbabwean people regardless of colour, race or creed. He demonstrated that there is enough substance within Zimbabwean culture and custom that would have moved Jesus to say of Zimbabwean spirituality as he said of the Jewish one 'I have not come to destroy but to fulfil' (Banana 1980:ix).

The book clearly demonstrates that Zimbabwean Christianity must recognise and take account of its people's cultural values and social order. Christianity permeates the subject and transforms the same into a new creation. It does not save by crushing the subject and pretending it has become a new creation by setting some foreign object over the supposed unworthy seed of Zimbabwe (Mazobere 1980:x). Banana shows how the people involved must play an active role in their own emancipation. He proved that people are indeed participatory masters of their destiny. Mazobere (1980:x) said as agriculture has proved over the years that one does not improve one's rapoko by imposing maize characteristics on it. You sow, water, manure and fertilise the rapoko seed in its own right to be a better crop in itself. For Banana, the blood of the Westerners or Easterners or civilised ones only did not become the seed of the church but the blood of the martyrs became the seed of the church. In his contextual theology, it is the blood of the freedom fighters of Zimbabwe that became the seed of the freedom of all within our beloved God given country (Banana 1980:5).

In decolonising theology, Banana demonstrates how within Zimbabwean spiritual history were facets that commensurate with recognised Jewish religious history. For example, Chaminuka's prophesy, that foreign scholars dismiss because it falls within what they termed a primitive and uncultured grounding while others say it lacks credibility because it was not recorded in any book. For Banana and others, they felt that these foreigners forgot that all those events recorded in the Holy Bible were first of all circulated orally, hence it calls for a revisit to all African stories, legends that are relevant to Africans to be considered and used as tangible and credible illustrations in African Christianity and theological discourse for relevance to African spirituality (Banana 1980:6).

On the other hand, in traditional Zimbabwean cultural concept anyone within proximity of the meal, even a passer-by who arrives at the tail-end of the meal is invited to partake whatever is still available, because it is for all. This is in tandem with what Jesus referred to in the story of the labourers who were engaged to work at different times and were paid the same denarius because of the uniform need. As such Banana emphasised that there has to be a solid nationhood of the one nation in Jesus Christ. Banana further reflected on Zimbabwean traditional religion as an enrichment to Christianity. For him whereas modern Christianity is a weekly activity, in traditional religion the day begins and ends with God. African traditional religion does not have a timeline but they worship God throughout the day. According to Banana (1980):

For too long the ghetto masses have had the gospel of pie in the sky forced down their throats. The biblical language tends to be far removed from their situation. They have been given the image of an apologetic God who demands humility to the point of self-pity. (p. xiv)

It is against the aforementioned view that decolonisation of theology is invoked so that God meet humanity in their point of strength rather that in their weakness. The challenge to the church today is to take the vanguard position to contextualise and define the nature of mission putting more emphasis on the affirmation of self-hood and utilise learning methods that are problem solving.

 

Problem solving

Having looked at Jesus's method of theological teaching through questioning it challenged learners to look for solutions through problem-solving method. It also challenged learners to hunt for their own solutions to their particular problems. Through this method of teaching, the lecturer does ask students to solve their own problems. Instead, the lecturer is compelled to ask relevant and right questions that stimulate critical thinking thereby, provoking learners to slowly learn how to think for themselves, exposing them to identify problems, define problems and design correct interventions to deal with their problems on their own. For Maponga (2023), theological education method should be from problem to solutions and not from learning to employment. His aspiration is to see theological students who start from the community where they identify problems that the community face, after which the student has to come up with a proposal that simply explains what one has seen in the community. The student will then look for a theological institution with a proposal identified in the community and seek solutions for the identified problems. The student will engage into studying at a theological institution grappling with questions from the community and look for answers through studying. One will come up with a write up packed with solutions to the identified problems and go back to the community to deliver the solutions. Lecturers will only be there as mentors who are experienced to journey with the student who is looking for answers through studying. Education should therefore, meet the needs of the community.

Jesus used problem solving when he taught his disciples and other people who followed him. In the Bible, the Pharisees brought to Jesus a woman accused of adultery. Jesus challenged the Pharisees to consider their own practices and prompted them to solve the problem they presented for him to solve. Instead of Jesus answering their question about what should be done to the accused woman, he ordered anyone among the Pharisees who was pure without having sinned cast the first stone to the accused woman (Jn 8:7). Karakoc (2016:84) suggests that by throwing back the situation to the Pharisees, He challenged them to analyse what was actually going on beneath the surface and develop their ability to assess situations independently. Jesus had to throw back the challenge to them to enable them to use their own thinking skills to decide what was the appropriate and right course of action for individuals without being instigated by mob psychology. This is one such method that evokes problem-based learning in theological education. This type of learning can be used in all types of curriculums and is branded by thought-provoking questions that arouse critical thinking. It has advantage in equipping learners with capability to be innovative in dealing with routine challenges in life.

 

Research-based learning

When problems given to students to solve become more challenging, they are automatically forced to search for answers through research that could be in group or individually centred. This is therefore regarded as research-based learning, which also helps students to develop academic inquisitiveness and tenacity as well as skills in team work (Ango & Rutoro 2020:154). In theological colleges, research-based learning is critical because it taps from the Bible itself particularly when Jesus asked his disciples the question, 'who do people say I am' (Mk 8:27), this was an opinion seeking question that provoked the disciples to reflect on available opinion and sought the truth. This was a research-based survey that encourages critical thinking because, after sharing with Jesus their society's perceptions of him, Jesus asked them to seek their own interpretation. In this regard one might get information from different sources but what is required at the end of the day is one's own contribution, which does not reflect the opinion of others but is an independent input that contributes new knowledge.

Challenging learners to discover their milieu, to recognise difficulties, examine these difficulties, and originate conceivable remedies and executing these remedies promote high level of student participation in the development of learning. This also prepares them to gain skills they will use in their life system for their own good and for the good of future generations and communities. Using this learning approach ensures that learners are not caricatures and inactive recipients of knowledge but, they are actively involved from the beginning to the end of knowledge dissemination.

 

Analysis and conclusion

In summation and in a bid to decolonise theological education in the spectacles of some African theologians the likes of Canaan Banana and Maponga the anthropologist and African theologian, the article managed to assemble biblical views on theological education back dating to the Patriarchs who took education as a priority that had more value than wealth for one to have sound judgement that led to prosperity and honour. Furthermore, the article looked at Jesus' model of teaching that adds value to his ministry through the use of dialogical and question methods, which activated learners to be critical thinkers and be practical. These methods when employed in theological education today become tools for decolonisation of western education that promoted the banking system of education without taking the learner as the provider or source of valuable information. Africans were considered to have no religion and were groping in the dark as such the light had to come through missionaries who imposed their foreign religion in Africa and forced Africans to disregard their religiosity and identity, hence the need to decolonise theological education.

Furthermore, the article calls for new critical perception that shapes theological learners beyond the classroom to become practical theologians who are relevant and wrestle with day today challenges of the society be it economic, political or even social upheavals. This is only achieved through the use of African indigenous teaching methods, which Banana grappled with in the form of contextualisation and problem-solving method advocated by Maponga to meet the needs of the communities. Last but not least, the research-based learning is seen as a critical model to decolonise theological education at United Theological College (UTC) through searching for answers to the questions that the society grapple with day in day out. Research is the key to unlock hidden jewels permeated in the underground of communities only to be unearthed through the help of the residents or communities themselves. Researchers should be found in communities digging deeper to provide answers to challenges faced by communities today through theological education.

In conclusion, theological colleges in Africa should have the ability to impart life-long skills that empower its citizenry to be generators of wealth for sustainable societies. Learners in theological colleges should no longer rely on others to offer them employment but they should be entrepreneurs, creating employment for others as can be seen from newer Pentecostal movements that are establishing great empires the likes of Makandiwa, Magaya and others. Education obtained from theological colleges should inculcate moral principles, integrity and respect for human rights that equips them to challenge corruption and abusive characters and build the Africa envisaged in Agenda 2063. Furthermore, it is recommended to the UTC and other theological colleges in Zimbabwe to embrace Jesus' model of teaching that add value to his ministry through the use of dialogical and question methods, which activated learners to be critical thinkers and be practical. The Ministry of Education can as well adopt this valuable method for the betterment of the education system in Zimbabwe.

 

Acknowledgement

The author would like to acknowledge United Theological College for the permission to use their library.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced him writing of this article.

Author's contribution

P.M. declares that they are the sole author of this article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Peter Masvotore
masvotorep@gmail.com

Received: 14 Feb. 2024
Accepted: 08 Apr. 2024
Published: 11 June 2024

 

 

Note: Special Collection: Decolonialism in Theology today.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Augustine on theosis and divine illumination as the theologic framework for decolonisation

 

 

Godfrey T. Baleng

The Unit for Reformational Theology and the Development of South African Society, Faculty of Theology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

This study examined the plausibility and role of theosis in Augustine's theory of divine illumination as a theologic framework for decolonising theology. Theologic refers to God's revelation about himself and his nature. Therefore, through an analysis of Augustine's dogmatic treatise concerning the nature of the Holy Trinity, this article argues that Augustine's theory of divine illumination is a precedent for God to speak about himself. Moreover, this theory of divine illumination is useful in developing a non-biased theoretical framework for decolonialism in theology today. At the centre of this theory is the inability of human beings to possess and command true knowledge as a result of inherent sin. However, in contrast, this highlights the graceful nature of God as he assists us in partaking in his glory and wisdom through theosis. Therefore, by incorporating Augustine's philosophical analyses into empirical studies, the purpose of this study was to discuss the following: (1) The theologic of Augustine's theory of divine illumination in the process of decolonising theology; (2) Augustine's comprehension and use of divine procession through a triadic function of the human mind in his treatise De Trinitate; and (3) the role and plausibility of theosis because of God's love in the process of learning and teaching. Through critical analysis of Augustine's philosophical thought, this study develops an ethical theoretical framework for decolonising theology. Thus, the key contention is to succinctly present Augustine's dogmatic thought rationally and logically in the process of his pragmatic stance.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article develops an ethical theoretical framework for decolonising theology based on Augustine's theory of divine illumination. The theologic of his divine illumination theory posits the pragmatic stance of his inner teacher concept, which he argued was the one true teacher in his philosophical treaties. Conversely, the study of decolonisation advocates for the inculturation of knowledge as an inclusive praxis that does not perpetuate a Eurocentric worldview. Thus, the authority of Augustine's inner teacher concept in his theory of divine illumination becomes ideal and fundamental in developing ethical hermeneutical praxis because of God's love.

Keywords: Augustine; theory of divine illumination; decolonising theology; De Trinitate; inculturation; theosis; theologic.

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Introduction

The plausibility of Augustine's theory of knowledge by divine illumination has always been questionable as a pragmatic pedagogical framework.¹ Such a subject is abstruse enough to be relegated to pseudoscience, but a lover of wisdom knows better. Augustine's philosophical analysis in general poses a philosophical problem to natural theology on the basis of its metaphysical presumption. Nevertheless, Augustine was convinced that God is somehow active in everyday human affairs after a thorough phenomenological investigation and the vision he had experienced together with Monnica at Ostia.

Moreover, the context in which Augustine developed his epistemology was polemical and apologetical. For these two reasons, his theory of knowledge should be understood twofold: (1) As a refutation against radical Scepticism of the New Academics who denied the existence of knowledge (Contra Academicos 2.5.13-2.6.15); and (2) as a refutation against the Arian and semi-Arian heresy on the divinity of Christ (Christology).

As a counterargument to the Arian controversy, Augustine developed his theology of the image in De Trinitate² (books 9-15). In these books, he argued his Christology on the indisputable authority of the Triune God and explained how the nature and will of God can be attributed to each Person in the Trinity (De Trinitate 15.20.38:209-210). Similarly, in his earlier pedagogical dialogues, Augustine based his theory of knowledge on the exegesis of Matthew 23:10, which reads, 'Nor are you [men] called teachers, since there is one Teacher for you: Christ'. For Augustine, Christ has all the divine authority endowed to the Catholic Church.

Conversely, Augustine developed his theory of language to prove the impossibility of teaching through everyday language. Moreover, he posits that a learner applying his or her mind leaves himself or herself to be divinely illuminated. To find a workable explanation for the divine ascent, Augustine first demonstrated human depravity through the many ambiguities in our cognitive functions, especially the inability of language. The subject matter of his dialogues addresses the inadequacies of human cognition; thus, the hypothesis that the inner teacher is solely responsible for truth is based on his phenomenological experiences. Hammond (2014) notes:

Augustine's attitude to his own mastery of rhetoric is ambivalent. He is acutely aware of its power both to inspire and inculcate the good and to manipulate and mislead hearers. (p. xxxiii)

According to Augustine, humans as sensible beings cannot come to true knowledge of God without divine intervention. This assertion forms the basis of my hypothesis. Moreover, the subsequent conceptual frameworks in Augustine's theory of knowledge examine in different ways, the factors influencing God's participation in education and human depravity in the process. However, the question remains, 'If I can learn about God, will I be able to learn what it is that I seek?' According to Silva (2016):

The attempt to know God and his attributes by human reason alone has been a controversial issue among Christian scholars. There are those who affirm and those who reject natural theology as a source of knowledge of God. (p. 117)

[Augustine] does not deny completely the human capacity to know God by reason, but he does object the human capacity to gain true knowledge of God by reason alone, without God's intervention. (p. 117)

In De Magistro, Augustine understands Christ as a Model and object for mimesis in understanding truth and knowledge that abides only in God's mind.

Therefore, it could be argued that Augustine's philosophical analyses reach its climax in the human mind as a window to divine reality. However, according to Nash (2003:92) 'No other important aspect of Augustine's philosophy is as difficult to understand and to explain as this notion that God in some way illumines the mind of man'. This forms the statement of the problem of this research article that addresses the knowledge gap in the decolonisation of theology today through God's intervention.

By critically analysing Augustine's conceptual frameworks of his epistemology, this article develops a hypothesis for the plausibility and role of theosis³ and theologic in Augustine's epistemology based on his notion of love. According to Augustine, love is the practical example of the analogy of the Holy Trinity. He argues such a union as a relationship of divine equality, free of subordination. Likewise, my argument for decolonisation is based on love for the other and, more importantly, on love for God. In his general corpus, Augustine believed that education and all intelligible substances have a single scope and origin, namely, God.

 

Divine procession in De Trinitate

The history of the trinitarian controversy dates from the preaching of Arius (AD 256-336) around AD 319 to around AD 419, around the completion of Augustine's De Trinitate (Rusch 1980:1). In De Trinitate, Augustine distinguished between the external actions and the inner relationship of the three Persons or Personas of the Trinity. According to Drobner (2000:26), the traditional view of Augustine's Christology can be attributed to Adolf von Harnack. In von Harnack's view, it was Tertullian who first introduced the notion of 'person' to Christian theology. Thus, in the process shaped the formula of the 'hypostatic union' in the Chalcedonian creed.

Augustine's theology culminates in his systematic thought of the Holy Trinity. He is correctly considered an advocate of the Holy Trinity as he presented his theory as a sound biblical and theological dogma. His many controversies centred on the Christological aspect as integral to his complex theological thought. In his natural theology, he ascribed each Person of the Holy Trinity a specific function without questioning or compromising on their divine nature. He understood the Three as a relational ordered structure of one essence.

Unlike in ancient and medieval times, modern theologians have since the work of Johan Urlsperger (1728-1806) and Karl Rahner (1904-1984) developed a distinction or rather had successfully coined a phrase between economic and immanent Trinity. In the West, Karl Rahner, Karl Barth and Vladimir Lossky were the major contributors of the revival of Trinitarian theology in the 20^th century according to Ables (2012). The former would further formulate his famous 'Rahner's rule' in his 1970 work entitled The Trinity.

In its simplicity, Rahner's rule states that, 'the "economic" Trinity is the "immanent" Trinity' and vice versa. This was grounded in Rahner's distinction between two ways of interpreting the Trinity, namely the 'immanent' Trinity is understood as the eternal being of God in his divine nature; while the 'economic' Trinity is understood as revealed to humans in its relational economy, in its biblical history, and in the narrative of salvation (Chipitsyn 2019:10).

For Augustine, the dominance of abstract modes of knowledge is a result of the Triune God's priority of relation over substance. Having been influenced by the Neo-Platonist metaphysics of individuation, which argues for the uniqueness in role-play rather than the ontological substance of the Triune God, Augustine's Trinitarian theology was primarily a transcendental unity over the corporeal. As a result, he recognised the inscrutability of God in the process. Furthermore, this notion of transcendental unity was adopted in his views on natural theology as a whole. However, Rusch (1980) posits that:

The weak point in Augustine's trinitarian theology was the apparent obliteration of the several roles of the three persons. He was aware of the problem. His answer was that each of the persons possesses the divine nature in a particular way. Thus it is proper to attribute to each the role appropriate by virtue of his origin. (p. 26)

In retrospect, unity is the foundation that constitutes the requirement for participation by each Person of the Godhead. Thus, in De Trinitate, Augustine asserts the revelation of God through the triune relation ordered structure. More significantly, he argues against any notion of the Son as a hindrance to the Omni qualities of God, as put forth by the Arians and the Eastern Orthodox Church. As a result, Augustine presented knowledge as primarily concerned with the nature and providence of God and how God through the Son and the Holy Spirit illuminates humanity.

Furthermore, in De Trinitate, Augustine considers the double procession of the Holy Spirit from both the Father and the Son as a way to argue for consubstantiality with God. He posits the Holy Spirit as a gift from a loving God that binds the Father and Son together. In the process, he adopts a perichoretic model of the Trinity as a logical expression of his theology. Throughout such a union, he maintains the distinction between hypostases. The trinitarian controversy that ensued challenged Augustine to combine identity with the distinction of Persons.

According to Ellingwood (2015:2), during Augustine's time, the trinitarian controversy, the creation 'ex-nihilo' and the ideas about 'modes of origin' influenced thinking on consubstantiality and relations within the Trinity. The common tendency was therefore a metaphysical asymmetric relation between the corporeal (of Christ) and non-corporeal of the Father. Since God created ex-nihilo, matter was given a lowly position in creation theology; thus, Christ (the human) cannot be co-eternal with God as he was begotten as flesh at a later stage.

Furthermore, the Son was subordinated to the Father because he came to do the will of the Father and not of his own. This, therefore, raised concern over the substantial relationship between God (the Father), the Son (Christ) and the Holy Spirit (Logos) as all equal, because God cannot be conceived of incorporeal form. The same issues (Christology) comprised the core of the Arian controversy that Augustine confronted and refuted as blasphemous.

In De Trinitate (1.3.5), Augustine begins by seeking God's image and addresses those who inquire into the unity of the Trinity. More significantly, he warns of the error of misinterpreting the Trinity and, in the same sentence, praises the profitability of truth discovered in the Holy Trinity. Thus, for Augustine, the doctrine of the Holy Trinity is verifiable as much as it is metaphysical.

In De Trinitate (2.4), he states the reasons why God is a Trinity. He emphasised that such an endeavour requires faith before one can come to reason. He posits that we must first believe before we can understand. In summary, he states that those who have faith in God become the subject of divine illumination. Augustine's theory of divine illumination is the divine fulfilment of humanity and a correspondent of kenosis, whereby Christ became man (through sacrificing his divine nature) in order for humanity to partake in his divine nature.

In De Magistro, Augustine asserts that Christ not only freely compromised his divine nature to better relate to humanity, but moreover, he continually imparted his divine nature in the process of human salvation (which I assert in line with theosis). Thus, kenosis is reconciled in the divine illumination experience. The two as praxis can therefore be, understood as a two-nature model of Christology and divine causality.

The two praxis as a priori are dependent on each other in fulfilling a divine causality with humanity. Therefore, kenosis as an act of self-emptying of Jesus should be understood as the essential first step towards restoring and elevating the fallen human being and that is why kenotic leadership is crucial in this process. Human salvation depends on both kenosis and the divine intervention of Christ.

In this light, the divine procession in De Trinitate explains more than just an analogy to the three Persons but also the job description of each Person of the Trinity. Moreover, he attributes a similar trinitarian analogy to the mind.

On the Christological level, deification or theosis means becoming like Christ, which is essentially a Christian mandate. Augustine's corpus is moreover revered for its Trinitarianism than for its Christological theology. As an academic exercise, it can be argued that Augustine's theological departure was a threefold division of ontological properties not only of the divine nature as in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit but also of a cognitive nature based on memory, understanding and will given to us freely by the Trinitarian Godhead.

 

The philosophy of mind in De Trinitate

In De Trinitate (10.4.6), Augustine presents the mind as a conscious entity that is aware of its presence in itself:

How can the mind come into the mind, as though it were possible for the mind not to be in the mind? Add to this, that if a part has been found, then the mind does not seek itself as a whole, but yet it does seek itself as a whole. Therefore, it is present to itself as a whole, and there is nothing further to be sought. For nothing is wanting to the mind that seeks; only the object that is sought is wanting. Since it, therefore, seeks itself as a whole, nothing of itself is wanting to it.

In De Trinitate (10.1.1-10.2.4), Augustine gives a summary of what love is and what it means for human knowledge. For Augustine, the mind plays a crucial role in determining his views on desire and love. In (10.1.2), he posits, 'the more a thing is known, but not fully known, the more the mind desires to know the rest.' He goes on to say, 'What, then, does he love? For certainly a thing cannot be loved unless it is known. Nor does he love … that he already knows.'

For Augustine, what does it mean to know? Moreover, how is knowledge obtained? Thus, knowledge requires oneness with the essence of the Supreme All-Being? The answer to this question can be found in The Republic (2002):

There seem to be two great aims in the philosophy of Plato, -first, to realise abstractions; secondly, to connect them. According to him, the true education is that which draws men from becoming to being, and to a comprehensive survey of all being. He desires to develop in the human mind the faculty of seeing the universal in all things; until at last the particulars of sense drop away and the universal alone remains. (p. 85)

Plato emphasised that our focus must be on the ideal forms that he considered the highest version of reality.⁴ Moreover, this material world is a weak emanation of the ideal forms from which everything originates within the spiritual realm. The emanation, or going out, is seen in God in a simple form, the one proper to its nature as the cause. The mind, therefore, is endowed with the capacity to perceive reality. Augustine interchangeably refers to the mind as the soul based on its purity to discern divine matters.

In De Trinitate (12.14.23), he describes the ideal forms as accessible to the mind:

Neither have been nor shall be, but which are; and on account of that eternity in which they are, it is said of them that they have been, are, and shall be without any changeableness of times. For they have not been in such a way that they have ceased to be, nor shall they be in such a way as if they were not now, but they always had and always will have the self-same being. But they abide not as bodies fixed in space and place, but as intelligible things in their incorporeal nature they are so present to the gaze of the mind, as those visible and tangible things are present in their places to the senses of the body.

Augustine, as a Platonist, adhered to the truth of intelligible things based on logic and mathematics, which count as an abstract eternal truth that can be grasped directly by the human mind. Christ directly illuminates the human mind; thus, Augustine was convinced that God has left his footprints on the human mind that is accordingly intelligible and of one substance with the divine.

The belief that we can grasp intelligible things through reason is what Augustine called the theory of divine illumination. Through divine illumination, Augustine posits that God edify our minds with his divine light, which is essentially the process of the divine revealing itself to us. Augustine's conceptual frameworks (inner teacher) of his epistemology in De Magistro and elsewhere accord with the intelligible aspects of the mind. He argued that the mind is susceptible to divine enlightenment; arguably this makes theosis plausible in his theology. Wills (1999) notes:

The intelligible light, the bridge by which we return to our source from the shadows of the cave, is present, sustaining and illumining us even in the very effort to deny it. To return fully to ourselves is to return to this light and achieve final fruition and since we are present to ourselves by our very nature to return to ourselves is a matter of simply looking. (p. 110)

Moreover, as an epistemic praxis, the mind is capable of universal truth, which Plato believed is certain. Plato urged us to search for this universal truth in other areas such as politics, society and education. For this reason, the search for universal truth should be the quest of the true philosopher, and it is in this light that I argue decolonisation as a quest for true philosophy.

 

Theosis and Augustine's theory of divine illumination

In De Magistro (10.32), Augustine concludes that 'some men can be taught about some things, even if not all, without a sign'. As a result, one has to search within oneself by consulting the inner teacher. For Augustine, the inner teacher presupposes that knowledge is not something you create as it is immediately available to each of us. This article asserts Augustine's systematic thought from his inward conception of reality.

Throughout his theology, Augustine highlights the central role of the Holy Spirit in consummating the process of theosis. The Holy Spirit, according to Augustine, operates within humans, although this operation requires external illumination. In De Trinitate (12.15.24), he points this out when he says:

[W]e ought rather to believe that the nature of the intellectual mind is so formed as to see those things which, according to the disposition of the Creator, are subjoined to intelligible things in the natural order, in a sort of incorporeal light of its own kind, as the eye of the flesh sees the things that lie about it in this corporeal light, of which light it is made to be receptive and to which it is adapted.

He uses the analogy of light throughout his corpus to demonstrate the duality of truth and ignorance. This realisation underscores the integral involvement of the Holy Spirit in bridging the gap between the corporeal and the divine through theosis. Theosis as a state of mind is a bond between humanity and God through an inner dialogue. Thus, to speak of Augustine's theosis is to speak of the desired human telos in the presence of the Trinitarian Godhead.

This theory emphasises his entire theological outlook. According to Augustine, as aforementioned, God created man for Himself, and despite natural sin; theosis is still possible through God's grace. This is possible through the theology of the cross, in which God sent forth his only begotten son to redeem and reunite us in God's household. Thus, according to Augustine, God causes human activity inasmuch as humanity still enjoys free will.

For Augustine the Platonist, it is essential to construct hierarchies of choice by placing the human intellect as the closest cognition to function in divine matters. However, because of sin, the human intellect is limited and thus requires extrinsic illumination by light. In Confessiones (4.15.25), he tells us that:

The mind needs to be enlightened by light from outside itself, so that it can participate in truth, because it is not itself the nature of truth. You will light my lamp, Lord

and in (10.2.2), he affirms to God; 'You hear nothing true from me which you have not first told me'. Silva (2016) notes:

Due to his sinful nature, Augustine could not fully comprehend God's revealed truth in nature. His intellect functions under the influence of sin, however, the knowledge that his sinful mind acquires is vague and incomplete. (p. 120)

In this framework, the theory of divine illumination transcends ontology and becomes the foundation on which theosis can be understood. Furthermore, the human intellect depends on illumination to be comprehensible in its shadow state. In Confessiones (7.10.16), Augustine describes God as The Light of Truth itself. Earlier in (2.8.16), he asked: 'Who can teach me, except the One who illumines my heart and distinguishes between its shadows?'

In current scholarship on Augustine's theory of divine illumination, the illuminating aspect has been argued as intrinsic or extrinsic. Augustine occasionally described it as an extrinsic act. The general assertion is that divine illumination as a knowledge acquisition theory must be understood as the first step in terms of cognitive intuition, which bridges the gap between metaphysical and psychological memory from previous experiences and cultivates a solid foundation for intelligible and infallible knowledge.

The theory, although occurring naturally as a gift from God, proposes something altogether more demanding on our faculties of the mind. Even as divine intervention in our sixth sense, it should be well organised and pursued intentionally. Thus, the seven liberal arts were initially regarded as sufficient training to recognise and receive this divine illumination when it occurs. This demonstrates that Augustine's theory of divine illumination is one of the most difficult aspects of his theology to agree upon. According to Schumacher (2010):

Although Augustine's account of knowledge by illumination is fundamental to his thought on many other topics, scholarly consensus seems to dissolve when it comes to determining the exact function he assigns illumination in human cognition. Moreover, many scholars seem to doubt that the role of illumination, whatever it is, is philosophically plausible. (p. 375)

Likewise, Chidester (1983) notes:

There is widespread disagreement as to exactly what Augustine might have meant by his theory of learning, in which Christ, the truth, teaches within. The precise interpretation of Augustine's doctrine of illumination has been the subject of centuries of debate. (p. 73)

In hindsight, Augustine placed much emphasis on the role of the Holy Spirit in theosis to highlight God's initiative during the reformation process and transformation of humanity.

Chidester (1983) further notes:

There has been an almost universal tendency to understand Augustine's doctrine of illumination solely as an abstract epistemological theory. The temptation is to explain the learning theory conveniently in terms of Platonic conceptual categories, or Aristotelian in the case of the Thomists, as if it were based on such an abstract theory of knowledge. But first and foremost, Augustine's learning theory is a religious statement based on a correspondence between the intrinsic process of human learning and the primordial creative event. (p. 76).

Chidester alludes to three distinct versions⁵ of the theory: ontologistic, ideogenetic and normative. Schumacher simplifies the distinctions as extrinsic and intrinsic interpretations of Augustine's theory of divine illumination. However, in both interpretations, the learner must actively participate in the learning process. To present the arguments for her research, Schumacher proceeds by interpreting Augustine's treatise on the Trinity as a foundation for her analytical exposition on the subject. She further emphasises the theological context in which Augustine posited his theory of divine illumination.

As for the role of theosis, theological attempts to understand human salvation and reunion with God brought the subject to the spotlight because the Eurocentric tradition looked askance at its mystical attributes. Augustine's theology of natural sin made it impossible for him to view humanity in a positive light. Therefore, for many commentators and rightfully so, the terms deification and theosis and Augustine could never be mentioned in the same sentence because of the antithetical nature of the two meanings. To speak of Augustine in support of theosis is to present humanity in a positive perspective, which is in contention with the core of his entire theological discourse unless we understand humanity as a Trinitarian being capable of partaking in divine matters.

However, it can be argued that Augustine's aim was to develop a systematic framework for the intertwining of the divine and human realms. From a theological perspective, Augustine posits salvation on the grounds of theosis. The root word theos, in this context, was used as an attributive term to all things aesthetic, not as a substantive for God. In other words, theosis can be attributed to a mature state of the soul as a rational and spiritual entity. It is a state of oneness, that is unity with the higher consciousness or Supreme All-Being in the Plotinian idiom.

Moreover, at the ecclesial level in both the East and West, the notion is fundamentally the same, but the treatment is incomparably narrower. In the West, this can be traced to the following: (1) Augustine's dualistic notion of flesh and spirit; (2) his consubstantial Trinitarian Christology; and (3) his theory of divine illumination. According to Pabst (2012):

Like Plato and Iamblichus [whose works, however, he did not know directly], Augustine associates deification with transformative action that is both doxological and political - worship and civic virtue, in particular the dispensation of justice, are indispensable to a godly life. As such, Augustine's synthesis of ancient philosophy and biblical revelation seeks to combine contemplative knowledge and deifying practices. (p. 82)

Bonner, in his 1986 journal Augustine's Concept of Deification, asserts that Augustine's undertakings on theosis have more similarities than differences with the Eastern Church. Furthermore, the concept itself is Biblical, and this may be the reason for such similarities and may be found in both the Old and New Testaments.

For Augustine, the fall of Adam was not only a fall from grace but also a fall from his perfect self. This has become the biggest obstacle in Augustine's earlier theology, which the Manichaeans promised to resolve in his youth. The question of sin/imperfection is not only limited to God's likeness and image, but man, because of his imperfect nature, suffers from a God-complex. This further highlights the dualism between God and man although we may share his image and likeness. A full union with God can only be partial and temporary because humanity in its fallen state cannot partake in the divine.

Farris (2013:223) interprets Meconi's book titled The One Christ as a defence of Augustine's theory of theosis as a means of achieving God-like status. It is on such grounds that Augustine argued for divine intervention in the acquisition of knowledge because humanity cannot offer anything of certitude. Augustine's divine illumination theory should be seen as having a twofold function in this context. At the centre of this theory is the inability of human beings to possess and command true knowledge because of their tainted soul. On the other hand, it highlights the graceful nature of God as he assists us in partaking in His glory and wisdom.

Drawing from Meconi's work on St. Augustine's Theology of Deification, Farris (2013) writes:

For Augustine, humans always bear the divine image, but images always bear some degree or another of likeness to their exemplar […] Augustine highlights the notion of likeness as a distinguishing feature of humans, which provides the ground for growth from imperfection to perfection. Finally, Augustine uses the term 'aequalitas' (i.e. equality) in reference to the goal of humanity. Equality is never literally achievable for humans (i.e. humans never become God or equal with God), but humans can come to share in God's perfection through God the son. (p. 224)

Therefore, the voluntary self-emptying of Christ is an act of servitude and transformation that does not alter Christ's nature or place in the divine Godhead. Kenosis is thus a prime example of God's nature and earthly mission. Moreover, to suggest that Augustine viewed humanity as bearing a divine image is not to contradict or nullify his theology of human depravity through natural sin. In contrast, it is to infer the original consubstantial union of humans and the Triune Godhead. For God, the Father 'created us for Himself and our hearts are restless until we find rest in him' (Confessiones 1.1.1).

 

The theologic and inculturation of theology

How can we interpret the concept of theologic in positioning Augustine's theory of divine illumination as a framework for decolonising theology? In other words, how can we make sense of divine enlightenment as a hermeneutically sound practice? Moreover, how can we posit the inner teacher as a theoretical model that conveys knowledge in the process of learning and teaching?

Schumacher (2010:375) posits that 'throughout [Augustine's] writings, Augustine speaks of divine illumination as though it were the condition of possibility of all human knowledge'. This article proceeds from this basis that renders the plausibility of divine illumination on logical cognitive praxis in the process of decolonising theology. If this concept is logically sound, it offers an alternative method for decolonising theology on the basis of its certitude on knowledge.

Therefore, it advocates for inculturation as a primary step in interpreting divine illumination, or rather, the two work together in tandem to develop a framework for decolonising theology at a personal level. According to Augustine, one knows oneself best when engaged in a relationship with God. In De Trinitate (15.28.51), he prays to God, 'Increase these gifts in me, until You have reformed me completely'. According to Doyle (2012):

Inculturation … denote a process of engagement between the Christian Gospel and a particular culture. The term is intended conceptually both to safeguard the integrity of the Gospel and to encourage sensitivity to various cultural contexts. (p. 1).

This article argues that the inculturation of theology is a primary step that plays a crucial role in understanding the theologic in the process of decolonising theology as a lived experience. The main methodological assumption of this article is that decolonisation as a discipline needs to begin from an intrinsic valuable dialogue that is logically comprehensive to a specific group of people. Through Augustine's pedagogy of divine illumination, the process of human thought can be aided by divine intervention that illuminates the cognitive functions in acquiring knowledge and more so in the context of decolonising knowledge. The weakness of this thesis, however, is that the divine intervention and subsequent theologic solely depends on the Holy Spirit as the third entity in the Trinity.

However, the integration of cultural beliefs and practices into the frameworks of theology affirms Augustine's theory of divine illumination as a significant and virtuous step in hearing God's word thus decolonising theology. Similarly, Verhoef (2021:1) affirms the need to decolonise the concept of the Trinity in this context. Such a call I argue through inculturation, which serves as an analytical tool to challenge and transform the Eurocentric understanding of natural theology. By engaging in inculturation, Augustine's theory of divine illumination can be interpreted in a way that aligns with the culture and religious context of each specific group of people. This framing involves integrating religio-cultural experiences into the theological discourse that promotes indigenous knowledge and virtue ethics by decolonising the Trinitarian image of God.

As a model of truth, Western theology is antithetical to African religious knowledge and beliefs as far as its doctrine of the Trinity and its subsequent imago trinitatis is portrayed. Consequently, it dilutes the image of God in the minds of African people unless interpreted through Augustine's theory of divine illumination in the human mind as the basis for human true knowledge of God. Through inculturation, Augustine's theory of divine illumination becomes a practical framework for narrating liberation theology from a foreign image of God. The cognitive certitude of inculturation reconciles Augustine's pedagogy of divine illumination as a necessary social change in decolonising not only theology but also the doctrine of the Trinity as the image of God. Silva (2016) affirms this view:

Without divine illumination, human reason can only acquire a vague and incomplete notion of God's existence, consequently, from Augustine's perspective, true natural theology is vague and incomplete if seen apart from the framework of divine illumination. (p.116)

But how can humans interpret divine ascent if not through familiar practices? The attempt to know God becomes achievable through inculturation as a model for seeking truth through the familiar. In other words, instead of having a predetermined theology based on colonialism, we can develop alternative epistemic dichotomies that recognise God's grace as a necessary intervention in the process of learning and teaching. In this way, scholarship avoids obvious regression on the subject of decolonisation and puts God's word at the centre of theology. Furthermore, God's grace is experienced through his active word in human affairs.

 

Decolonising theology as a pedagogy of love

In De Musica (6.14.44), Augustine establishes a hierarchal and relational structure of things by distinguishing between the love of the world and the love of God, which in essence is incomparable. In De Doctrina Christiana (1.22.30), he posits that:

[H]uman beings are to be loved for the sake of something else because if a thing is to be loved for its own sake, it means that it constitutes the life of bliss.

For Augustine, a life of bliss can only be constituted by God. Intellectually, he understood love as the foundation of God's nature.

As aforementioned, in his work Contra Academicos (AD 386-387), Augustine argues against the Sceptics who denied the possibility of knowledge, thus as a result God's love. Later, in De Civitate Dei (11.26), he argues for the certainty of knowledge through the analogy of being:

For we both are, and know that we are, and delight in our being, and our knowledge of it. Moreover, in these three things no true-seeming illusion disturbs us; for we do not come into contact with these by some bodily sense, as we perceive the things outside us… But, without any delusive representation of images or phantasms, I am most certain that I am, and that I know and delight in this. In respect of these truths, I am not at all afraid of the arguments of the Academicians, who say, What if you are deceived? For if I am deceived, I am. For he who is not, cannot be deceived; and if I am deceived, by this same token I am. And since I am if I am deceived, how am I deceived in believing that I am? For it is certain that I am, if I am deceived.

Augustine came to understand God in the Plotinian idiom of the Supreme All-Being so much that he tells us that, 'unless my being remains in Him, it cannot remain in me (7.11.17)'. In the same chapter, we come to realise that his theology depends on turning to the presence of the divine in oneself and creating things (7.17.23). In Confessiones (13.11.12), Augustine also emphasises the same point on the importance of being:

For I am, and I know, and I love. I exist knowingly and willingly. I know that I exist and have a will; and I am willing to exist and to know. Let those who can, see how there is in these three an indissoluble life: and one life, and one mind, and one being-in conclusion an distinctness that is inseparable, yes, but still distinct.

Furthermore, Augustine associates existence or being with love; therefore, to exist is proof of God's love. According to Matthews (2005), commenting on the philosophical notion of existence:

The idea that the words 'I exist' might be used to state a philosophically important truth would have mystified the classical philosophers of antiquity. Of course it was important to each of them individually that they existed … But no major philosopher of antiquity would have thought of himself as expressing anything philosophically interesting by saying, 'I exist'. (p. 1)

In late antiquity, however, Augustine used the words 'I exist' to prove that knowledge exists. The fact that the Sceptics were aware of their existence was proof of knowledge that they denied. For Augustine, even Scepticism with all its negative dispositions proves that knowledge exists because you exist and know that you exist. In his many works, he encouraged the human teacher to possess a love for both the learner and the profession. In De Catechizandis Rudibus (4.8), he encourages Deogratias to:

Set love as the criterion of all that you say, and whatever you teach, teach in such a way that the person to whom you speak, by hearing may believe, by believing hope, and by hoping love.

In De Trinitate (8.8.12), he argues, 'You see the Trinity if you see love'. Love can therefore be regarded as the foundation on which morality, harmony, order and perfection are built. Therefore, love, especially for righteous virtues, must lead us to be active participants in the pursuit of something greater in this temporal world. Moreover, 'A brief and true definition of virtue is rightly ordered love' (De Civitate Dei 15.22).

Thus, our scholarly research on the tenability of decolonialism on theology today can be based on Augustine's theory of knowledge. Because all good things come from God, decolonisation is a fulfilment of theology through the instructions of the inner teacher as the true minister of knowledge. According to Chidester (1983):

It is [the] inner teacher, the voice of the word, which activates the learning process. The word of creation is for Augustine, therefore, the same word which is active as the inner teacher in the process of learning. (p. 75).

This article considers the primary source of knowledge as a standard practice in decolonising theology. Through Augustine's theory of divine illumination, this study examines alternative praxis in developing knowledge systems. According to Aslam Fataar (2018):

Calls for decolonising education first emerged on the African continent in the context of decolonising struggles against colonial rule during the 1950s and 1960s. It is based on a negation of modern colonial education whose organising principle centred on shaping the colonised into colonial subjects, in the process, stripping them of their humanity and full potential. The knowledges of colonised groups, non-Europeans, and indigenous folk were suppressed or, as the decolonial scholar, Boaventura de Sousa Santos (2014) explained, their knowledges suffered a form of epistemicide which signifies their evisceration from the knowledge canon. (p. vi)

As a way of setting a proper approach to decolonising theology, decolonising theology as a discipline requires evidence of knowledge that corresponds to reality through reason, logic and facts. Therefore, in practise, decolonising theology must involve practical methods that are specific in a given culture. Consequently, this can demonstrate the flaws in our current Eurocentric views that undermine African systematic thoughts on theology and the image of Christ.

Through Augustine's theory of knowledge by divine illumination, decolonising theology could then be established on the basis of the pragmatic dichotomies experienced by each culture. The generalisation of natural theology in Western societies renders God's image foreign to African religions. This inconsistency renders theology superfluous as both a phenomenology and a metaphysical definition. Verhoef (2021) offers an alternative approach to the call of decolonising the Christian concept of the Trinity:

One approach is to reinterpret the name of God - as Trinity - in line with ATR's concept of God. This approach argues for a continuity within ATRs and African theology with Christianity. Another approach to the decolonising of the concept of the Trinity is to reject it as colonial and promote ATR's concepts of God as an alternative. (p. 2)

In many of our African religious traditions, we have theistic conceptual frameworks with reference to the supernatural. Charlesworth (2018:ii) argues that Ubuntu is another way of naming self-transcendence from an African perspective. Rightfully, he links the concept of Ubuntu to the proverb umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu.⁶ Likewise, Resane (2023:1) posits African proverbs, idioms and folklore as sapient and capable of contextually articulating theology. Moreover, this affirms my hypothesis on the importance of autonomous praxis in decolonising theology as Resane (2023) asserts for the highest authority in the dogmatic development of decolonising theology:

Decolonisation of theology, like the same attempts in all disciplines, calls for an authoritative base. Dogmatic formulations need a Supreme Court of Appeal in matters of faith and conduct. In theologising this final Court of Appeal, is the absolute Word of God inscribed. Subjectivism should never be allowed to be the final authority in and through theologising endeavours. (p. 5)

When Augustine's theory of divine illumination is applied to decolonising theology,⁷ God's Word becomes active and alive - sharper than the sharpest two-edged sword, cutting between soul and spirit, between joint and marrow (Hebrews 4:12). Moreover, it sets the framework for consensus on key concepts to be included in decolonising theology. Such a paradigm shift ushers in Pleroma, as the fulfilment of theology to African indigenous knowledge as the authentic representation of indigenous knowledge about God and the practised religious rituals. In this light, God's image resonates with each individual and group of people through their lived experiences. Thus, God is logically discerned through each religio-cultural experience, which liberates the mind.

In book 12 (7.8 and 31.59) of De Genesi Ad Litteram Imperfectus Liber, Augustine argues for an intellectual vision concerning the human soul as created in God's image. According to Augustine, the human soul is not only the intellect but also the very image of God from which humanity is created. In Plato's mythology in The Republic, he conjectured that the human soul once had true knowledge, but lost it by being placed in a material body that distorted and corrupted that knowledge. Thus, people have the arduous task of trying to remember what they once knew. According to Ayres (2000):

Augustine discovered a paradoxical relationship between the soul and God. On the one hand, the soul was immaterial and 'above' the material reality of the body, and when discovered to be such served as a pointer to the nature of God. On the other hand, the soul was still mutable and served only to reveal the incomparable and infinitely surpassing reality and 'light' of the divine. (pp. 53-54)

The study of the human soul was, for Augustine, a means by which he could arrive at a clearer and better understanding of God. This is evident in many of his writings, in which he addressed the soul as a pure mutuality. Moreover, Augustine's approach to the subject of education is more art than science in the literal sense. For Augustine, education meant the Seven Liberal Arts, which focussed on a holistic approach to human development. Through abstract concepts, he argued that man can come closer to his true self.

 

Conclusion

This study considered the issue of God's participation in the process of human knowledge. The findings of this study are a continuation of the relationship between metaphysics, epistemology and ethics, where his theory of divine illumination is central. Moreover, the research argued for the theory of divine illumination as a theoretical framework for decolonising theology that transcends empirical interests. To find a workable explanation for the pedagogy of divine ascent, Augustine began with cognitive skills and functions at large to demonstrate both cognitive and human depravity. Henceforth, I argued that theosis was the culmination of his trinitarian theology. In this regard, his metaphysical theories and pedagogy may seem to lack a semblance of normality for a 21st-century reader. This study aims to promote an idealist approach to epistemology where cognitive skills are divinely illuminated to grasp the truth. In conclusion, Augustine's theory of divine illumination underpins all higher-order activities, such as conceptual understanding and explaining phenomena from an idealistic perspective.

 

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Professor Nico Vorster for his support and guidance during the drafting of this manuscript.

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.

Author's contributions

G.T.B. is the sole author of this research article.

Funding information

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Data availability

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Godfrey Baleng
gtbaleng@gmail.com

Received: 30 Mar. 2024
Accepted: 17 May 2024
Published: 13 June 2024

 

 

Note: Special Collection: Decolonialism in Theology Today.
1 . King (1998:2) posits that the theory of illumination is at its most plausible with mathematics, where the objects of knowledge are necessary truths that typically deal with ideal objects, such as perfect circles.
2 . The composition and structure of De Trinitate is a scholarly debate. Hill (1990:278) posits its composition shortly after AD 400-420. And for the first 16 years or so, there were many pressing issues that demanded his attention thus forced Augustine not to finish writing this book as planned.
3 . Theosis denotes to the 'being made weak for the weak in order to gain the weak' (1 Cor 9:22).
4 . Although his concept of noble lies in book 3 could perhaps be used to counter-argue the ideal forms as a real world, nonetheless, my aim for the current topic is the traditional view that asserts the ideal forms as real and somewhat be contemplated in our material world.
5 . According to Chidester, the ontologistic version regards the immediate presence of the divine light the continuity between the mind of man and the mind of God, as primary in the act of learning. The ideogenetic version regards the activity of the word of God, mysteriously producing ideas in the human mind, as primary in the learning process. The normative version understands the metaphor of illumination to refer to the way in which the divine light provides an ultimate standard of certainty by which knowledge is evaluated, rather than describing an inner, psychological process through which the act of learning occurs (p. 73).
6 . I am because we are.
7 . However, the application solely depends on God as the illuminator. Augustine initially argued the liberal arts as a means to high consciousness but later retracted.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Evolving belief and being human: The emergence of religion in science and theology

 

 

Bernice Serfontein

Department of Systematic and Historical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Every human society as well as almost all human life is infused with ethics. There is common acknowledgement that morality and ethics are indispensable in addressing the serious global challenges humanity is faced with today. However, we seemed to have lost our grip on what morality is. How do we best understand human morality and ethics? This research argues that responsible ethics rests on a credible understanding of what it means to be human. The following exploration of the emergence of religion within the science and religion discourse formed part of a series of three seminars that have as their main objective to address a giant void regarding ethical and moral reflection within our society. This research was part of the discourse of the first seminar with the following main research question: What do we learn from the empirical study of morality (in the evolutionary sciences, the neurosciences, cultural anthropology, sociology, and moral psychology) about the sources, functions and characteristics of morality, and its relation to religion? This study offers an exploration of our capacity for religious awareness and belief against the background of niche construction theory. The capacity for imagination seems to have contributed to human evolutionary success and consequently our religious disposition. This transdisciplinary study combines perspectives of some of the most prominent interlocutors in the contemporary discourse on the emergence of religious awareness. By integrating the numerous perspectives evident in this study, this research explores how evolutionary thought can be constructively appropriated to interdisciplinary theology and ethics.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article explores the origin of religious awareness and belief as part of a larger discourse on morality in history. The interdisciplinary conversation covers the fields of evolutionary anthropology and theology within the contemporary science-theology discourses.

Keywords: religion; belief; morality; evolutionary anthropology; niche construction theory; interdisciplinary theology.

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Introductory remarks

As a South African theologian, I consider myself fortunate and proud to follow in the footsteps or rather stand on the shoulders of fellow South African theologians - such as Wentzel van Huyssteen, Klaus Nürnberger, Danie Veldsman, and other contributors to this seminar - who regard it as important to learn from the natural world about what it means to be human and the character of God, the creator. As Christopher Southgate, trained biochemist, theologian and poet, recently said in the Boyle Lecture on Science and Religion (2022), we recognise that the source of insights into God and being human from the natural world has to sit alongside the source of ancient scriptures and the Christian tradition. And yet we have to be clear that there are things about the cosmos that the ancient writers simply did not know and could not have known.

Few theologians have attempted to explore the critical and constructive contributions that not only the natural sciences can make to theological perspectives on being human, but also the contributions theology can make to evolutionary accounts of being human. I find it worthy to mention that in a discussion on the emergence of religion, anthropologist, Agustín Fuentes (2015:171) stresses the substantive and transformative impact of transdisciplinary theologians such as Wentzel Van Huyssteen and Celia Deane Drummond not only on theology but also on anthropology. For many anthropologists, Fuentes (2015:171) argues, the perspective that these theologians apply when endeavouring to comprehend and articulate the human tendency, to view the world around us as more than the material of which it is made, to make meaning of the world, and to create space into place is appealing and innovative. Fuentes (2015:171) further argues that even though most anthropologists are not adherents to a particular faith practice, and most are neither explicitly humanist, nor are they theologians, there seems to be something in what transdisciplinary theologians offer that enables anthropologists as social scientists to gain from and engage in, a mutually enriching intellectual journey.

Van Huyssteen (2006) makes the following remark which in some sense invites anthropologists to engage with theological perspectives on the emergence of religion:

[H]umans are, first of all, embodied beings, and as such what we do, think, and feel is conditioned by the materiality of our embodiment … there is a 'naturalness' to religious imagination and the human quest for meaning. (p. 312)

This perspective is enticing and meaningful to both anthropologists and theologians, as many of their pursuits overlap, especially when they attempt to understand the universal human propensity to imagine, believe and hope (Fuentes 2015:171). It therefore does not only have implications in a specific theological context, according to Fuentes (2015:171), as it is especially necessary for anthropologists studying human evolution to have a more profound comprehension of how and why humans have imagination, belief and hope, and direct these through rituals - an experience or process that many would identify as religion.

The question inevitably arises, why is it important to explore the emergence of religion, when we are exploring the origin of morality and its implications for ethics? A top-down view of morality, which entails the popular assumption that religion and morality are synonymous, still seems to be common in discourses on the origin of morality. Yet, any perspective that would want to view religion or religious imagination as an obscure or random faculty of the human mind is challenged by the notion that there is a naturalness to religious imagination, as argued by Van Huyssteen (2018:ad loc) and others (Bloch 2008; Fuentes 2022). Consequently, this view, also challenges us to reconsider the relation between morality and religion. Considering the contemporary discourse on the evolution of important aspects of being human, like imagination, moral awareness, sexuality, and religious awareness, the question arises if it is still credible to maintain a view of moral awareness and morality that involves some sort of Divine command. I believe that a more profound notion of the origin of religious awareness, combining interdisciplinary perspectives, contributes to a more responsible, bottom-up approach to the origin of morality. Such a view of morality implies that our capacity for moral awareness has biological roots and is, therefore, innate to the human species. Consequently, this perspective might radically impact our way of thinking about ethics, and in the context of this research, specifically Christian ethics.

For a major part of human history as a genus and as a species (Homo sapiens), the milieu of organised religion was very different or even absent. Religion is considered to be a central aspect of being human today. However, there seems to be no robust evidence that religion was an important aspect of everyday existence for earlier members of the genus Homo. Therefore, as argued by Fuentes (2014:242), in the understanding of the emergence of religion, 'it seems important to find points of connection across explanatory frameworks whose foci lie outside of very specific explanations for religion (sensu latu) or any particular religious tradition'. Religion, just like various other features of distinctive human existence, evolved. Prominent scholars (Bloch 2008; Fuentes 2019; Van Huyssteen 2006, 2018) exploring the emergence of religion agree that throughout our evolutionary history, human culture and our immersion in symbolic behaviour and belief enabled our capacity to be religious. However, the evolution of religion as a feature of modern human identity was facilitated by very recent events. Religious belief systems as known today evolved and the origin of religion was a gradual emergence that cannot be located to a single moment or event in the human species' history. In the fascinating publication of his 2018 Gifford lectures, Why We Believe: Evolution and the Human Way of Being, Fuentes (2019) offers a brief overview of the earliest traces of religious awareness in the history of the human species:

We can certainly say that by 200,000 to 400,000 years ago, humans were occasionally creating material items and engaging in behaviours, such as burials, that may have reflected collective transcendent experiences. By 100,000 years ago we have clear evidence that the density and diversity of these items and behaviours had increased and that they had become more widespread. By 40,000 years ago, evidence of directly representational art can be found across the human landscape, and human groups are engaging in legisign-laden rituals. The density and connectivity of ideas, materials, and groups continued to increase over the millennia. We know that by 20,000 to 30,000 years ago there is abundant material evidence of meaning-making everywhere humans are. Human groups are generating more complex social structures and living in greater density. Then domestication begins, altering tool kits and lifeways and ushering in the first firm and interpretable evidence of what we can identify as systems of symbol and ritual: belief systems. The more interconnected humans' lives became, the more frequent and denser the evidence of belief systems. During this time, we begin to see the distinctive group and individual identities represented in the variation of items and tools, different patterns in burials, large-scale architecture, and the representation of the human body in a wide range of styles and contexts. By at least 5,000 to 8,000 years ago, humans were participating in religious institutions as we understand them today. (p. 116)

Anthropologist Roy Rappaport (1999:1) argues that religious belief can be best understood if humans are envisioned as 'a species that lives, and can only live, in terms of meanings it must construct in a world devoid of intrinsic meaning but subject to physical law'. It is also proposed by Rappaport (1991:1) that neither the individual elements of religion nor religion can be reduced to a set of merely functional or adaptive terms. Unfortunately, as Fuentes (2019:117) points out, even though one can, and should, explore evolutionary explanations for many aspects of human religious belief, most current explanations for the evolution of religion are too reductionist to be adequate.

The majority of these explanations propose that religious belief and religion are adaptations caused by natural or cultural selection to facilitate cooperation and help humans organise in large groups. Other explanations suggest that the structures of religious belief emerged as a byproduct of the ordinary functioning of the human cognitive system. Following these lines of thought, religion is seen as a group of beliefs developing from underlying psychological mechanisms that allow humans to invent supernatural agents and consequently believe they are real. In short, the argument is that religious practices are thought to emerge as a logical outcome of evolutionary pressures combined with the belief in supernatural agents as part of the human experience (see Sosis 2009).

Another popular proposal is known as the 'Big Gods' hypothesis. Psychologist Ara Norenzayan (2015), for example, maintains that belief systems structured around 'Big Gods' (interventionist and moralising deities) developed alongside the early increases in social complexity and coordination about 10 000 years ago. As these populations increased in complexity, their belief systems, generally personified as deities, became increasingly moralising, interventionist, and powerful. 'Big God' religions, according to Norenzayan (2015), initiated 'Big Groups' characterised by modern, hypercomplex social structures, which include large-scale intragroup coordination as well as large-scale warfare. Other behavioural scientists, such as Johnson and Bering (2006), offer a proposal which also ties warfare and centralised control to the emergence of Big God Religions. Their explanation for the emergence of big religions mainly focuses on the role of punishment and cognition as a core source of cooperation and conflict in human groups. This top-down approach to the origin of religion, views contemporary religions centring around moral regulating and punishing gods, as the direct result of natural selection for specific cognitive characteristics. Even though these arguments are rather popular, they fall short of adequately explaining the emergence of religion. As Fuentes (2019:119) argues, the 'Big God story' is incomplete at best. Instead of explaining religious experience, these proposals offer explanations for the emergence of specific kinds of belief systems and institutions. However, the emergence of such complex and coordinated religions requires religious experience to already be strongly established as part of the human landscape (Fuentes 2019:119).

Evolutionary arguments for the emergence of religion beyond supernatural agency detection and the 'Big God' hypothesis include the role of rituals. Psychologists Boyer and Bergstrom (2008) suggest that 'being religious' is the performance of rituals connected to beliefs about non-physical agents. Consequently, meaning-making activities and associated ritual behaviour become central in the human experience, which in turn prompts the emergence of more organised and formal religion. According to Alcorta and Sosis (2003:265), the difference between practical and religious rituals is evident in the appearance of emotionally permeated symbols. Their argument places transcendent experiences at the centre of individual believers' experience of what it means to be 'religious'. Bloch (2008:2056) explains that the human experience as a whole - past, present, and future - is distinguished by being at the same time transcendent and transactional. If such is the case, scholarly discussion on human experience and the emergence of religion can without a doubt benefit from transdisciplinary discourse that engages, integrates, and interweaves diverse philosophical, theoretical, and theological perspectives (Van Huyssteen 2018:ad loc).

In exploring the origin of religion, it further becomes clear that the capacity to be religious is a minor part of a greater and deeper human capacity to believe, which could be considered the most promising, prominent, and dangerous capacity that humanity has evolved (Fuentes 2019:10). To explore the emergence of religion then, it is necessary to explore the emergence of belief.

'Belief', according to Fuentes (2019):

[I]s the ability to draw on our range of cognitive and social resources, our histories and experiences, and combine them with our imagination. It is the power to think beyond what is here and now and develop mental representations to see and feel and know something - an idea, a vision, a necessity, a possibility, a truth - that is not immediately present to the senses, and then to invest, solely and authentically, in that 'something' so that it becomes one's reality. (p. 9)

Human bodies, neurobiology, and ecologies are infused by beliefs and belief systems, acting as active mediators in evolutionary processes. Our daily lives, societies, and the world around us are structured and shaped by our capacity for belief, the particulars of belief, and our diverse belief systems. 'We are human, therefore we believe' as Fuentes (2019:9) puts it.

Our world is unbelievably complex, and our evolutionary story tells us it is because of some of our most distinctive traits like consciousness, creativity, and imagination. However, as Fuentes (2017:286) suggests, no characteristic of the modern world is more embedded in our imaginative and hopeful capacities than faith and religious belief. Following Fuentes (2019:121), the rise of imagination as part and parcel of the distinct human niche, is a basic capacity required for the development of a metaphysical perception of the world, and consequently a necessary prelude to having religion. Should this be the case, both evolutionary and religious perspectives could be included in the explanation for how and why humans participate in religious belief and practice. What follows, is an exploration of our capacity for religious awareness and belief against the background of niche construction theory.¹

 

Belief in the human niche

From a niche construction perspective, the evolutionary story of H. sapiens, suggests that human beings were enabled to create meaning in unique ways by behavioural and cognitive agility combined with increasing social cooperation and coordination, as well as the development of and experimentation with symbolic thought (cf. Serfontein 2018).

Over the past 2 million years, members of the genus Homo (humans) experienced substantial changes through the emergence of a distinctively human niche. In the most elementary understanding, a niche is comprised of climate, space, structure, nutrients, and other social and physical factors as they are both experienced and restructured, by organisms and the presence of collaborators, competitors, and other agents in a shared environment (Wake, Hadley & Ackerly 2009:19631-19636). Comparative to other hominins, early Homo experienced definite morphological changes together with significant behavioural, cognitive and ecological alterations as they constructed and were shaped by this human niche (Antón & Kuzawa 2017; Kissel & Fuentes 2021; Marks 2015). In the construction of the human niche, the aptitude for belief emerged as a noteworthy component generating a dynamic set of advantages and limitations on human lives enabled through human cognition, thought, and perception (Fuentes 2022:2). The construction of the human niche consequently involved the origin of a shared imagination and a set of distinctive socio-cognitive processes (Fuentes 2022:2; cf. Fuentes 2017; Laland 2017; Tomasello 2014; Whiten & Erdal 2012). Essential to the context in which humans evolve is also an all-pervasive semiotic ecosystem (Fuentes 2022:2; cf. Deacon 2016).

In exploring the emergence of the human capacity for belief, Fuentes (2019:38) explains, a vast majority of researchers agree on a few key patterns and traits that played pivotal roles in the initiation of the human niche. It can be argued that the roots of the human niche lie in the networks between bodies and brains, nutrition, caring for offspring, evading predators, and the production of stone tools, in the time between roughly 2.3 million and 1 million years ago.

At the core of some early Homo groups' success was a combined reliance on their bodily capacities and social cohesion - which they shared with most primates - as well as their emerging capacity for behavioural innovation, developing new complexes of behaviour that interacted with their ecologies and developing minds in new ways (Fuentes 2019:40).

They began to combine social and cognitive experiences and create new ways to think about and act on the world around them. Enhanced stone toolmaking came about through experimentation, imagination, and collaboration. Their ability at predator avoidance helped develop communication abilities and heightened their skills at prediction and instant decision-making. Expanding their dietary resources enabled new ways to share those practices intensively and extensively, adding to their nutrition and their overall tool kit. All of these enabled our lineage to develop a level of communication-based social learning, and a collaborative and cooperative intensity of information transfer that surpassed those of other hominins. According to Antón, Potts and Aiello (2014), these patterns can be considered the origin of the human niche.

Two critical changes necessary to developing the human capacity for belief occurred at this time namely, extended childhood and improvement and diversification in diet (Fuentes 2019:40). Firstly, because of their social lives becoming all the more complex, offspring took longer to learn how to be effective adult members of their groups. And secondly, as their diets became more diverse and effective, our ancestors became more capable to feed the expansion of their brains. The combination of these two patterns initiated the evolution of an extended maturation process, which facilitated extended brain growth and more neurological and social development after birth. Early Homo's brains became anatomically more responsive to their environment as they developed increasingly dynamic neural pathways in response to experience which created more learning capacity and improved abilities to imagine and to translate those 'imaginings' into social and material reality (Fuentes 2019:40; cf. Foley 2016; Kuzawa et al. 2014).

A few core processes that emerged as part of the human niche can be related to our capacity for belief and being religious. Initially, the processes and patterns of social cognition, developed from the processes of caretaking, foraging, the control of fire, toolmaking, the creation of symbolic materials, and the ecological expansion of early Homo across the planet. This continuing dynamic, the 'feedback' between neural and behavioural plasticity, established the neurobiological, social, cognitive, and ecological basis in human populations for a capacity for belief (Fuentes 2022: 2; cf. Corbey 2020; Tomasello 2019). Thereafter, common beliefs, and eventually belief systems emerged, via the connections and exchanges created by the 'ratcheting up' of ecological and social complexity, coupled with increased interactions among populations over the last 200 000-400 000 years (Fuentes 2022:2; cf. Kissel & Fuentes 2021). An increase in, and eventual overwhelming occurrence of art, symbol, and meaning-making in human populations are indicated by material evidence over the last few hundred thousand years (see Deacon 2016; Fuentes 2017; Sykes 2020). It is during this process that humans evolved the capacity for conceptual innovation and imagination. Fuentes (2019:45) describes 'meaning-making' as the capacity to think anew and create material realities out of these novel thoughts. Suggestions of meaning-making in the human past offer material evidence for when and how humans may have evolved the capacity for transcendent experiences that establish powerful, persuasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations - the starting point for religious experience. ²

Two significant processes emerged as a result of these cognitive processes. Firstly, the imagining of new items and either manufacturing them or altering other things to become them (Fuentes 2022:2). This capacity is observable in a limited form in other animals. However, by the middle to late Pleistocene, it became permanently and extensively part of the human niche. Secondly and relying on the first, over the past few hundred thousand years of human history, as part of our comprehensive communicative and semiotic capacities, humans began generating explanations of broadly observable phenomena, such as the behaviour of other animals, death, weather, or the sun and moon (Fuentes 2022:4). Early humans did not, for example, only relate clouds, rain, thunder, and floods, they also created accounts for why these phenomena occur (see Deacon 1997, 2016; Fuentes 2017, 2019, 2022; Henrich 2016; Tomasello 2014). Referring to this capacity, Bloch (2008:2056) argues that through the course of human evolution, we developed from socially complex transactional beings, like most other primates and social mammals, to groups of organisms who exist concurrently in both transactional and transcendent realities, and who rely on imagination and belief to restructure themselves and the world around them.

It is important to note that the boundaries to, and shape of the human niche are not always material or limited by direct representation. Humans are therefore receptive to influence - with potentially evolutionarily relevant implications - from transcendent experiences in addition to specifically prompted or materially experienced ones (Fuentes 2020:15).

This is an important perspective for theologians and philosophers engaging with evolutionary theory and palaeoanthropological approaches to being human. Various scholars valuing transdisciplinary study on being human, such as Deanne-Drummond & Fuentes (2020), Van Huyssteen (2006) and Fuentes (2020), believe that it offers a possible link of shared focus wherein contributions from the perspective of theologians and philosophers can substantially contribute in developing profound understandings of how humans can, do, and have engaged with perceptual realities that are infused with notable features that are not necessarily rooted in material experience or contexts. In the light of this sort of transdisciplinary discourse on the emergence of religion, Van Huyssteen (2006:267) suggests that theologians are faced with the responsibility to acknowledge the fact that our capacity to respond religiously to ultimate questions - through various forms of prayer and worship - is deeply embedded in our capacity for imaginative and symbolic behaviour, and in the embodied minds that make such behaviour possible.

 

Belief and human culture

The exploration of the evolutionary history of humans offers limited insight into contemporary institutionalised religions. It does not give us insight as to how we believe. At the core of how we believe is the human reality of culture. Culture is both a product of human actions and a phenomenon that shapes those actions. It is the framework, the context that embodies and provides meaning to our experiences of the world. As the biologist Kevin Laland (2017) explains, 'it is what makes the human mind possible'.

Even though many organisms have some form of culture, human culture is noticeably unique (Whiten 2021:1). Human culture influences how humans do just about everything: eating, cooperating, reproducing, fighting, perceiving, innovating, interacting, manufacturing and utilising technology, experiencing emotions, expressing ourselves, and a multitude of other cognitive and behavioural processes and events (Fuentes 2022:4). Culture is an essential component of the human niche and makes human being and human reason possible (Laland 2017:14).

Cultural contexts, which can also be described as the 'webs of significance' that are symbolic meaning, are both perceptually and materially existent for the people within them and therefore it is structurally relevant to, and affected by, evolutionary and societal processes (Fuentes 2022:4). Culture is a capacity and necessity for H. sapiens. Therefore, comprehending the mechanisms which contributed to the development of cultural processes, how these processes function and how much function affects members and populations of that species itself, is of key importance in any evolutionary explanation of the human mind (Fuentes 2022:4). A fascinating example in this regard is provided by Fuentes (2022):

For example, a stone tool is not relevant to human evolution simply as the combination of a person altering and using a shaped stone but rather requires the fact that a person has a set of beliefs, or concepts, of a tool to begin with. The stone object is given shape but also a functional capacity in affecting the world by being transformed from stone to tool, not just through mechanical modification, but also by an understanding of 'tool' as a concept. Such assemblages of practical and conceptual processes are a cognitive outcome of evolved capacities in the human niche. A human with the tool concept, and beliefs about the tools themselves, is not constrained by existing tools or materials when novel challenges arise. Rather they can try to innovate and find and modify a stone, or other material, into a novel or altered tool for the job. (p. 4)

Similarly, beliefs can shape how behaviour and social interactions affect bodies. A shared cultural belief in monotheism, for example, can influence social organisation and has substantial effects on human functioning, phenotype or reproduction (Fuentes 2022). Shared cultural belief in monotheism can further be related to deep-rooted social inequality as in many cases it increases the likelihood of large state formation or endurance, and it allows hierarchy and differential resource distribution more likely to occur (see for example Henrich 2020).

Cultural beliefs are significant since they fundamentally and reliably impact the relationships of humans with their environments, the resources available to them (communication, tools, senses), and the conditions of the developmental niche (our maturation) which can have, according to Fuentes (2022:4; cf. 2018; Fuentes 2019), both intra- and intergenerational impact. It becomes evident that the human experience is forged from co-determining, interacting constituents of both cultural and biological processes. Therefore, there seems to be no need to debate either side of exhausted debates on the contribution of both these processes. Cultural beliefs also evolved as an essential part of the distinctive niche humans are born into and wherein they interact with the world and other organisms.

According to Downey and Lende (2012:37), 'cultural concepts and meanings become anatomy' as humans learn to orchestrate themselves through systemic modification in the nervous system, and embeddedness in cultural contexts. Beliefs permeate the minds, bodies, and ecologies of humans and consequently, they generate:

[D]ynamic perceptual and interpretative assemblages that can act either as robust 'enculturating' forces in human social systems or socio-ecologies (our cultures) or disrupt them, facilitating new and/or modified dynamics in perceptual and cultural processes. (Fuentes 2022:1; cf. Downey & Lende 2012; Seitz & Angel 2020)

Therefore belief, the cognitive processes related to belief, as well as the evolutionary history of these processes, is significant in exploring human behaviour and experience. Belief forms the human mind - past, present, and future.

 

Concluding remarks

This exploration of the emergence of religion indicates that our capacity for imagination and belief preceded it. There is sufficient evidence that long before the first appearance of modern human beings, our human ancestors were evolving ever more complex substantial cognitive and behavioural responses to social and ecological challenges (Fuentes 2017; 2020). With the use and creation of symbols, humans developed a new kind of semiosis at some point during the evolutionary process. Currently, human beings are, therefore, profoundly embedded in a symbolic system where imagination, hope, and the symbols associated with them create meaning, maintain stability, and provide the necessary infrastructure for faith (Fuentes 2017, 2019). Expectations of how people should behave, ideals for fairness and morality, ideals for what the world ought to be like, among others are all good examples of the functioning of such a symbolic system. The ability to think in this way is not necessarily tied to any of the actual detail of the physical world surrounding humans at any given time. Rather, these thought processes are facilitated by human symbolic abilities. The meaning-laden and symbolic experiences that humans are enculturated by from childhood onwards do, however, have a significant influence on this ability. According to Van Huyssteen (2006), this perspective is an important key to understanding religious thought.

Human beings constructed a niche across their evolutionary history where symbol and imagination functioned as central aspects of their ecology. Religious rituals, structures, and institutions are one way in which the imagination and symbol are deployed in humans. To acquire a more profound notion of the origin of religion, it seems vital to identify the kinds of behaviours, cognitive processes, and structures in our archaeological past that may have improved the role that human symbol use and creation, as well as the human imagination, had in the initial appearances of religious experience, ritual, belief, and their associated institutions (Serfontein 2018).

Van Huyssteen (2017:ad loc) reminds us of the limitations that arise in exploring the capacity to be religious. Neither biology nor the neurosciences can adequately explain the religious experience. An experience can only be interpreted, identified, and consequently qualified as religious or not by the religious person. Such an awareness of the limitations of scientific explanations illuminates the methodological need for an interdisciplinary approach, as well as the indispensable role that theologians can play, in the exploration and explanation of religion and religious experience.

This research further indicates that the origin of religion can be found neither in adaptations through natural selection nor in viewing religious belief as a mere byproduct of human cognitive complexity. Rather, the origin of, and capacity for, religious belief is a result of the interactive way humans throughout evolutionary history have navigated the world around them. The development of human imagination and the manifestation of a quest for meaning as a vital part of the human niche are indeed an essential precursor to having the capacity for religious belief. For Christian theologians, this offers a stimulating bottom-up view of the marvellously complex way in which God has created and prepared the human species to be mentally, physically, and spiritually 'equipped' for faith. A species capable of worshipping God, of receiving the word made flesh.

A final note concerning how a more comprehensive understanding of the origin of religious awareness might aid us in our exploration of the history of morality.

As mentioned in the introduction, there is still a widespread assumption that religion and morality are synonymous, which can be considered a top-down view of morality. Divine Command Theory is one of the well-known theories in this perspective, which is the view that moral obligation is obedience to God's commands, and morality is by some means dependent upon God. Naturally, the content of these divine commands differs according to different religions and religious traditions. Given the notion that moral awareness - like consciousness, imagination, sexuality, language, and religious disposition - is one of the most distinctive traits of being human, I am not convinced, that the origin of morality could be best understood from a top-down perspective. This research indicates that it is within the framework of our unique human niche that profound insights into the origin of religious and moral awareness can be found. Exploring the origin of the human capacity for moral awareness and employing evolutionary theories, might bring us closer to a more responsible notion of morality and ethics. It is important to bear in mind that even though religion is not the source of our capacity for moral awareness, through history, religion has played and still plays a profound role in how and why we make certain moral judgements.

Last, the abovementioned findings can be considered as motivation and an invitation for Christian theologians to acquire a more comprehensive understanding of crucial aspects of being human like religious and moral awareness to construct a more responsible notion of ethics. The challenge, however, is to determine how different ethical issues especially institutionalised religions will be approached with a deepened understanding of religious and moral awareness, rooted in nature.

 

Acknowledgements

Sections of this manuscript are published in the author's thesis entitled 'Imagination, religion, and morality: An interdisciplinary approach' submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR in the Department of Dogmatics and Christian Ethics, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, South Africa, in September 2018 with supervisor: Prof. Dr D.P. Veldsman. It is available here: https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/71030/Serfontein_Imagination_2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

Competing interests

The author declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contributions

B.S. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical considerations

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Bernice Serfontein
bernice.serfontein@gmail.com

Received: 30 June 2023
Accepted: 09 Oct. 2023
Published: 31 May 2024

 

 

Note: Special Collection: Morality in history.
1 . According to Fuentes (2017:5), our best understanding of evolutionary processes in the present day is the extended evolutionary synthesis (EES). Laland et al. (2015:2) suggest, this perspective is unique for its emphasis on organismal causes of development, inheritance and differential fitness, the role of constructive processes in development and evolution, and reciprocal representations of causation (cf. Serfontien 2018). Within the EES, the process known as niche construction is particularly important in exploring the story of human evolution. Niche construction theory considers evolution as a process of 'construction' and never simply a matter of a biologically developing organism. Following this perspective, evolution is a matter of organism and environment systems altering gradually over time in an interactive and dynamic niche construction process.
2 . Early examples of meaning-making in Homo groups are rare. In their overview of the currently available data, Kissel and Fuentes (2017) called them 'glimmerings', sporadic and potentially isolated occurrences that demonstrate that early humans had the capacity to create items that contained a particular pattern of meaning but that the context for shared and sustained meaning-making was not yet present. However, it was just around the corner (Fuentes 2019). In this regard, it is necessary to take into account recent evidence for possible burials, as intentional burial is almost certainly associated with meaning and belief (Fuentes 2019). One example - more than 200 000 years old - is fairly close to 'home' and a recent discovery in South Africa, the Dinaledi chamber. Between 236 000 and 335 000 years ago, a group of small and slight members of genus Homo called Homo naledi carried their dead deep into an underground chamber and deposited them there (Dirks et al 2015). The chamber in which the remains were discovered is tremendously difficult to reach, more than 100 feet underground and requiring climbing, crawling and squeezing through very narrow passages. They also had to drag the deceased with them. And yet these members of genus Homo risked much to venture into the darkness and place these remains in a small chamber deep inside the cave (Fuentes 2019).

^rND^sAlcorta^nC.^rND^sSosis^nR.^rND^sAntón^nS.C.^rND^sKuzawa^nC.W.^rND^sAntón^nS.C.^rND^sPotts^nR.^rND^sAiello^nL.C.^rND^sBloch^nM.^rND^sBoyer^nP.^rND^sBergstrom^nB.^rND^sCorbey^nR.^rND^sDeacon^nT.^rND^sDirks^nP.H.G.M.^rND^sBerger^nL.R.^rND^sRoberts^nE.M.^rND^sKramers^nJ.D.^rND^sHawks^nJ.^rND^sRandolph-Quinney^nP.S.^rND^sDowney^nG.^rND^sLende^nD.H.^rND^sFoley^nR.A.^rND^sFuentes^nA.^rND^sFuentes^nA.^rND^sFuentes^nA.^rND^sJohnson^nD.^rND^sBering^nJ.^rND^sKissel^nM.^rND^sFuentes^nA.^rND^sKissel^nM.^rND^sFuentes^nA.^rND^sKuzawa^nC.W.^rND^sChugani^nH.T.^rND^sGrossman^nL.I.^rND^sLipovich^nL.^rND^sMuzik^nO.^rND^sHof^nP.R.^rND^sLaland^nK.N.^rND^sUller^nT.^rND^sFeldman^nM.W.^rND^sSterelny^nK.^rND^sMuller^nG.B.^rND^sMoczek^nA.^rND^sNorenzayan^nA^rND^sSeitz^nR.J.^rND^sAngel^nH.F.^rND^sSosis^nR.^rND^sSosis^nR.^rND^sAlcorta^nC.^rND^sSouthgate^nC.^rND^sVan Huyssteen^nJ.W.^rND^sVan Huyssteen^nJ.W.^rND^sWake^nD.B.^rND^sHadley^nE.A.^rND^sAckerly^nD.D.^rND^sWhiten^nA.^rND^1A01^nIzaak J.L.^sConnoway^rND^1A01^nIzaak J.L.^sConnoway^rND^1A01^nIzaak J. L^sConnoway

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Hostility towards removal: A frame-semantic analysis of שמדד in the Hebrew Bible

 

 

Izaak J.L. Connoway

Department of Biblical Studies, South African Theological Seminary, Sandton, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

The verb שׁמד is a prominent verb of destruction that appears throughout the Hebrew Bible (HB). It is well represented in both Dtn-Dtr and the Prophetic Books. Many verses related to the conquest of Canaan and the exile feature this verb. Relevant scholarly literature also indicates that some elements of its meaning and usage remain obscure. All this makes it worthy of investigation. The last few decades have seen a rise in the utilisation of cognitive linguistics (CL) for the exegesis of the HB. A review of scholarly literature did not identify any robust attempt at utilising CL to gain insight into the meaning of שׁמד. In this study, frame semantics (FS) along with several other CL methodologies are used to gain greater insight into the semantic force of שׁמד in the HB. Three major discoveries were made. (1) While there usually are severe fatalities, all-encompassing fatality (i.e. annihilation) is not at the semantic core of שׁמד. Rather, decimation is the idea. (2) The destruction envisaged by שׁמד is conceptualised as removal from a location, whether dispossession or extermination. (3) Some insight was gained into the obscurity of when שׁמד takes במות as an object.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This study traverses the fields of CL, Semitics, Biblical Studies, and Biblical Theology. It utilises CL to gain greater insight into a Hebrew verb. This insight enabled more accurate exegesis of the HB. These exegetical findings have implications for Biblical Theology, especially divine judgement and the conquest of Canaan

Keywords: frame semantics; cognitive linguistics; שׁמד; conquest; exile; destruction; Hebrew Bible; exegesis.

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Introduction

'Most of the Orcs of the Misty Mountains were scattered or destroyed in the Battle of the Five Armies' (Tolkien 1994:389). Gandalf uttered these words when trying to convince his companions to travel through Khazad-dûm. This quote is instructive since it captures the semantic core of שׁמד quite well. Surely with a verb of destruction, perhaps used in war, the patient of the verb is either destroyed (i.e. annihilated) or not (e.g. scattered). But what if there was a verb which has both the infliction of severe casualties (without annihilation) and displacement at its semantic core? Decimation with the implication of displacement. After utilising frame semantics (FS) and some other cognitive linguistics (CL) methodologies, it was found that שׁמד is such a verb. This article presents argumentations for this.

The article starts with a literature review. The methodology section follows, which outlines the means used for gathering and interpreting data. Three senses of שׁמד are presented next, and the prototype and its relation to the other senses are indicated. The next two sections flesh out the senses. Firstly, each of the senses is demonstrated and secondly, the spatial nature of שׁמד is explored. The penultimate section presents some points of insight that were gained by inspecting the verbs that appear in collocation with שׁמד. The final major section contains expositions of three verses that exhibit the semantic core of שׁמד. To conclude, the major findings and some suggestions for future research are presented.

 

Literature review¹

The verb שׁמד appears a total of 90 times in the Hebrew Bible (HB), of which 69 are in the hiphil stem (Hall 1998:151). This is not unusual, since verbs of force most often appear in the hiphil stem (Jenni 1968:205). Two-thirds of all the occurrences are in Dtn-Dtr (Hall 1998:151); and after Dtr, the collection with the most occurrences is the Prophetic Books (Vetter 1997:1367). Almost four-fifths of the occurrences are theologically significant, considering Yahweh is the immediate or implied agent (Hall 1998:151). It is not always possible to tell whether the action is done by humans or Yahweh (Lohfink 2004:185). The idea of Yahweh as the agent of execution of the ban is often found in Dtn-Dtr when an evildoer is annihilated (Vetter 1997:1367). Humans are always affected by שׁמד, even if the action is done to physical objects (Lohfink 2004:181). It is most often used for the destruction of whole groups, but individuals are destroyed a few times (Hall 1998:151). A few times it takes במות as an object, but this 'unusual usage remains obscure' (Lohfink 2004:196).

The verb שׁמד often appears with other verbs of destruction, but it is not necessarily synonymous with these. It might rather form a sequence with them (Lohfink 2004:180). It often appears as the outcome of other verbs (Lohfink 2004:180) or at the end of a list, in which case it might be a summary statement (Lohfink 2004:193). It most often appears with אבד (Lohfink 2004:180), which Hall (1998:152) thinks might be its closest synonym, though Lohfink (2004:180) thinks it is most likely interchangeable with כרת. Vetter (1997:1367) and Hall (1998:152) say it corresponds with חרם because they often appear together, thus שׁמד also refers to physical extermination from the cultic community.

It almost always refers to the act of destruction, and once it is done, nothing is left (Lohfink 2004:179). The destruction 'may be permanent', though it could be impermanent (e.g. 2 Ki 10:28; cf. 2 Ki 21:3) (Austel 1999:930). The hiphil refers to the 'visible expurgation' of the object, as shown by its use with expressions like, for example, 'from the face of the earth' (Vetter 1997:1367). It is always used for vengeance or judgement (Austel 1999:930) and also belongs to the domain of cursing (Lohfink 2004:181).

As a requirement for receiving the Promised Land, the Canaanites were to be annihilated so Israel would not follow their ways (Hall 1998:152). This annihilation is seen throughout Dtr as the occupation progresses (Lohfink 2004:179). Israel also appears as the object. They faced extinction if they disobeyed the covenant. This explains their later destruction (Is 48:19; Hall 1998:152).

Lohfink (2004:182) says its concrete use always refers to physical destruction, but that שׁמד does have an abstract sense. In such cases, annihilation is not implied. The idea is rather something like 'remove' (Lohfink 2004:179). Its original meaning may have been removal from the family-ancestors-inheritance nexus (Lohfink 2004:183). In the context of a few verses, some people are left after שׁמד is done, of which many refer to the exile (182). If we do not take these verses (e.g. Dt 4:26; 28:20, 24, 45, 51, 61) as hyperbole like Tigay (1996:52, 262) does, we might say it has an abstract sense. These refer to dispossession and banishment (Lohfink 2004:182) since some verses even already foresee the return from the exile (Lohfink 2004:190-191). It is also used in formulaic expressions (Dt 2:12, 21, 22, 23) for one group doing שׁמד to another group with the implication of dispossessing them and taking over their territory (Lohfink 2004:184). One unique case is Deuteronomy 9:14, where Israel was to have their name blotted out from under heaven (Lohfink 2004:192).

While some acknowledgement is given to the fact that annihilation is not always the idea, the majority of what is said portrays the idea that שׁמד has all-encompassing fatality in mind. We see this with expressions like 'whole group', 'nothing is left', 'visible expurgation' and 'extinction'. The abstract sense of שׁמד and the times where the context indicates it does not refer to annihilation deserve more attention than they have received. A greater understanding is necessary because of how central שׁמד is to the conquest of Canaan and the exile. The obscurity of when בבות is the object is also worthy of exploration.

 

Methodology

Overview

Cognitive linguistics emerged in the 1970s (Croft & Cruse 2004:1). It consists of a series of methodologies that recognise the link between language and cognition. These are used to gain greater insight into the meaning of words, which lies outside the reach of structuralist approaches (Ziegert 2021a:28). One of these methodologies is FS, which holds that language is made up of 'frames'. These frames form a system of concepts that relate in such a way that to understand one part, you must understand the whole structure (Fillmore 2006:373). An example of a cognitive frame is a commercial event, which involves a buyer, seller, product, and value. If one hears the word 'buyer' the rest of the parts are also activated (Fillmore 1976:25). As with any knowledge system, a frame has several 'slots', and the frame has a slightly different meaning depending on what 'fillers' they are filled with (Minsky 1975:212). Frame semantics, like CL generally, has an encyclopaedic approach to semantics (Langacker 2008:39); therefore, the context in which something is experienced has to be inspected to determine its meaning (Fillmore 1976:24). This encyclopaedic knowledge can be gathered from a text (Fillmore 2006:386) by, for example, inspecting the function of a verb, the verbs used in collocation with it, and the situations in which it is used. Inspecting the semantic roles of a verb's arguments has much greater explanatory power than merely looking at the grammatical case of its arguments (Fillmore 2006:375-377). All the information gathered needs to be categorised (Fillmore 2006:373).

Frame semantics is the major methodology for the article, but beyond that, some other methodologies will also be used to interpret and present the data. Principled polysemy will be used to arrive at a semantic network for different senses of שׁמד (Tyler & Evans 2003:38, 42-45). The various senses will be used to set up a semantic network, which will require that I identify the prototype² and indicate how it relates to the other sense (Tyler & Evans 2003:45). This will be presented as a radial network (Brugman & Lakoff n.d.:1-2). Because humans use concrete domains to conceptualise abstract domains, image-schemata will be used to understand metaphors (Brugman & Lakoff n.d.:318). The notions of preponderance in the semantic network (Tyler & Evans 2003:48) and basic domains (Evans & Green 2006:234) will also be used. Greater insight can be gained into the meaning of a word by inspecting the verbs with which it appears in collocation, thus semantic priming (Grasso 2021:124) was also used.

Cognitive linguistics and biblical Hebrew

The need for greater precision when handling the biblical text was already identified by James Barr in 1961. Barr (1961:21) took issue with the 'unsystematic and haphazard' way in which theological thought and biblical languages were connected. He criticised biblical philologists for not using sound linguistic methodology (Ziegert 2021b:311) and neglecting to draw on general linguistics (Barr 1961:21). Barr (1992:145) called for Hebrew dictionaries to supply definitions and not just glosses.

He launched the structuralist revolution that provided great improvements, but its methodologies could not extract all the intricate meanings of the text (Ziegert 2020:718). Structuralism still dominates biblical studies, but CL is on the rise (Ziegert 2021a:19), as recently published books indicate (e.g. Burton 2017a; Shead 2011; ed. Van Wolde 2003, 2009).

I acknowledge that modern CL studies rely heavily on the intuition of native speakers to determine normativity. This complicates the study of a dead language (Burton 2017b:214). However, this does not leave us without data (Burton 2017b:214) since the study of literary activity can provide much insight (Burton 2017b:215). It is generally acknowledged that where suitable data exists, cognitive methods are preferable over structuralist or generative methods (Burton 2017b:213).

Delimitation

To ensure the study is practicable, I delimited the data. I did not engage in comparative philology for a few reasons: (1) שׁמד had enough data (90 occurrences; Hall 1998:151) for conclusions to be drawn (Barr 1968:154), (2) 'in contrast to forms, meanings are rather slippery' (Barr 1968:88), and (3) different cultures have different conceptualisations (Minsky 1975:257).

The article follows a synchronic approach³ to the text, but the linguistic dating of the Hebrew texts is regarded. Early in the study, all occurrences of שׁמד from all periods were inspected. Data from the analysis of the extent of the destruction and the spatial nature of שׁמד were used to come up with the senses for שׁמד; therefore, for these, all occurrences of שׁמד from all periods were inspected.⁴ This was done because the Biblical Hebrew corpus is small already. However, Standard Biblical Hebrew (SBH) and Transitional Biblical Hebrew (TrBH) were favoured over Ancient Biblical Hebrew (ABH), Late Biblical Hebrew (LBH), and Psalms and Proverbs.⁵ However, when studying the verbs in collocation and choosing verses to exegete, only occurrences from SBH and TrBH were used. It was assumed that these would be most instructive. Where relevant, when TrBH and LBH differ from SBH, it is pointed out.

 

Senses

Since שׁמד is a verb of destruction, the extent or nature of the destruction needs to be a major consideration. Some questions need to be answered. Is there a potential for recovery? Is the destruction all-encompassing, including all of a patient or experiencer, if it is a group? What is the nature of the destruction? How is the destruction conceptualised?

Principled polysemy

I drew on Tyler and Evans's (2003:42-43) methods for minimising subjectivity in coming up with various senses when setting up a semantic network. I used the requirement that each sense must be unique when compared to other senses. The uniqueness of my senses revolves around the object שׁמד takes, and the extent of the destruction implied. All three have the removal from sense.

The first sense is 'decimate',⁶ which can be defined as 'to inflict severe casualties on humans to remove them from a location'. The agent can be divine or human, and the patient or experiencer is human.⁷ With this sense, there might be severe casualties if the object is a group and it is dispelled from a location, but it does not cease to exist.

The second sense is 'annihilate', which can be defined as 'to attack humans to exterminate them from a location'. The agent can be human or divine, and the patient or experiencer is human.⁸ This sense is all-encompassing, so the totality of the patient or experiencer, whether it is an individual or a group, ceases to exist. Some all-encompassing references appear in the context where this sense applies.

The third sense is 'purge', which can be defined as 'to root out a religion from an area'. The agent can be human or divine, and the patient or experiencer is a cultic object or a deity, but the clear sense is that the religion is no longer practised in the location indicated.

Prototype

If I used a monosemic approach, I could come up with an abstract prototype that accommodates all the senses, but this approach has less explanatory power than principled polysemy (Tyler & Evans 2003:37). Principled polysemy holds that all the senses in a semantic network derive from one of the represented senses, which is also the prototype (Tyler & Evans 2003:45-46). This requires that you figure out which sense is more prototypical, and which is less prototypical (Evans & Green 2006:332).

Even though most occurrences have the 'annihilate' definition (preponderance; Tyler & Evans 2003:48), I do not believe this is the primary sense. Langacker's theory of domains is similar to and complements Fillmore's FS, but domains organize concepts explicitly while FS does it implicitly (Evans & Green 2006:228). According to Langacker's domains theory, cited in Evans and Green (2006:234), the basic domain is the one with the least amount of complexity or level of detail.

In light of this, I would argue that the 'decimate' sense is primary. I say this because that sense is often clear from the context, but the 'annihilate' sense requires, for example, additional verbs or prepositions to make the all-encompassing sense clear. Rather than the sense of 'removal' being an abstract, fringe sense (Lohfink 2004:179, 182) that includes dispossession, the idea of engaging in hostility and decimating with the aim of removal from a location appears to be the primary sense of שׁמד.

Radial network

A semantic network has a prototype to which the other senses are related and from which they derive (Tyler & Evans 2003:45). These relations can be represented with a radial network (Brugman & Lakoff n.d.:1-2). The following radial network indicates (see Figure 1) the prototype and how the other senses relate to it. As discussed earlier, I propose that the 'decimate' sense is the core with the 'annihilate' sense proceeding from it.

 

 

Beyond that, I propose that the 'purge' sense is a metaphorical extension of the 'annihilate' sense, for the following reasons. According to image-schemata, concrete domains are used as source domains to make sense of metaphoric target domains (Brugman & Lakoff n.d.:319). The shift from a concrete to a metaphoric conception often has some motivation (Brugman & Lakoff n.d.:322). The verb שׁמד is often used for annihilating people engaged in activities that do not please Yahweh from a location. Therefore, I posit that 'purge' is a metaphoric extension used for completely rooting out cultic practices that do not please Yahweh from a location.

 

Demonstration of senses

This section demonstrates the three senses (Figure 1) for שׁמד that the study proposes. The amount of occurrences of שׁמד that are classed according to each sense is indicated. The arguments of שׁמד as well as the extent of the destruction are indicated for each sense. For illustrative purposes, some verses are referenced for each sense and the reasons for classing them according to a specific sense are also provided. Some anomalies from TrBH are discussed at the end.

'Decimate'

A total of 33 of the 90 occurrences are classed as 'decimate'. When these occurrences have a people group as the patient or experiencer, the destruction of the whole group is not what is meant. Rather, the focus often seems to be on removing the people from a location, though severe casualties are inflicted. Examples include Israel, among others, dispossessing a nation and dwelling in their place or Israel being evicted from Canaan for being unfaithful to Yahweh. All 'decimate' occurrences are found in contexts where the patient or experiencer is displaced while inflicting casualties, like the conquest of Canaan or the exile.

Some of the reasons for occurrences to be classed as 'decimate' are: (1) The context focusses on removal from a location, which applies to all 'decimate' occurrences, (2) the object still appears later in the book (Dt 2:21) or elsewhere in the HB (Dt 2:23), and (3) verbs of subjugation and dispossession appear in the context. These include ירשׁ (Dt 2:12, 21, 22; 9:3; 31:3, 4; Jos 24:8; 2 Chr 20:10; Am 2:9), ישׁב + תחתם (Dt 2:12, 21, 22, 23; 12:30⁹), כנע (subdue Dt 9:3), גרשׁ (drive out; Dt 33:27; 2 Chr 20:10), לכד + יצא בגולה (taken + go into exile Jr 48:8).

Deuteronomy particularly has a focus on being removed from the land, whether through the conquest of Canaan (1:27; 7:23, 24; 9:3; 12:30; 31:3, 4; 33:27) or the exile (4:26_bis; 6:15; 7:4; 28:20, 24, 45, 48, 51, 61, 63). After Deuteronomy, the 'decimate' cases all refer to the conquest of Canaan (2 Ki 21:9; 1 Chr 5:25; 2 Chr 20:10; 2 Chr 33:9; Ps 106:34; Am 2:9_bis) and the exile (Jos 23:15; 24:8; Is 48:19; Jr 48:8; Am 9:8a). Some other people, like Lot (Dt 2:21, 22) and Esau's (Dt 2:12) descendants or the Caphtorites (Dt 2:23), also dispossess nations.

'Annihilate'

A total of 54 of the 90 occurrences are classed as 'annihilate'. With these occurrences, there is always something in the context that indicates that the fatality is all-encompassing. First of all, it should be noted that when שׁמד is done to an individual (Dt 9:20; 2 Sm 14:7, 11; Ezk 14:9), the sense is always 'annihilate'. Also, it might indicate the annihilation of a limited group that forms part of a larger group (e.g., Dt 4:3 worshippers of Baal Peor, 7:24 Amorite kings, Jos 7:12 Achan's family; 2 Chr 20:23 the warring faction; Es 8:11 attackers; Dn 11:44 many).

Various elements in the context specify that שׁמד indicates all-encompassing fatality. One means is all-encompassing references (כל Dt 4:3; Jos 9:24, 11:14; Es 3:6, 13; 8:11; מתחת השׁמים Dt 7:24, מתחת השׁמים 9:14, מבית אבי 1 Sm 24:22, בכל־גבל ישׁראל 2 Sm 21:5, כל־בית ירבעמ 1 Ki 15:29; כל־בית בעשׁא 1 Ki 16:12; כל־הנשׁארים לאחאב 2 Ki 10:17; אני ועמי Es 7:4; שׁם ושׁאר ונין ונכד Is 14:23; כל־זכר למו Is 26:14; מתחת שׁמי יהוה Lm 3:66).

It is also indicated by other verbs (negated שׁאר Jos 11:14; 1 Ki 15:29; מחה Dt 9:14; חרם Jos 11:20, כרת 1 Sm 24:22, כלה 2 Sm 21:5, כלה 2 Sm 22:37; כחד 1 Ki 13:34; חרם and כלה 2 Chr 20:23; שׁחת Ps 106:23; כרת Is 10:7; כרת; 14:23 חרם Dn 11:44). Some prominent nominals also indicate all-encompassing fatality (שֵׁם Dt 7:24, 9:14, 1 Sm 24:22; חֵרֶם Jos 7:12; שַׁמָּה Is 13:9; מעם Jr 48:42). It might also be something else in the context (e.g., Dt 9:8, 9:19 9:25,¹⁰ Jdg 21:16,¹¹ 2 Ki 10:28,¹² Es 4:8; Is 10:8;¹³ Am 9:8b, c;¹⁴ Hg 2:21) or a reference to the apocalyptic judgement of a nation (Is 13:9; 23:11; Jr 48:42).

Some wisdom texts (Ps 37:38, 83:11, 92:8, 145:20; Pr 14:11) could be classified as 'annihilate', but they are not like other occurrences. They all take godless people (often enemies of the poet) as the patient or experiencer. Yahweh is the explicit agent once, though he likely always is the indirect agent. One odd TrBH text (Ezk 34:16) says that Yahweh will destroy the fat and the strong,¹⁵ referring to the bad shepherds. There may have been some semantic drift; therefore, it is not clear whether annihilation is the idea.

For the occurrences that I classify as 'annihilate' when Yahweh is the agent and Israel the patient, they refer to one of two things. Most refer to the golden calf incident (Dt 9:8, 19, 25; Ps 106:23), but in one verse (Am 9:8 b, c), Yahweh says that he will not make an end to Israel.

'Purge'

I classify five of the occurrences as 'purge'. These refer to the use of שׁמד for rooting out a pagan religion from an area. These occurrences have Yahweh and humans as agents and the patient or experiencer is either high places (במות Lv 26:30, Nm 33:52; Hs 10:8), idols (Mi 5:13¹⁶) or another god (2 Ki 10:28). Lohfink (2004:196) noted that when שׁמד takes במות as the patient or experiencer, it is an 'unusual usage' that 'remains obscure'. By making use of FS and gathering encyclopaedic information (Van Wolde 2009:51), I have provided some insight into this obscurity.

Military defeat

With three TrBH occurrences, it is difficult to identify the extent of the destruction. The context of Ezekiel 25:7 and 32:12 seems to indicate annihilation, but these verses are followed by references that the patient 'will know that I am Yahweh'. Zechariah 12:9 also indicates military defeat for Israel's enemies, but the extent of the destruction is not clear. It may be that semantic drift led to שׁמד merely referring to a decisive military defeat.

 

Spatiality

As noted earlier, spatiality is a significant element of the conceptualisation of שׁמד. The core sense is to remove the patient or experiencer from a location. This is indicated by various means, which I endeavour to demonstrate next.

Inseparable מן

The major way in which this removal from sense is communicated is with the use of the inseparable מן. While it only accounts for 27 of the 90 occurrences, its preponderance (Tyler & Evans 2003:48) leads me to conclude that it is part of the semantic core of שׁמד. By preponderance, I mean that in poetry and prose, in the Torah, Prophets, and Writings, and in SBH, TrBH, and LBH שׁמד is followed by an inseparable מן to indicate a location from which the patient or experiencer is removed.

These occurrences of שׁמד followed by the inseparable מן intimates various forms of removal. Some refer to removal from before conquerors, whether Israel (Dt 12:30; 31:3; Jos 9:24; 24:8; 2 Ki 21:9; 1 Chr 5:25; 2 Chr 33:9; Am 2:9a) or someone else (Dt 2:12, 21, 22). Other occurrences refer to removal from among people, whether from the covenant community for sin (Dt 4:3; Jos 7:12), or by killing (Jdg 21:16; 1 Sm 24:22; 2 Sm 14:16; Jr 48:42). Another use is removal from a land, whether exile (Dt 6:15; Jos 23:15; Is 49:19; Am 9:8a, b), the death of a family (1 Ki 13:34), removal of a cult (2 Ki 10:28), or judgement (Is 13:9). One TrBH occurrence (Lm 3:66) refers to being removed from under heaven.

Inseparable ב

With three occurrences of שׁמד, it is followed by a ב with a locative use (Van der Merwe, Naudé & Kroeze 2017:§39.6). They all appear in prose texts; two in SBH (2 Sm 21:5; 2 Ki 10:17) and one in LBH (Est 3:6). The locative ב is attached to a location and all the members of the group that make up the patient are destroyed, whether the mood is realis or irrealis. Here too, then, it is conceptualised as being removed from a location.

No preposition

Just over half (46/90) of the occurrences of שׁמד are not followed by a locative preposition. However, if the removal from sense was at the semantic core of שׁמד, it is sensible that the meaning would have been understood even if no locative preposition follows שׁמד. Beyond that, for most verses, there is still some element in the context that creates a spatial reference. In this section, these 46 occurrences are discussed. They are discussed in three groupings, ordered according to a descending level of certainty. Lastly, a few occurrences with no spatial reference are discussed and reasons are given for why they pose no threat to the proposed semantic core.

The most certain ones make up 19 of the 90 occurrences. The claims for spatiality include another verb of dispossession or subjugation in the context (Dt 2:23; 4:26_bis; 7:23, 24; 9:3; 33:27), a parallel verb in the context with a locative preposition (Dt 4:26_bis; 9:14; 28:63; 31:4; Ezk 25:7; Mi 5:13) or another clear reference to removal from a space in the context (Dt 7:4; 28:48, 51).

Less certain ones that are still worthy of note make up 23 of the 90 occurrences. For these, the claim for spatiality include, שׁמד is linked to a location (28:20, 24, 45, 61), a verb of removal or desolation appears in context (Lv 26:30; Nm 33:52; Dt 9:8, 19, 20, 25; 2 Chr 20:10; Jr 48:8; Hs 10:8; Hg 2:22), or there is a spatial reference in the context (Gn 34:30; Dt 1:27; 28:20, 24, 45, 48, 51, 61, 63; Jos 11:14, 20; 2 Sm 14:7, 11; 1 Ki 15:29; 1 Ki 16:12; Est 3:13, 4:8, 7:4; Am 9:8 b, c). The 4 of the 90 that are least certain still have the removal (Is 14:23, 26:14; Ezk 32:12) or non-removal (Ps 106:34) from a location implied in context.

With 14 of the 90 occurrences, no spatial reference is found in the context, but these do not pose a problem for the proposed semantic core, for the following reasons. Only two of these (Is 10:7, 23:11) fall under SBH, and they occur in poetry, which is often terse and does not include all the constituents in a sentence. There is one from ABH (2 Sm 22:38), five from Psalms (37:38, 83:11, 92:8, 106:23, 145:20), and one from Proverbs (14:11), and all these are also poetry. The remaining ones are two prose texts from TrBH (Ezk 34:16; Zch 12:9) and three from LBH (2 Chr 20:23; Es 8:11; Dn 11:44); therefore, less weight should be given to them because of the possibility of semantic drift.

 

Verbs in collocation

Semantic priming (Grasso 2021:124) states that much insight can be gained into the meaning of a verb by inspecting the verbs that appear in collocation with it. For this article, only verbs of destruction or verbs that provide insight into the conceptualisation of the destruction that שׁמד portrays are regarded. Occurrences that were inspected are limited to SBH and TrBH.

The verb שׁמד relates to other verbs of destruction in various ways. It could be the result of another verb and the result could be reached momentarily (נכה Gn 34:30), though it often portrays a process (נכה Jos 11:14; כלה 2 Sm 21:4; נכה 1 Ki 15:29; נכה 2 Ki 10:17). In several places, שׁמד seems to be correlated to another verb, though as CL dictates, they will each have their own conceptualisation (אבד Dt 4:26_bis; אבד Dt 28:20; אבד אבד 28:5;1 Dt 28:63; חרם Jos 11:20; כרת 1 Sm 24:22; כחד 1 Ki 13:34; כרת Is 10:7; אבד Is 26:14; כרת Is 48:19; אבד Jr 48:8).

Beyond the result relation mentioned previously, it could also indicate an outcome, meaning if שׁמד is done, it would equate to another verb (נסח pluck off Dt 28:63; מות 2 Sm 14:7; שׁחת 2 Sm 14:11; אבד Ezk 25:7; כרת Ezk 25:7). Related to this, other verbs can also portray the mode (הפך and ירד Hg 2:22) or extent (מחה Dt 9:14) to which שׁמד is done.

It could also be the outcome of another verb in the sense that when the verb has run its course, שׁמד is the outcome. These are preceded by עַד. There are the three process uses of שׁמד mentioned previously (Jos 11:14; 1 Ki 15:29; 2 Ki 10:17), but it could also portray the outcome of verbs that are not verbs of destruction, though all except one appear in contexts of future judgement (Dt 7:23, 24; 28:20, 24, 45, 48, 51, 61; Jos 23:15).

 

Exegetical demonstrations

Scholars agree on the 'annihilate' sense of שׁמד; but while some grope in that direction, the 'decimate' sense has not enjoyed much attention or acknowledgement. In light of this, for the exegetical demonstration section, three passages regarded to have the 'decimate' sense are exegeted. These were chosen from Deuteronomy as it is the book with the most occurrences of שׁמד (29/90).

Deuteronomy 1:27

וַתֵּרָגְנ֤וּ בְאָהֳלֵיכֶם֙ וַתּ֣אֹמְר֔וּ בְּשִׂנְאַ֤ת יְהוָה֙ אתָֹ֔נוּ הוֹצִיאָ֖נוּ מֵאֶ֣רֶץ מִצְרָ֑יִם לָתֵ֥ת אתָֹ֛נוּ בְּיַ֥ד הָאֱמרִֹ֖י לְהַשְׁמִידֵֽנוּ׃¹⁷

You rather grumbled in your tents saying, 'Because Yahweh hates us, he brought us out from the land of Egypt to hand us over to the Amorites for them to decimate us'.¹⁸

For the exegesis of this verse, 1:19-33 was inspected. While some obvious points are made, they lead to a less obvious conclusion. Scholars note that in this verse, Yahweh's greatest blessing (giving Israel the land) is interpreted as an act of hatred, which is emphasised by the word order (Tigay 1996:16). Block (2012:72) says they were 'accusing Yahweh of deliberately trying to destroy them'. McConville (2002:69) also notes that Yahweh wanted 'to destroy them', and Lundbom (2013:177-178) says the hiphil is intensifying here.

However, it could be argued that their complaint was not that Yahweh wanted to annihilate them, but that he was leading them into a lost battle. There are some hints of protection during war in the context. They are told not to dread (ערץ; 1:29), indicating Yahweh's presence in the war camp (Van Pelt & Kaiser 1998:544). Yahweh would fight (לחם; 1:30) for them, indicating that he would be present in the camp as they fight the war sanctioned by him¹⁹ (Longman 1998:786). They are reminded that Yahweh spied out (תור; also used in Numbers 12; 1:33) appropriate places for them before; therefore, they should trust him now also (Matties & Thompson 1998:283).

However, they do not believe in and obey (אמן + ב; 1:32) him (Moberly 1998:431). They already forgot that Yahweh had deposed Egypt, a mightier enemy (Block 2012:72), and so in despair, they accused him of something absurd (Wright 2012:30). The distrust is seen early on. Moses instructs them to possess (ירשׁ; 1:21) the land that was promised (Schmid 1997:579), but contrary to expectation (contrastive וְ; Van der Merwe, Naudé & Kroeze 2017:§40.23.4.2; 1:22) they request that spies be sent to spy out (רגל; 1:24) weaknesses of the land (Merrill 1998:1047). However, rather than being comforted, they are demoralised by paralysing fear (מסס; 1:28) when they hear the report (Wolf, Holmstedt & Wakely 1998:1004). They refuse (אבה + לא; 1:26) to invade the land since victory seemed unlikely (Meier 1998:121).

Considering its context, it appears that in Deuteronomy 1:27, the Israelites feared that Yahweh was leading them into a lost battle rather than that he wanted to see them annihilated. In response to Lundbom's (2013:177-178) comment on the hiphil, it should be noted that 69 of the 90 occurrences of שׁמד are in the hiphil (Hall 1998:151). Also, the stem dominates with verbs of force with the Piel stem seldom featuring (Jenni 1968:205). Thus, the hiphil stem in no way requires that annihilation be the meaning here.

Deuteronomy 4:26

הַעִידתִֹי֩ בָכֶ֨ם הַיּ֜וֹם אֶת־הַשָּׁמַ֣יִם וְאֶת־הָאָ֗רֶץ כִּֽי־אָב֣דֹ תּאֹבֵדוּן֮ מַהֵר֒ מֵעַ֣ל הָאָ֔רֶץ אֲשֶׁ֨ר אַתֶּ֜ם עבְֹרִ֧ים אֶת־הַיַּרְדֵּ֛ן שָׁ֖מָּה לְרִשְׁתָּ֑הּ לֹֽא־תַאֲרִיכֻ֤ן יָמִים֙ עָלֶ֔יהָ כִּ֥י הִשָּׁמֵ֖ד תִּשָּׁמֵדֽוּן׃

Today I call heaven and earth as witness against you that you will certainly perish from off the land which you are crossing the Jordan to possess. You will not lengthen your days on it but will certainly be rooted out of it.

For the exegesis of this verse, 4:25-31 was inspected. They are told that if they damage (שׁחת; 4:25) their moral integrity with idolatry (Connoway & Malherbe 2023:8), Yahweh would not allow the lengthening (ארך; 4:26) of their days (Thompson & Martens 1998:517) on the land. However, what this means and how to interpret שׁמד are complicated matters. Scholars are open to an extreme interpretation of שׁמד, with offerings like 'will surely perish' (Christensen 2002:96), 'be totally destroyed' (McConville 2002:109), 'shall be utterly wiped out', and will be utterly destroyed (Block 2012:133). Lundbom (2013:249) notes that the niphal is particularly strong here and has the sense of completely destroy. Merrill (1994:127) adds that שׁמד 'speaks of such violent and irreversible annihilation that it seems difficult to view it as an uprooting into exile'.

These same authors acknowledge the non-destruction in the context, but either ignore it or explain it away. Block (2012:132-133) notes that three of the consequences for infidelity in the context are: (1) they will be utterly destroyed, (2) Yahweh will scatter them, and (3) they will be few in number, but does not reconcile these points. McConville (2002:109) says it refers to the loss of the chief covenant blessing - the land. Merrill (1994:127) notes that here just like in chapter 28 (vv., 20, 24, 45, 51, and 61), the sense is to be decimated. Tigay (1996:52, 262) also connects Deuteronomy 4 (v. 26) and 28 to the exile. Only he (1996:52) tries to reconcile this with the (supposed) heavy meaning of שׁמד by stating that it is hyperbole. Rather than taking it as hyperbole, Lohfink (2004:190-191) says the abstract meaning of שׁמד (roughly 'remove') should be understood here.

Some elements in the context clarify that they would survive as a nation. While their unity might be threatened if they are scattered (Christensen 2002:96), they would nevertheless survive. Israel would be scattered (פוץ; 4:27), which was a serious punishment for covenant infidelity (Carroll 1998:586), and they would be driven (נהג; 4:27) as prisoners of war (Baker 1998:42) and experience great distress (צרר) when suffering military defeat (Swart & Wakely 1998:854). However, the end of the exile is already indicated in this passage (Lohfink 2004:191). 'Yahweh's unfailing protective presence' would not forsake (רפה; 4:31) them (Wakely 1998:1182), ensuring that the annihilation of the whole nation (Connoway & Malherbe 2023:8) does not occur.

Deuteronomy 9:3

וְיָדַעְתָּ֣ הַיּ֗וֹם כִּי֩ יְהוָ֨ה אֱלֹהֶ֜יךָ הֽוּא־הָעבֵֹ֤ר לְפָנֶ֙יךָ֙ אֵ֣שׁ אֽכְֹלָ֔ה ה֧וּא יַשְׁמִידֵ֛ם וְה֥וּא יַכְנִיעֵ֖ם לְפָנֶ֑יךָ וְהֽוֹרַשְׁתָּ֤ם וְהַֽאַבַדְתָּם֙ מַהֵ֔ר כַּאֲשֶׁ֛ר דִּבֶּ֥ר יְהוָ֖ה לָֽךְ׃

So, know today that Yahweh your God who is going before you is a consuming fire. He will decimate them, and he will subdue them before you and you will dispossess and root them out quickly, just as Yahweh told you.

For the exegesis of this verse, 9:1-5 was inspected. To begin with, no claim is made that שׁמד never refers to the annihilation of the Canaanites (see 'annihilate' section), but that all-encompassing fatality does not have to be the sense, even with Canaanites as patient. Again, scholars generally hold that שׁמד means 'destroy' here (e.g. Block 2012:244; Christensen 2002:180; Merrill 1994:190; Wright 2012:130) and Lundbom (2013:357) again notes that the hiphil indicates complete destruction.

Yet with this occurrence of שׁמד, the sense also appears to be 'decimate', rather than 'annihilate'. Some elements in the context lead to this conclusion. Moses notes that people doubt whether anyone can attack and withstand (יצב; 9:2) the Anakites as Yahweh promised them (Martens 1998:500). However, he notes that Yahweh will decimate (שׁמד; 9:3) them and subdue (כנע; 9:3) them before Israel by granting them military victory (Dumbrell 1998:667). The verb ירשׁ is also pertinent in this passage. The qal in 9:1 clearly refers to taking possession of the land (Schmid 1997:579), but its use in verses 3, 4, and 5 is contested and definitive. Lohfink (2004:196) holds that the hiphil of ירשׁ means 'destroy' here, but Schmid (1997:579) claims that the qal and the hiphil are almost identical. Those two take it to mean 'annihilation' or 'extermination' go too far, he says. In the hiphil stem, when ירשׁ takes humans as an object it means to forcefully expel them (p. 579). Lundbom's (2013:357) argument for complete destruction in the hiphil has been answered with Deuteronomy 1:27.

Decimation (שׁמד) and dispossession (ירשׁ) seem to be the senses. Christensen (2002:180) says that 'who will stand before the Anakim' might refer back to the report of the spies, and Lundbom (2013:362) also notes 'Canaan's inhabitants …were later reported as having been subdued'. Yahweh was to thrust out (הדף; 9:4) the Canaanites before the Israelites as they advanced with military force, extending their territory (Klingbeil 1998:1012). Lohfink (2004:184) approves dispossession being the sense of שׁמד in Deuteronomy 2, but it seems sensible that that interpretation can be applied here also.

Rather than having the same technical sense as חרם (Hall 1998:152), which only occurs three times in the same verse as שׁמד, it may only have that sense when used with חרם. Other times, the sense is not all-encompassing, like when it is used with ירשׁ (e.g. Dt 12:30; Jos 24:8) or has dispossession as a focus (e.g. Dt 2:12, 21, 22, 23, 24; 7:23).

 

Conclusion

Because שׁמד is such a prominent verb of destruction in the HB, it was found worthy of investigation. Its prominence in Dtn-Dtr and the Prophetic Books and its frequent use in contexts of the conquest of Canaan and the exile highlighted it as a likely object of fruitful research. This assumption proved true. Many of the findings complemented scholarly literature, but the investigation drew attention to some elements of its meaning and usage that remained obscure. Previous findings have provisionally been completed and corrected by utilising CL methodologies.

Three senses with which שׁמד were used are offered, differentiating between when it refers to annihilation and decimation. An argument was presented that spatiality, specifically removal from a location, is at the core of שׁמד. One hitherto obscure use of שׁמד was also illuminated, by showing that it can be used for purging a pagan religion from an area.

Some suggestions for future research might be in order. The hiphil stem is most often used for שׁמד, which is not strange since it is a verb of violence, but the significance of its use in the niphal stem deserves more attention. The relationship of שׁמד to other verbs of destruction it appears in collocation with it, especially שׁחת, אבד, and כרת could be inspected. A radial network of their relationship could also be set up. In this study, the 'purge' sense of שׁמד was touched upon only once, but it is also worthy of further exploration.

 

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Mr Mathieu Pelletier (SATS) and Dr Johannes Malherbe (SATS) for their critical feedback on a draft version of this article. Any remaining errors are my own.

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

I.J.L.C. is the sole author of this research article.

Ethical consideration

This article does not contain any studies involving human participants performed by the author.

Funding information

The article processing charges (APC) for this article was paid by the South African Theological Seminary.

Data availability

Queries related to the data on which the findings are based may be directed to the author, I.J.L.C., who might respond within reason.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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Correspondence:
Izaak Connoway
izaak@sats.ac.za

Received: 13 Apr. 2024
Accepted: 05 June 2024
Published: 04 July 2024

 

 

1. Lexicons only supply glosses that do not provide much insight into the meaning of verbs. To focus my literature review, I did not include the major lexicons.
2. I acknowledge that prototype theory has some problems, the most relevant to this study being: (1) using it with lexemes other than objects is complicated (Tyler & Evans 2003:46), and (2) it does not always handle complex categories well (Evans & Green 2006:268). Despite these complications, it is widely used and provides useful data, so it was utilised.
3. To approach the HB synchronically was a structuralist initiative when it comes to biblical studies, but FS independently holds that cognitive insights can be deduced from the text itself (Fillmore 2006:386).
4. For the dating, I followed Garr and Fassberg (eds. 2016:2, 20-21, 32-33, 44-46).
5 . I gave less weight to ABH because it is archaic and poetic and therefore quite terse. I gave less weight to LBH, because it is dated later, so semantic drift is likely. Because Books 4 and 5 of Psalms exhibit some LBH elements (Morgenstern 2016:46) and because Psalms and Proverbs do not have a uniform corpus (Grasso 2021:23), they were given less weight.
6. The shorthand identifiers of all senses are indicated with single quotation marks. These are not meant as exhaustive glosses. One of the senses for the English word 'decimate' is 'to reduce drastically, esp. in number' (ed. Mish 2020:322), which I find an appropriate definition for שׁמד when the 'decimate' sense is in use.
7. Some patients are physical objects, but the objects are used with a metonymic sense.
8. Ibid.
9. Deuteronomy 12:30 does not have תחתם, but בארצם [in their land].
10. Here the connection is the מחה in 9:14 and to שׁחת in 9:26.
11. Judges 20:47-48 shows that only the 600 men in hiding survived, so all women were killed.
12. 1 Kings 10:21 notes that כל־עבדי הבעל were to be summoned.
13. Isaiah 8:9-11 seems to indicate that these nations were razed.
14. The verb שׁמד occurs three times in this verse. The first has the 'decimate' sense, but the second (Inf. Abs.) and third (Impf.) combine to form an extreme mode (Van der Merwe, Naudé & Kroeze 2017:§20.2.2.2), constituting the 'annihilate' sense. It denies that Yahweh will utterly destroy 'the house of Jacob'.
15. Only one Hebrew manuscript has אַשְׁמִיד [I will annihilate] here, while two manuscripts have אשמיר. The LXX has φυλάξω, and Peshitta and Vulgate have the equivalent of that. Therefore, the editors of the BHS (eds. Weil, Elliger & Rudolph 1997:960) suggest the reading אֶשְׁמֹר. However, it makes sense to me that since the flock that the shepherds neglected is nourished by Yahweh, the fat and the strong would be judged.
16. While Micah 5:10 has עָרֶיךָ [your cities] as the experiencer in the MT, it is a bit of an odd fit here. Many amend the text to צִרֶיךָ [your images] or עֲצַבֶּיךָ [your idols] since this would make more sense (Hall Harris 2005) because of all the cultic practices and objects that appear in the context. Van Zijl (1968:75) draws on comparative Semitics and offers a solution for maintaining the consonants ער. The Akkadian ēru refers to a tree that was used to make figurines. This may be what was meant by what has become עָרֶיךָ.
17. Verses from the HB are taken from the Lexham Hebrew Bible (2012).
18. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations of the Hebrew text are my own.
19. Yahweh chose when to present himself in a war camp (Longman 1998:786). Cf. 1:42 where they are told not to go up because Yahweh is not in their midst (Connoway & Malherbe 2020:63).

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH

 

Calling and conscience: Paul as an example

 

 

Gert J. Malan

Department of New Testament and Related Studies, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Correspondence

 

 

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ABSTRACT

Paul's calling presents a conundrum to which many have proposed varied solutions. Not trying to solve the conundrum in toto, this study investigates the existential dynamics of Paul's calling as narrated to the Galatians within the context of their apostasy. The model used is Heidegger's understanding of conscience as a call towards authenticity and away from inauthenticity. Rhetorical analysis assists in identifying Paul's new understanding of authenticity, by analysing the propositio, especially its expositio, which contains soteriological peculiar existential first-person singular expressions. Paul's preaching of his gospel and his letter to the Galatians are in turn also to them, a call to authenticity and away from inauthenticity. His preaching thus resembles the phenomenological idea of conscience. Thus, Paul's gospel cannot be separated from his calling. Both are about the same understanding of authenticity. It is at the same time a new self-understanding: to have been crucified with Christ and therefore Christ living in him and the faithful (Gl 2:19-20). This is a concise formula of soteriology as symbolised in baptism. Such calling is never completed: it remains a dynamic process, a tension and movement between authenticity and inauthenticity. This is reflected in the Galatian apostasy and Paul's letter calling them back to authenticity. The study underlines the crucial importance of soteriology for kerygma and baptism, but especially for understanding a person's call to faith or ministry.
INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The model is suitable for studying the religious phenomenon of calling in religious texts and in life

Keywords: calling; conscience; Paul; Heidegger; authentic existence; Galatians; Hellenistic-Christianity; Jewish-Christianity; soteriology.

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The conundrum of Paul's calling

Paul's account of his calling (Gl 1:11-24) is cast in mystical language (Betz 1984:71), as being neither according to the flesh (Gl 1:11) nor as received or learnt from humans (Gl 1:12). It is described as a revelation of Jesus Christ (Gl 1:12); as Paul being chosen from before his birth; as him being called by the grace of God; as revelation received from God of his Son in Paul and as a calling to proclaim the gospel to the nations (the non-Jews) (Gl 1:15-16). By using the terminology such as 'revelation' and 'calling', Paul ascribes the highest possible authority to his gospel (Kertelge 1992:340). On the other hand, there seems to be an anomaly in this description as this gospel which he received from Christ resembles the kerygma of Hellenistic Christianity. This kerygma has marked differences with that of the Judean Christian gospel, from which side it received serious objections (Bultmann [1948]1983:187-189). How is it then that Paul's revelation from God is cast in the mould of Hellenistic-Christian preaching? How should one unravel this conundrum?

Anthropologically, Paul's call experience can be explained as an altered state of consciousness, of the same kind as a later revelation of Paul to visit Jerusalem a second time (Gl 2:2) (Malina & Pilch 2006:331-333). However, Paul himself makes no mention of any mysterious ecstatic promptings in Galatians 1, nor that such revelations might ever be more important than the tradition of the apostles (Bornkamm [1969]1975:20). Paul's story is an exceptionally concise narration, suggesting behind it the presence of a fuller account which we do not possess. Paul's narration in Galatians also seems to contradict his other account of the appearance of the risen Christ to him in 1 Corinthians 15:1-11, and it differs markedly from other traditions found in Acts 9 and the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies 17.19.4 (Betz 1984:64-65). These accounts should not be reconciled with the version in Galatians (Bornkamm [1969]1975:24) as Sanders (1991:15-16) proposes. Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that Paul recalls events of long ago in an abbreviated form, without giving any detailed descriptions of exactly what had occurred (Betz 1984:64). Another detail that should not be overlooked is the presentation of the narrative. While Paul seems to view his revelation to be exclusively his own, his version has analogies with Old Testament vocation accounts. In this way, Paul is cast in the image of a prophet, especially like the great prophet Isaiah. Being a prophet was deemed by early Christian society to be a role of a higher status than that of an apostle (Malina & Rohrbaugh 2006:186-188). To this should be added the view from ancient wisdom traditions concerning the source of authentic truth. With Paul's claim not to receive his gospel from humans, he stands in the ancient Greek wisdom tradition which claimed that authentic truth cannot be taught by others. Such authentic truth should be deduced by oneself from experience like Socrates did and Philo suggests (Betz 1984:62-63). Another important aspect not to overlook regarding Paul's form of argumentation, is that Greco-Roman rhetoricians suggested a specific and detailed order for argumentation. To this order and its prescripts, Paul's letter to the Galatians adheres very strictly, especially the order formulated for use in law cases. In this regard, Paul treats the Galatian apostasy as a charge against his gospel, which he defends as if in court, with every possible means in his possession (Betz 1984:24) contra Vorster (1992:300), who views Paul as a plaintiff who accuses the Galatians of corrupting the gospel with adherence to Judaic prescripts. Rhetorically speaking, Paul's account of his calling is part of the narratio, which should be a statement of the facts that has a bearing on the accusation. The only specific requirement for the narratio's content is that the occurrences narrated should be lucid, brief, and plausible to effectively convince the judge of their credibility. Therefore, the facts themselves and their presentation are open to partisan interest (Betz 1984:60). The point of Paul's narrative strategy is thus more important than the strategy itself and as the related occurrences. It is faith in the crucifixion of Christ which is the soteriological centre of his gospel, and in this regard, Paul's person becomes the normative criterion for this truth (Vorster 1992:309).

In his narration, Paul creates a narrative world (Petersen 1985:14-17) with himself as the protagonist who has the role of defending the truth of his gospel. Jewish Christianity is cast as the antagonists (especially with the narration about the second visit to Jerusalem and even more so with the presentation of events that occurred in Antioch). Jewish Christianity is represented by their leaders Peter, James, and even Barnabas (in Antioch) is included in their midst. In addition, there are the 'men of circumcision' (Gl 2:11-13), 'false brothers' (Gl 2:4) and 'those perverting the gospel in Galatia' (Gl 1:7), whom he treats as his accusers. Their accusation against him is that Paul preaches his own gospel, which his opponents regard as grossly insufficient. Circumcision and law, which guarantee the validity of the promise to Israel, are lacking in Paul's gospel (Kertelge 1992:348). 'Arabia' refers not to the Arabian desert east and southeast of the Gulf of Aqaba, but to the Kingdom of Nabataea, which was called 'provincia Arabia' in the Roman Empire. Petra, Bostra and other cities excavated between Petra, Gaza and El-'Arish were like Damascus, imminent centers of Hellenism in Paul's lifetime. They were then under the rule of the Nabataean king Aretas IV (Betz 1984:73-74). These Hellenistic centres stand in stark contrast to Jerusalem as the centre of the apostles and of the oldest Christian (read Jewish-Christian) congregation (Keck 1982:5). The narrative starts with Paul describing himself as receiving his gospel directly from the risen Christ (Gl 1:11-12), and proceeds to his visits to Arabia and Damascus, and of his visit 3 years later to Peter in Jerusalem for a 2-week period. Events narrated then move swiftly to his second visit to Jerusalem 14 years later, on account of a revelation from God to defend his gospel. The narration steadily builds up to the vindication of Paul's gospel in Jerusalem, the centre of the antagonists. The story ends with the last episode set in Antioch-on-the-Orontes, another important Hellenistic centre in north-western Syria. Paul victoriously corrects and shames Peter, the antagonist leader, as departing from the truth of the gospel (Gl 2:11-14). The setting underlines the victory of the Hellenistic-Christian gospel and its representative apostle over the Jewish-Christian version of the gospel and its main representative. Furthermore, Paul shows that he no longer acknowledges the authority of Jerusalem to the same extent as was evident on his first visit to Jerusalem. There is thus a gradual development in the narrative presenting Paul's moving away from Jerusalem's authority (Dunn 1982:473). On the other hand, although Paul sets store by his independence of Jerusalem, he fails in freeing himself completely from it. He does need the relation to Jerusalem, even though he presents it as not being on the same level as the revelation of Christ (Kertelge 1992:341). With this narrative strategy, Paul calls the Galatians back to his alternative world, to authentic self-understanding (Lategan 1992:273).

In the narrative, Paul uses several rhetorical strategies to convince the Galatians. Paul uses the technique of dissociation when he describes his incompatibilities with Jewish Christianity (Vorster 1992:298, 300-309) and in so distances himself from his Jewish past. The strategies of alienation and re-identification are used much to the same avail (Du Toit 1992:279-294); another powerful tool Paul employs is his assertion of revealed truth (Gl 2:5 and 14). This strategy effectively excludes any questioning of Paul's gospel (Kertelge 1992:341). He strengthens his position even more by asserting his obedience to these revelations from Christ (Gl 1:12) and God (Gl 2:2), to his instatement as apostle by Christ (Gl 1:1-2, 15-16 and 2:8) and to the gospel (Gl 2:14), and he strategically opposes it to any attempt to win the favour of men, implying the Jewish-Christian leadership and the Galatians who favour them. The persuasive power of Paul's gospel and argument specifically stem from this divine authority which he obeys (Gräbe 1992:353-356). Paul even uses the strategy of emotive argumentation when he pronounces his utter perplexity with the Galatians' apostasy (Gl 1:6) (Roberts 1992:329-338). Furthermore, Paul begins his letter with a repeated curse on those preaching a different gospel than his (Gl 1:8-9), and ends his letter with a conditional blessing upon those remaining loyal to his gospel. These techniques place the letter within the well-known ancient epistolary genre of a magical letter and thus introduce the dimension of magic: curses and blessings are to be feared or desired as inescapable instruments of God (Betz 1984:25).

Judged from both narrative strategy and from rhetoric, Paul defends his gospel in the strongest possible way against the Galatian apostasy. He does this not only to vindicate his gospel and himself as apostle, but especially to win the Galatians back to his gospel (Lategan 1992:277-261). His strong defence should also be understood within the context of the Galatian apostasy being the first radical questioning of Paul's gospel by Christians themselves (Betz 1984:28).

All these strategies which Paul employed and the events of which they narrate reveal Paul's existential engagement with his gospel in reference to his calling, the meaning of life, and the motivation of his ministry: his gospel has become the meaning of his whole life. This paper argues from this premise and focusses on understanding the existential dynamics of Paul's calling rather than debating the historical facts or comparing the various traditions about it. It is a phenomenological study about Paul's radical existential change and the contribution of his conscience in this regard.

It remains, however, important to remember that strictly speaking, Paul's narration refers not to a conversion, but to a calling (Sanders 1991:8-9), although Paul knew the term and spoke of the Galatians' and Thessalonians' conversion (Gl 4:9; Th 1 1:9) (Dunn 1982:326). As Christianity was then still a faction within Judaism, Paul switched parties within Judaism when he was called, namely from Pharisaic Judaism to Hellenistic Christianity (Bornkamm [1969]1975:20-24). His calling therefore can be accounted for in terms of Judaism and should not be seen as a conversion from Judaism to Christianity (Betz 1984:64). This begs the question: what is the existential relationship between Paul's calling and the content of the kerygma revealed to him and the gospel as preached within Jewish Christianity? Should one separate Paul's calling from the gospel that was revealed to him and which he preached, as Betz suggests (Betz 1984:64)? In addition, one has to consider the important question regarding the specific content of Christ's revelation to Paul, as his theology and soteriology is in no sense a recapitulation or a further development of Jesus' preaching. Rather, it seems to reflect the theology of Hellenistic Christianity (Bultmann [1948]1983:187-189) and seems to be at odds with that of Jewish Christianity, even though nothing was added to his gospel at the Jerusalem conference (Gl 2:6-14; Dunn 1982:473). Another question which relates to the understanding of the phenomenon of calling in this study is the calling of God to the Galatians through Paul's kerygma and letter: is it to be understood existentially speaking as of a different nature than Paul's calling or not?

These questions are investigated by utilising the German existential philosopher Martin Heidegger's phenomenological understanding of the concept of conscience (Heidegger [1926]1996). Paul's reference to the faithful being called to faith by Paul's preaching and his letter to them which can be viewed as a calling them back to Paul's gospel, will be compared to the results gained from the study of his own calling. Paul's statement about him dying and Christ living in him (Gl 2:19-20) will be utilised as an existential summary about Paul's view on authentic living, as well as about the essence of Paul's understanding of soteriology (Betz 1984:69). This study and its results may not solve the conundrum of Paul's calling in toto, but may unravel an intricate and central part of it.

 

Conscience as calling

Heidegger's phenomenological understanding of conscience is explained from his perspective of being as Dasein, as described in Sein und Zeit (1926). Dasein is an understanding way of being: towards oneself, others, and one's world. Only two modes are available to Dasein: to be authentically oneself or to be inauthentically determined. Adhering to other people's way of being is therefore to live inauthentically. Because one's Dasein has the potential of authentically being oneself, the call to such authentic being must come from within one's own Dasein itself. Authentic living is attained only when listening to and following one's own conscience by breaking away from the safety of the collective conscience and its prescribed and commonly accepted ideas and behaviour (Heidegger [1926]1996:40, 49, 136, 246-249). In this way, Heidegger differs from the common idea of conscience as a judge, warning not to transgress, or judging past transgressions. He understands conscience as calling one towards an authentic future by showing one's Dasein its lack of being, as well as revealing its own possibilities of being. This lack of being is the result of Dasein being thrown into existence and experiencing its own uncanniness as a not at homeness, as being naked and vulnerable in the nothingness of the world. Conscience calls into this state of anxiety towards the possibility to realise authentic living. This implies Dasein being able to hear the call and to choose whether to adhere to the call or not. It is at the same time the choice to have a conscience and being true to one's innermost self. The call of conscience is a call to care, and it speaks to the core of Dasein, which is care. The primary aspect of care is being ahead of itself towards its potential. As such, the basic constitution of Dasein is that there is constantly something still to be settled, something still outstanding in one's being about which there is care. Therefore, conscience is always calling Dasein forward caring to choose authenticity and caring to live authentically. The process is never completed, because as soon as there is nothing more outstanding (death), Dasein has for this reason become obsolete, a 'no longer-being-there' [Nicht-mehr-da-sein]. Its being has ended, just as Dasein reached wholeness. Its gain has become its loss: its total loss of being in the world (Heidegger [1926]1996:246-255, 264-271, 279-280) (see Figure 1).

 

 

This understanding of conscience as calling towards authenticity will be used as a model to investigate Paul's calling, as well as his call to the Galatians through his kerygma and letter. It is especially relevant, because in 1st century Mediterranean honour-shame societies, the social group provided its members with an external collective conscience that supported or restrained their member's choices of behaviour and their sense of self within a socially accepted understanding of the meaning of life and one's role within it (Malina & Pilch 2006:375-376).

 

Calling and conscience

Paul's calling

To apply the phenomenological model of conscience to Paul's calling, one needs to understand to which idea of authentic existence Paul was called, and the existence which he came to view as inauthentic and from which he was called. When Paul's letter to the Galatians is viewed with Quintilian's rhetorical prescripts in mind, the propositio part of Paul's argument in Galatians answers both these questions. Placed after the narratio (Gl 1:12-2:14), the propositio (Gl 2:15-21) sums up the narratio's material content without being part of it and shows it to be its logical conclusion. The points of agreement (Gl 2:15-16) are set forth, which in this case summarises the doctrine of justification by faith, which is shared with Jewish Christianity. The points of disagreement with Jewish Christianity (Gl 2:17-18) follow, and then four theological theses (Gl 2:19-20) appear (the expositio), culminating in the refutatio (Gl 2:21) as a sharp denial of the charge. The propositio thus sets up the arguments to be discussed later in the probatio (Gl 3 and 4) (Betz 1984:114).

For this study, the expositio is crucial. It summarises Paul's own theological position as soteriology, which is elaborated in the rest of the letter. Peculiarly, Paul uses the first person singular here, thus rendering these soteriological remarks as statements about the radical change in his own existence and making himself a prototypical example of the existential essence of Pauline Christians (Betz 1984:121) and thus statements about his view of authentic existence. Paul's existential shift is described in a powerful way: as dying to the law. The Judaic law has irrevocably lost its importance for Paul (Oepke 1964:62). How it came to be, is clarified vividly as Paul being crucified (dying) with Christ. The change which occurred is described as the start of a 'living for God'; as himself not living anymore (the old self before faith as being dead) (Lietzmann 1971:17), but as Christ living in him, which is further described as faithfully living for Christ who died for Paul (Gl 2:19-20). Christ in this way becomes the essential content of life (Van Stempvoort 1951:57). This radical change in Paul is described in baptismal terms (Lietzmann 1971:18) (cf. Oepke [1964:64], who views it as mystical terms) and may suggest a hint towards Paul's own baptism as the ritual symbolising the change to authentic existence in terms of soteriology (Betz 1984:122-124). Baptism symbolises a new birth into a Jesus group and as such denotes a change of status from being an outsider to being part of the body of Christ (Malina & Pilch 2006:333-334). In Romans 6:1-10, Paul uses the first person plural when using baptism as an example and motivation not to sin. He, at first, argues in a generalised way about the implications of baptism for the faithful, of which he is a part, before addressing them directly in 6:11 (Wilckens 1980:8). In Galatians 2:19-20, he uses the first person singular, making soteriology a powerful existential statement about authenticity (cf. Lietzmann [1971:17], who interprets it as if plural, meaning 'us', 'Pauline Christians') to convince the Galatians to return to this authenticity of Paul's and follows it up by referring to the Galatians receiving the Spirit (referring to their being baptised) (Oepke 1964:67) because of their faith in the gospel, not because of their adherence to the law (Gl 3:1-3).

The propositio concludes with the refutatio (Gl 2:21), which contains Paul's refutation of a charge made by his opponents, namely that he nullifies the grace of God, which refers to the law and circumcision. In Paul's refutation, grace refers specifically to the salvation by faith in Christ (Oepke 1964:64). The implication is that if justification was by adherence to the law, the death of Christ would lose its salvific character and the charge against Paul would be justified. As Paul preaches the opposite, the charge is false (Betz 1984:126-127). Thus, Paul reiterates authentic existence as stemming from only faith in the salvation in Christ by God's grace (Paul's soteriology) and denounces those who oppose this view of existence. In fact, his refutation turns into an accusation against his opponents (Lietzmann 1971:17), which is repeated in the peroratio (Gl 6:12-13), as is expected in this rhetorical style (Betz 1984:126-127).

There is a close relationship between Paul's calling and the revelation of Christ and his gospel to him. Rather than a vision of the risen Christ, the revelation Paul experienced can be better understood as an apocalyptic term, which refers to a world-changing event. Through Christ's death and resurrection, God inaugurated a new Aeon (Bornkamm [1969]1975:21), which is of much more significance than the mere sacrificial expiation of sin. To this new soteriological existence in God's new Aeon, Paul was called and it is this new existence which Paul proclaimed. The old Aeon of adherence to the Jewish law belongs irrevocably to the past thanks to Christ. Only faith in Christ grants one access to this authentic life, which is the essence of the new Aeon.

Viewed through the lens of Heidegger's understanding of conscience, authentic living in this case can be described as a being dead to oneself and any claim on one's achievement. This dying is not and cannot be initiated by oneself but is affected by a call to accept the death of Christ as a loving gift of one's salvation to authentic existence. Another kind of life thus begins, namely of Christ living within one, which is a living for God and not for oneself. It materialises through faith in Christ, who has died for one's sake. This Dasein sums up Paul's concept of Christian existence, soteriology, and ethics (Betz 1984:122). To this existence Paul was called (Figure 2).

 

 

Inauthentic living, hence, is the Jewish claim of achievement by adherence to the law. It is a self-reliant existence. From this existence, Paul was called to total reliance on Christ, which ended this mode of existence. As in actual death, this old Dasein has reached its end and became the total loss of its being in the world. A new Dasein has begun, in which there is no room for the old Dasein. Inauthenticity is replaced by new, true authenticity. What has once seemed authentic is deemed as irrevocably past. Towards this authenticity, his conscience will keep on calling him when inauthenticity beckons.

Conscience calls from within the core of Dasein, which is care (German: Sorgen). It is a call to care. The call comes from oneself, yet also over oneself and against ones's will and expectations. It originates because of one's thrownness into existence, causing anxiety, which one alleviates by fleeing to the supposed freedom of the 'they-self'. Conscience calls as a voice unfamiliar to the 'they-self' like an alien voice. 'My Dasein itself is the one calling from the ground of its being and at the same time I am the one summoned and uncannily pursued …' (Heidegger [1926]1996:254-255). This correlates with the way Paul describes his calling as God calling him by grace and revealing to him God's Son, and as being put aside by God from before his birth (Gl 1:15-16). It also correlates with Paul mentioning that his call was by a revelation of Christ and not by a person (Gl 1:11-12). It is a call towards a new existence: knowing God's Son, (having his existence determined by him) and proclaiming him to the non-Jews. It is a call to become one who calls others to authentic existence through Christ.

Despite not receiving the call or the gospel from a person, Paul's theology is not cast in the same terminology as that of Jesus, but that of Hellenistic Christianity (Bultmann [1948]1983:187-189). Understanding Paul's calling, revelation and mission should be dictated by the subject matter of his theology (Bornkamm [1969]1975:22). As persecutor of the Hellenistic church, he must have had knowledge of their kerygma and the charges made against them. This suggests that subconsciously, Paul's knowledge of the Hellenistic church's theology has played a significant role in what Paul narrates as his 'calling'. It seems one cannot separate Paul's calling from his gospel, as Betz suggests (Betz 1984:64), nor from the kerygma of Hellenistic Christianity.

The Galatians' being called

Paul initially preached his gospel to the Galatians (of Celtic origin) (Conzelmann 1980:199) when he became ill in Galatia (Lietzmann 1971:28; cf. Oepke 1964:105-106). They took care of him (4:13-16), although they could superstitiously have rejected him as illness was seemingly caused by demons (Betz 1984:224-225). Paul was accepted with great joy as if he was Christ himself, echoing Paul's existential formulation of authenticity (Van Stempvoort 1951:118). They accepted his gospel and formed several congregations. He describes these events as God calling them through the grace of Christ (Gl 1:6) through the gospel (Oepke 1964:20-22) and as himself preaching Christ so vividly that they could almost see him on the cross (Gl 3:1). Thus, God called them through Paul's preaching. Paul refers to their baptism at that stage as a beginning with and receiving of the Spirit when coming to faith (Gl 3:2-5) (Oepke 1964:67-68). Theirs was a call away from idolatry, which Paul describes as the slavery of adhering to inferior religious legalistic rules and festivals (Gl 4:8-10), setting Judaism and paganism on the same level (Van Stempvoort 1951:111-112). It was a call to obedience to the truth: faith in Christ (Gl 5:7-8) as Paul proclaimed his gospel to them (Betz 1984:264-265), freedom to love one another (Gl 5:13-14) and to bear the fruit of the Spirit (Gl 5:22-25). Paul contrasts this call to authenticity with the Galatians' flagrant misconduct when they were free from the law, when they became believers, as well as their current recourse to the law (Betz 1984:273).

The calling of the Galatians and their positive adherence to the call made through Paul's kerygma reflect the same existential change as experienced by Paul: from the inauthentic existence of self-reliant religious practices to the authenticity of faith in Christ as saviour and being a new person in Christ (Gl 6:15), of faith becoming deeds of love (Gl 5:6). It is a radical change symbolised by baptism as a dying with Christ and being born anew to a life for God with Christ, a life as Christ would live (Gl 2:19-20).

Not long after Paul departed from them (Gl 1:6-7), a group of 'Judaizers' attacked Paul's version of the gospel and started to preach the necessity of adherence to the Jewish law (Gl 3:2) and circumcision (Gl 5:2-6) (Malina & Pilch 2006:178-179). For them, Moses was the mediator as lawgiver (Gl 3:19-21), and the law mediated God's Spirit (Gl 3:2) (Conzelmann & Lindemann 1980:201). Paul calls their version 'another gospel', and denounces it as non-existent as there is only the one true gospel. For this, he curses them twice (Gl 1:7-9) (Kertelge 1992:339). This 'other gospel', Paul describes as the teachings of Jewish Christianity (Gl 2:11-14) in contrast to Paul's teaching freedom from the law (Conzelmann & Lindemann 1980:197).

Their departure from the Pauline gospel back to reliance on religious practices is a return to inauthenticity and necessitates Paul calling them again to true authenticity. This pattern confirms that heeding the call to authenticity is never completely done. There is always the possibility of moving away from authenticity to a seemingly safe place of self-reliance and traceable performance. Therefore, there is frequently something outstanding. In this instance, it is the lack of faith, which would be understood as externally manifested emotional loyalty, commitment and solidarity (Malina & Rohrbaugh 2003:359), in this case to Christ as the essence of authentic existence. There is always movement away from authenticity towards self-reliance and self-contentedness. In the Pauline gospel, this is called sin and is in close relationship with 'flesh' and relying on efforts of the 'flesh' (self-reliance and the trust in transitory things) (Bultmann [1948]1983:239-240). From this inauthentic life, this delusion of authenticity, Paul's letter calls the Galatian churches back to the true authenticity they once lived and which their baptism symbolised.

 

Conclusion

Heidegger's model for conscience effectively assists in understanding the existential dynamics at work in Paul's calling and the calling of the Galatians, as well as the necessity of the repetitive nature of the call. It also demystifies the understanding of Paul's and the Galatians' call as a call through the Christian kerygma and baptism, of which soteriology is the essence. The model therefore underlines the crucial importance of soteriology for kerygma and baptism, but especially for understanding a person's call to faith or ministry.

 

Acknowledgements

Competing interests

The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Author's contribution

G.J.M. is the sole author of this research article.

Funding information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article's results, findings, and content.

 

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